Scientific research can be defined as purposeful knowledge. To conduct research means to study, to learn patterns, systematizing facts.

Scientific research has a number of distinguishing features: the presence of a clear formulated goal; desire to discover the unknown; systematic process and results; substantiation and verification of the obtained conclusions and generalizations.

It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and ordinary knowledge. Scientific knowledge, unlike everyday knowledge, involves the use of special research methods. In this regard, there is a need for a constant search for new methods for studying unexplored objects.

What are research methods

Research methods are ways to achieve the goal in scientific work. The science that studies these methods is called "Methodology".

Any human activity depends not only on the object (what it is aimed at) and actor(subject), but also on how it is carried out, what means and methods are used. This is the essence of the method.

Translated from Greek"method" means "way of knowing". A correctly chosen method contributes to a faster and more accurate achievement of the goal, serves as a special compass that helps the researcher avoid most mistakes, paving his way.

The difference between a method and a technique and methodology

Very often there is confusion in the concepts of method and methodology. The methodology is a system of ways of knowing. For example, when conducting a sociological study, quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined. The totality of these methods will be a research methodology.

The concept of methodology is close in meaning to the research procedure, its sequence, algorithm. Without a quality technique, even the right method will not give a good result.

If methodology is a way of implementing a method, then methodology is the study of methods. In a broad sense, the methodology is

Classification of scientific research methods

All methods of scientific research are divided into several levels.

Philosophical Methods

The most famous among them are the oldest methods: dialectical and metaphysical. In addition to them, philosophical methods include phenomenological, hermeneutical, intuitive, analytical, eclectic, dogmatic, sophistical and others.

General scientific methods

An analysis of the process of cognition allows us to identify the methods on which not only scientific, but also any everyday human knowledge is built. These include theoretical level methods:

1. Analysis - the division of a single whole into separate parts, sides and properties for their further detailed study.
2. Synthesis is the combination of separate parts into a single whole.
3. Abstraction is the mental selection of any essential properties of the subject under consideration while simultaneously abstracting from a number of other features inherent in it.
4. Generalization - the establishment of a unifying property of objects.
5. Induction is a way of constructing a general conclusion based on known individual facts.

Examples of research methods

For example, by studying the properties of certain liquids, it is revealed that they have the property of elasticity. Based on the fact that water and alcohol are liquids, they conclude that all liquids have the property of elasticity.

Deduction- a way of constructing a private conclusion, based on a general judgment.

For example, two facts are known: 1) all metals have the property of electrical conductivity; 2) copper - metal. It can be concluded that copper has the property of electrical conductivity.

Analogy- such a method of cognition, in which knowledge of a number of common features for objects allows us to conclude that they are similar in other ways.

For example, science knows that light has properties such as interference and diffraction. In addition, it was previously established that sound has the same properties and this is due to its wave nature. Based on this analogy, a conclusion was made about the wave nature of light (by analogy with sound).

Modeling- creation of a model (copy) of the object of study for the purpose of its study.

In addition to methods of the theoretical level, there are methods of the empirical level.

Classification of general scientific methods

Empirical level methods

Method	Definition	Example
Observation	Research based on the senses; perception of phenomena	In order to study one of the stages in the development of children, J. Piaget observed the manipulative games of children with certain toys. On the basis of observation, he concluded that the child's ability to put objects into each other occurs later than the motor skills necessary for this.
Description	Fixing information	The anthropologist writes down all the facts about the life of the tribe, without exerting any influence on it.
Measurement	Comparison by common features	Determining body temperature with a thermometer; determination of weight by balancing weights on a balance scale; radar distance determination
Experiment	Research based on observation in conditions created specifically for this	On a busy city street, groups of people in various numbers (2,3,4,5,6, etc. people) stopped and looked up. Passers-by stopped nearby and also began to look up. It turned out that the percentage of those who joined increased significantly when the experimental group reached 5 people.
Comparison	Research based on the study of the similarities and differences of subjects; comparison of one thing with another	Comparison of economic indicators of the base year with the past, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about economic trends

Theoretical Level Methods

Method	Definition	Example
Formalization	Disclosure of the essence of processes by displaying them in a sign-symbolic form	Flight simulation based on knowledge of the main characteristics of the aircraft
Axiomatization	Application of axioms to construct theories	Geometry of Euclid
Hypothetical-deductive	Creating a system of hypotheses and deriving conclusions from this	The discovery of the planet Neptune was based on several hypotheses. As a result of their analysis, it was concluded that Uranus is not the last planet in the solar system. Theoretical justification for finding new planet in a certain place, then confirmed empirically

Specific scientific (special) methods

In any scientific discipline, a set of certain methods is applied, related to different "levels" of methodology. It is quite difficult to tie any method to a particular discipline. However, each discipline relies on a number of methods. Let's take a look at some of them.

Biology:

• genealogical - the study of heredity, the compilation of pedigrees;
• historical - determining the relationship between phenomena that have taken place over a long period of time (billions of years);
• biochemical - the study of the chemical processes of the body, etc.

Jurisprudence:

• historical and legal - obtaining knowledge about legal practice, legislation in different periods of time;
• comparative legal - search and study of similarities and differences between the state-legal institutions of countries;
• right sociological method - the study of reality in the field of state and law using questionnaires, surveys, etc.

In medicine, there are three main groups of methods for studying the body:

• laboratory diagnostics - the study of the properties and composition of biological fluids;
• functional diagnostics - the study of organs by their manifestations (mechanical, electrical, sound);
• structural diagnostics - the identification of changes in the structure of the body.

Economy:

• economic analysis - the study of the constituent parts of the whole under study;
• statistical and economic method - analysis and processing of statistical indicators;
• sociological method - questioning, survey, interviewing, etc.
• design and construction, economic modeling, etc.

Psychology:

• experimental method - the creation of such circumstances that provoke the manifestation of any mental phenomenon;
• method of observation - through the organized perception of the phenomenon, a mental phenomenon is explained;
• biographical method, comparative genetic method, etc.

Empirical study data analysis

Empirical research is aimed at obtaining empirical data - data obtained through experience, practice.

The analysis of such data occurs in several stages:

1. Description of the data. At this stage, summarized results are described using indicators and graphs.
2. Comparison. Similarities and differences between the two samples are identified.
3. Exploring dependencies. Establishment of interdependencies (correlation, regression analysis).
4. Volume reduction. The study of all variables in the presence of a large number of them, identifying the most informative.
5. Grouping.

The results of any study conducted - analysis and interpretation of data - are drawn up on paper. The range of such research work wide enough: test papers, abstracts, reports, term papers, abstracts, theses, dissertations, monographs, textbooks, etc. Only after a comprehensive study and evaluation of the findings, the results of the research are used in practice.

Instead of a conclusion

A. M. Novikov and D. A. Novikova in the book “ ” in the methods of theoretical and empirical research also highlights methods-operations (a way to achieve the goal) and methods-actions (solution of a specific problem). This specification is not accidental. More rigid systematization scientific knowledge increases its effectiveness.

Research methods as they are updated: February 15, 2019 by: Scientific Articles.Ru

An essential, sometimes decisive role in the construction of any scientific work is played by the applied research methods.

Regarding research methods, the following circumstance should be noted. In the literature, there is a division of theoretical methods into methods of cognition (dialectical method) and methods of theoretical research proper (analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, etc.).

A similar division takes place with empirical research methods. So, V.I. Zagvyazinsky divides empirical research methods into two groups:

Working, private methods: study of literature, documents and results of activities; observation; survey (oral and written); method of expert assessments; testing.

Complex, general methods, which are based on the application of one or more private methods: survey; monitoring; study and generalization of experience; experimental work; experiment.

However, the name of these groups of methods is not entirely appropriate, since it is difficult to answer the question: "private" - in relation to what? as well as "general" - in relation to what? The distinction should probably go on a different basis.

It is possible to resolve this double division both in relation to theoretical and empirical methods from the standpoint of the structure of activity.

Considering scientific research as a cycle of activity, as its structural units, directed actions, the distinctive feature of which is the presence of a specific goal.

The structural units of action are operations, correlated with the objective-objective conditions for achieving the goal.

The same goal, correlated with action, can be achieved in different conditions; an action can be implemented by different operations. At the same time, the same operation can be included in different actions (A.N. Leontiev).

Based on this, we highlight:

– methods-operations;

– action methods.

This approach does not contradict the definition of the method, which gives the Encyclopedic Dictionary:

- method - a way to achieve a goal, solve a specific problem - a method-action;

- method - a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical development of reality - method-operation.

Research methods are divided into:

- theoretical;

- empirical (empirical - literally - perceived through the senses).

Thus, in the future we will consider research methods in the following grouping (Table 1):

Theoretical methods:

- methods - cognitive actions: identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, building a hypothesis, etc.;

– methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, etc.

Empirical methods:

- methods - cognitive actions: examination, monitoring, experiment, etc.;

– methods-operations: observation, measurement, questioning, testing, etc.

Scientific research methods

THEORETICAL	EMPIRICAL
operation methods	action methods	operation methods	action methods
- analysis; - synthesis; - comparison; - abstraction; - concretization; - generalization; - formalization; - induction; - deduction; - idealization; - analogy; - modeling; - thought experiment; - imagination	- dialectics; - scientific theories; - proof; - method of knowledge systems analysis; - deductive (axiomatic) - inductive-deductive; - identification and resolution of contradictions; - posing problems; - building hypotheses	- study of literature, documents and results of activities; - observation; - measurement; - survey (oral and written); - expert assessments; - testing	object tracking methods: - examination; - monitoring; - study and generalization of experience, methods of object transformation: - experimental work; - experiment

1.1. Theoretical Methods

1.1. Theoretical methods-operations

Theoretical methods - operations are defined (considered) according to the main mental operations, which are: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, formalization, induction, deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, thought experiment.

1) Analysis- this is the decomposition of the whole under study into parts, the allocation of individual features and qualities of a phenomenon, process or relations of phenomena, processes.

Analysis is an organic component of any scientific research and usually enters its first phase, when there is a transition from an undivided description of the object under study to the identification of its structure, composition, properties and features.

One and the same phenomenon, process can be analyzed in many aspects. A comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon allows you to consider it deeper.

2) Synthesis- connection various elements, sides of an object into a single whole - a system.

Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. If we simply connect phenomena, no system of connections will arise between them, only a chaotic accumulation of individual facts is formed. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis, but they are closely related.

If the researcher has a more developed ability to analyze, there may be a danger that he will not be able to find a place for details in the phenomenon as a whole.

The relative predominance of synthesis leads to superficiality, to the fact that details essential for the study, which can be of great importance for understanding the phenomenon as a whole, will not be noticed.

3) Comparison is to find similarities or differences between objects.

With the help of comparison, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are revealed, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out.

Comparison is comparing one thing with another. In this case, an important role is played by the bases, or signs of comparison, which determine the possible relationships between objects.

Comparison makes sense only in a set of homogeneous objects that form a class. At the same time, objects that are comparable in one feature may not be comparable in other features.

Integral part comparison is always analysis, since for any comparison in phenomena it is necessary to isolate the corresponding signs of comparison. Since comparison is the establishment of certain relationships between phenomena, then, naturally, synthesis is also used in the course of comparison.

4) abstraction- an operation that allows you to mentally isolate and turn individual aspects, properties or states of the object into an independent object of consideration.

Abstraction underlies the processes of generalization and concept formation.

Abstraction consists in isolating such properties of an object that do not exist by themselves and independently of it. Such isolation is possible only in the mental

in terms of abstraction. So, geometric figure the body itself does not really exist and cannot be separated from the body.

But thanks to abstraction, it is mentally singled out, fixed, for example, with the help of a drawing, and independently considered in its special properties.

5) Concretization - the process of finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral and complex.

The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then, on their basis, through concretization, reproduces this integrity (mental concrete), but at a qualitatively different level of cognition of the concrete. Therefore, dialectics distinguishes in the process of cognition in the coordinates "abstraction - concretization" two processes of ascent: ascent from the concrete to the abstract and then the process of ascent from the abstract to the new concrete (G. Hegel).

The dialectic of theoretical thinking consists in the unity of abstraction, the creation of various abstractions and concretization, the movement towards the concrete and its reproduction.

6) Generalization- this is the selection and fixation of relatively stable properties of objects and their relationships.

Generalization implies the display of properties and relations of objects, regardless of the particular and random conditions of their observation.

Comparing from a certain point of view the objects of a certain group, a person finds, singles out and designates them with the same word, general properties, which can become the content of the concept of this group, class of objects.

Separating general properties from private ones and designating them with a word makes it possible to cover the entire variety of objects in an abbreviated, concise form, reduce them to certain classes, and then, through abstractions, operate with concepts without directly referring to individual objects. One and the same real object can be included in both narrow and wide classes, for which the scales of common features are built according to the principle of genus-species relations.

The function of generalization consists in ordering the variety of objects, their classification.

7) Formalization- displaying the results of thinking in precise terms or statements.

It is, as it were, a mental operation of the “second order”.

Formalization is opposed to intuitive thinking. In mathematics and formal logic, formalization is understood as the display of meaningful knowledge in a sign form or in a formalized language.

Formalization allows you to perceive concepts abstractly from their content, facilitates the systematization of concepts, and the construction of relationships between them.

Formalization plays an essential role in the development of scientific knowledge, since intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer from the point of view of ordinary consciousness, are of little use for science: in scientific knowledge it is often impossible not only to solve, but even to formulate and pose problems until the structure of the concepts related to them will be clarified.

In scientific judgments, links are established between objects, phenomena or between their specific features.

In scientific conclusions, one judgment proceeds from another; on the basis of already existing conclusions, a new one is made. There are two main types of inference: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

8) Induction- this is a conclusion leading from particular judgments to a general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.

9) Deduction- this is a conclusion leading from a general fact to a particular one, from general judgments to particular conclusions.

10) Idealization- this is a mental representation of objects or phenomena that do not exist in reality, but have prototypes in it.

The process of idealization is characterized by abstraction from the properties and relations inherent in the objects of reality and the introduction into the content of the formed concepts of such features that, in principle, cannot belong to their real prototypes.

Examples of concepts that are the result of idealization can be mathematical concepts"point", "straight line"; in physics - material point”, “pure black body”, “ ideal gas" etc.

Concepts that are the result of idealization are said to be thought of as idealized (or ideal) objects. Having formed concepts of this kind about objects with the help of idealization, one can subsequently operate with them in reasoning as with really existing objects and build abstract schemes of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them. In this sense, idealization is closely related to modeling.

11) Analogy- the transfer of knowledge obtained from the consideration of any one object (model) to another, less studied or less accessible for study (prototype, original).

It opens up the possibility of transferring information by analogy from model to prototype. This is the essence of one of the special methods of the theoretical level - modeling.

12) Modeling– construction and research of models.

The difference between analogy and modeling lies in the fact that if analogy is one of the mental operations, then modeling can be considered in different cases both as a mental operation and as an independent method - a method-action.

Simulation is always used together with other research methods, it is especially closely related to the experiment. The study of any phenomenon on its model is a special kind of experiment - a model experiment, which differs from an ordinary experiment in that in the process of cognition an "intermediate link" is included - a model that is both a means and an object of experimental research that replaces the original.

A special kind of modeling is a thought experiment.

13) thought experiment– representation of ideal objects and their interactions that could take place in a real experiment.

At the same time, ideal models and objects help to identify “in pure form” the most important, essential connections and relationships, to mentally play out possible situations, to weed out unnecessary options.

1.2. Theoretical Methods - Cognitive Actions

1) Dialectics- a general scientific method that represents the logic of meaningful creative thinking.

Dialectics- a universal method of knowing the truth.

Dialectics itself is, translated from ancient Greek, the art of arguing, reasoning.

In dialectics, various phenomena are considered in the interaction of opposing forces, the variety of connections in the process of their development. The essence of dialectics is manifested in the presence of conflicting views on phenomena, as well as in their further advancement.

The internal structure of dialectics, as a method, is made up of a number of principles. Their main task is to understand the essence of contradictory phenomena.

Basic principles of dialectics:

- Comprehensive consideration of the objects of study.

This principle is implemented in an integrated approach to the objects of study. Thanks to him, we are able to explore many aspects, properties of the subject of study, bringing the information received into the big picture.

- Consideration of the relationship between the elements in their totality.

Absolutely any process or phenomenon consists of separate elements. Interacting with each other, they form a certain system. Only by studying the qualitative side of each element of the system and its role in this set, we will be able to study the relationship of all elements of the presented set.

- Determinism - (lat. I determine) - the presence of a causal relationship of all occurring phenomena.

And sometimes there are several connections emanating from the same cause.

- Study in development.

One of the most important principles of the dialectical method of cognition. It consists in studying the subject of research in a "live" state. Only by understanding and studying its past, the history of creation and formation, we will be able to know its present state, and also, in some way, foresee the future.

2) Use of scientific theories, proven by practice

Any theory obtained in the framework of the study acts as a method in the construction of new theories, as well as in the function of a method that determines the content and sequence of the researcher's experimental activity.

Therefore, the difference between scientific theory as a form of scientific knowledge and as a method of cognition in this case is of a functional nature:

the theoretical result of past research acts as a starting point and condition for subsequent research.

3) Proof- a method that involves reasoning, establishing the truth of a statement by citing other statements, the truth of which has already been established.

The proof is different:

- thesis- the statement to be proven

- base(or arguments) - those statements with which the thesis is proved.

For example, the thesis "Platinum conducts electricity" can be proved using the following true statements: "Platinum is a metal" and "All metals conduct electricity."

According to the method of conducting evidence, there are direct and indirect:

With direct proof, the task is to find such convincing arguments from which the thesis logically follows.

Indirect evidence establishes the validity of the thesis by revealing the fallacy of the opposite assumption, the antithesis.

Evidence Rules:

1. The thesis and arguments must be clear and precise.

2. The thesis must remain identical throughout the proof.

3. The thesis should not contain a logical contradiction.

4. The arguments given in support of the thesis must themselves be true, not subject to doubt, must not contradict each other and be a sufficient basis for this thesis.

5. The proof must be complete.

4) The method of analyzing knowledge systems - is to study scientific achievements in the field of research when choosing the initial theory, hypothesis, to resolve the chosen research problem, substantiate new application opportunities scientific results, to harmonize with other knowledge systems.

Any scientific knowledge system has a certain independence in relation to the reflected subject area. In addition, knowledge in such systems is expressed using a language whose properties affect the attitude of knowledge systems to the objects being studied - for example, if any sufficiently developed psychological, sociological, pedagogical concept translate into, for example, English, German, French– will it be unambiguously perceived and understood in England, Germany and France? Further, the use of language as a carrier of concepts in such systems presupposes one or another logical systematization and logically organized use of linguistic units to express knowledge. And, finally, no system of knowledge exhausts the entire content of the object under study. In it, only a certain, historically concrete part of such content always receives a description and explanation.

The method of analysis of scientific knowledge systems plays an important role in empirical and theoretical research tasks: when choosing an initial theory, a hypothesis for solving a chosen problem; when distinguishing between empirical and theoretical knowledge, semi-empirical and theoretical solutions to a scientific problem; when justifying the equivalence or priority of the use of certain mathematical tools in different theories related to the same subject area; when studying the possibilities of disseminating previously formulated theories, concepts, principles, etc. to new subject areas; substantiation of new possibilities for the practical application of knowledge systems; when simplifying and clarifying knowledge systems for training, popularization; to harmonize with other knowledge systems, etc.

5) Methods for constructing scientific theories

5.1) Deductive method (synonym - axiomatic method) - a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions of the axiom (synonym - postulates), from which all other provisions of this theory (theorem) are logically derived through proof.

5.2) Inductive-deductive method- consists in the accumulation of an empirical basis on the basis of which the theory of research is built (induction), and then these generalizations are extended to all objects and phenomena covered in this theory (deduction).

The inductive-deductive method is used to construct most of the theories in the sciences of nature, society and man: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.

6) Identification and resolution of contradictions,

7) Statement of the problem,

8) Building hypotheses

9) Research planning etc.

(were reflected in the construction of phases, stages and stages of scientific research).

2.empirical methods.

2.1.Empirical methods-operations.

1) Study of literature, documents and results of activities

The issues of working with scientific literature will be considered separately below, since this is not only a research method, but also an obligatory procedural component of any scientific work.

A variety of documentation also serves as a source of factual material for the study: archival materials in historical research; documentation of enterprises, organizations and institutions in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other studies, etc.

The study of performance results plays an important role in pedagogy, especially when studying the problems of professional training of pupils and students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology of labor; and, for example, in archeology, during excavations, an analysis of the results of people's activities: according to the remains of tools, utensils, dwellings, etc. allows you to restore their way of life in a particular era.

2) Observation - purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena outside world associated with the solution of a specific scientific problem.

Observation is the most informative research method.

This is the only method that allows you to see all aspects of the phenomena and processes under study, accessible to the perception of the observer - both directly and with the help of various instruments.

Depending on the goals that are pursued in the process of observation, the latter can be scientific and non-scientific.

Scientific observations involve obtaining certain information for further theoretical understanding and interpretation, for the approval or refutation of a hypothesis, etc.

Scientific observation consists of the following procedures:

Definition of the purpose of observation (for what, for what purpose?);

Choice of object, process, situation (what to observe?);

Choice of method and frequency of observations (how to observe?);

The choice of methods for registering the observed object, phenomenon (how to record the information received?);

Processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result?).

According to the method of organization of observation, it can be:

- open and hidden, field and laboratory,

According to the method of obtaining information, observations are divided into:

- direct and instrumental.

According to the scope of the studied objects, there are

- continuous and selective observations;

By frequency - constant, periodic and single.

A special case of observation is introspection widely used, for example, in psychology.

Observation is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to obtain initial information, would not have scientific facts and empirical data, therefore, the theoretical construction of knowledge would also be impossible.

However, observation as a method of cognition has a number of significant drawbacks. The personal characteristics of the researcher, his interests, and finally, his psychological state can significantly affect the results of observation.

The objective results of observation are even more subject to distortion in those cases when the researcher is focused on obtaining a certain result, on confirming his existing hypothesis.

The disadvantage of observation is subjectivity.

Replacing direct observation with instruments indefinitely expands the possibilities of observation, but also does not exclude subjectivity; evaluation and interpretation of such indirect observation is carried out by the subject, and therefore the subjective influence of the researcher can still take place.

To obtain objective results of observation, it is necessary to comply with the requirements intersubjectivity, that is, the observational data should (and/or can) be obtained and recorded, if possible, by other observers.

Observation is most often accompanied by another empirical method - measurement.

2) Measurement is a cognitive process, which consists in comparing a given value with some of its values, taken as a comparison standard.

Measurement is used everywhere, in any human activity. So, almost every person during the day takes measurements dozens of times, looking at the clock.

You can select a specific dimension structure that includes the following elements:

A cognizing subject that carries out measurement with certain cognitive goals;

Means of measurement, among which there can be both instruments and instruments designed by man, and objects and processes given by nature;

The object of measurement, that is, the measured quantity or property to which the comparison procedure is applicable;

Method or method of measurement, which is a set of practical actions, operations performed using measuring instruments, and also includes certain logical and computational procedures;

The result of a measurement, which is a named number expressed using the appropriate names or characters.

The epistemological substantiation of the measurement method is inextricably linked with the scientific understanding of the ratio of qualitative and quantitative characteristics object (phenomenon) under study. Although only quantitative characteristics are recorded using this method, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the qualitative certainty of the object under study.

It is thanks to the qualitative certainty that it is possible to single out the quantitative characteristics to be measured. The unity of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the object under study means both the relative independence of these aspects and their deep interconnection. The relative independence of quantitative characteristics makes it possible to study them during the measurement process, and use the measurement results to analyze the qualitative aspects of the object.

Measurement accuracy depends on the ratio of objective and subjective factors in the measurement process.

Objective factors:

– the possibility of identifying stable quantitative characteristics in the object under study to.

In many cases, research, in particular, social and humanitarian phenomena and processes is difficult, and sometimes even impossible.

– the possibilities of measuring instruments;

– conditions under which the measurement process takes place.

In some cases, finding the exact value of the quantity is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to determine the trajectory of an electron in an atom, and so on.

Subjective factors:

- choice of measurement methods;

- organization of this measurement process;

- complex of cognitive abilities of the subject

(from the qualification of the experimenter to his ability to correctly and competently interpret the results).

Along with direct measurements, the method of indirect measurement is widely used in the process of scientific experimentation. With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined on the basis of direct measurements of other quantities associated with the first functional dependence. According to the measured values ​​of the mass and volume of the body, its density is determined; resistivity conductor can be found from the measured values ​​of resistance, length and cross-sectional area of ​​the conductor, etc. The role of indirect measurements is especially great in those cases when direct measurement under the conditions of objective reality is impossible. For example, the mass of any space object (natural) is determined using mathematical calculations based on the use of measurement data of other physical quantities.

3) Survey is the process of obtaining the required information through the answers of respondents (surveyed subjects) to the questions of the researcher.

This empirical method is used only in the social and human sciences.

Poll types:

- Oral survey (conversation, interview).

The essence of the method is clear from its name.

During the survey, the questioner has personal contact with the respondent, that is, he has the opportunity to see how the respondent reacts to a particular question.

The observer can, if necessary, ask various additional questions and thus obtain additional data on some uncovered issues.

Oral surveys give concrete results, and with their help you can get comprehensive answers to complex questions of interest to the researcher. However, the respondents answer the questions of a “delicate” nature in writing much more frankly and at the same time give more detailed and thorough answers.

The respondent spends less time and energy on a verbal response than on a written one. However, this method also has its negative sides. All respondents are in different conditions, some of them can get additional information through leading questions of the researcher; facial expression or any gesture of the researcher has some effect on the respondent.

Questions used for interviews are planned in advance and a questionnaire is drawn up, where space should also be left for recording (recording) the answer.

Requirements for the question:

1) the survey should not be random, but systematic;

2) questions that are more understandable to the respondent are asked earlier, more difficult questions are asked later;

2) questions should be concise specific and understandable to all respondents;

3) questions should not contradict ethical standards.

4) during the interview, the researcher should be with the respondent alone, without outside witnesses;

5) each oral question is read from the question sheet (questionnaire) verbatim, unchanged;

6) exactly adheres to the order of the questions; the respondent should not see the questionnaire or be able to read the questions following the next one;

7) the interview should be short - from 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the age and intellectual level of the respondents;

8) the interviewer should not influence the respondent in any way (indirectly prompt the answer, shake his head in disapproval, nod his head, etc.);

9) the interviewer can, if necessary, if this answer is unclear, ask additionally only neutral questions (for example: “What did you mean by that?”, “Explain a little more!”).

10) answers are recorded in the questionnaire only during the survey.

The responses are then analyzed and interpreted.

- Written survey - questioning.

It is based on a pre-designed questionnaire (questionnaire), and the answers of respondents (interviewees) to all positions of the questionnaire constitute the desired empirical information.

The quality of the empirical information obtained as a result of a questionnaire depends on factors such as:

Formulation of questions in the questionnaire, which should be clear to the interviewee;

Qualification,

conscientiousness,

Psychological characteristics of researchers;

The situation of the survey, its conditions;

Emotional condition respondents;

Customs and traditions, ideas, everyday situation;

and also attitudes towards the survey.

Therefore, when using such information, it is always necessary to make allowance for the inevitability of subjective distortions due to its specific individual “refraction” in the minds of the respondents. And where it is a matter of principle important issues, along with the survey, they also turn to other methods - observation, expert assessments, analysis of documents.

Particular attention is paid to the development of a questionnaire - a questionnaire containing a series of questions necessary to obtain information in accordance with the objectives and hypothesis of the study.

The questionnaire must meet the following requirements:

To be justified in relation to the purposes of its use, that is, to provide the required information;

Have stable criteria and reliable rating scales that adequately reflect the situation under study;

The wording of the questions should be clear to the interviewee and consistent;

Questionnaire questions should not cause negative emotions at the respondent (responder).

Questions can be closed or open form.

A question is called closed if it contains a complete set of answers in the questionnaire. The respondent only marks the option that coincides with his opinion.

This form of the questionnaire significantly reduces the time of filling out and at the same time makes the questionnaire suitable for processing on a computer. But sometimes there is a need to find out directly the opinion of the respondent on a question that excludes pre-prepared answers. In this case, open-ended questions are used.

When answering an open question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Therefore, such a response is more individualized.

Compliance with a number of other requirements also contributes to the increase in the reliability of answers. One of them is that the respondent should be provided with the opportunity to evade the answer, to express an uncertain opinion. To do this, the rating scale should provide for answer options: “hard to say”, “difficult to answer”, “it happens in different ways”, “whenever”, etc. But the predominance of such options in the answers is evidence of either the incompetence of the respondent, or the unsuitability of the wording of the question to obtain the necessary information.

In order to obtain reliable information about the phenomenon or process under study, it is not necessary to interview the entire contingent, since the object of study can be numerically very large. In cases where the object of study exceeds several hundred people, a selective survey is used.

4) The method of expert assessments is a type of survey associated with the involvement in the assessment of the studied phenomena, processes of people who are the most competent in the issue under study

The opinions of experts, complementing and rechecking each other, make it possible to fairly objectively evaluate the research.

The use of this method requires a number of conditions:

Careful selection of experts - people who know well the area being assessed, the object under study and are capable of an objective, unbiased assessment.

The choice of an accurate and convenient rating system and appropriate measurement scales, which streamlines judgments and makes it possible to express them in certain quantities.

It is often necessary to train experts to use the proposed scales for an unambiguous assessment in order to minimize errors and make assessments comparable.

If experts acting independently of each other consistently give identical or similar estimates or express similar opinions, there is reason to believe that they are approaching objective ones. If the estimates differ greatly, then this indicates either an unsuccessful choice of the grading system and measurement scales, or the incompetence of experts.

Heuristics are techniques and decision-making methods that use the intuition and experience of specialists in solving similar problems.

Heuristic forecasting methods are methods used to predict the behavior of complex systems with many parameters and goals, when it is not possible to formalize the forecast in the form of mathematical models.

Distinguish two groups of heuristic forecasting methods :

- intuitive, based on personal erudition, insight and expert experience.

The method of expert assessments (intuitive group of methods) has received maximum development, the essence of which is the use of a group of experts (specialists in a certain field of activity) in the development of predictive solutions.

- analytical, based on the logical analysis of the model of the development process of the object of forecasting.

The analytical method allows you to carry out a logical analysis of any predictable situation and present it in the form of an analytical note. He assumes independent work an expert on the analysis of trends, assessment of the state and development paths of the predicted object.

Methods of expert assessments

a) Individual

- The “interview” method allows for direct contact between an expert and a specialist according to the “question-answer” scheme, during which the forecaster, in accordance with a pre-developed program, puts questions to the expert regarding the prospects for the development of the predicted object.

- The scenario writing method is based on determining the logic of the development of a process or phenomenon in time under various conditions, determining the development goal of the predicted object.

A scenario is a picture that reflects a consistent detailed solution of a problem, identification of possible obstacles, detection of serious shortcomings in order to resolve the issue of a possible termination of ongoing or completion of ongoing work on a predicted object.

- The "tree of goals" method is used in the analysis of systems, objects, processes in which several structural or hierarchical levels can be distinguished.

The "tree of goals" is built by sequentially highlighting smaller and smaller components at lower levels. The figure shows that each branch at each level splits into two branches of the next lower level.

b) Collective

- The "Delphi" method consists in organizing a systematic collection of expert assessments, their mathematical and statistical processing and consistent adjustment by experts of their assessments based on the results of each processing cycle.

Its main features are: anonymity of experts; a multi-round procedure for interviewing experts through their questioning; providing experts with information, including its exchange between experts, after each round of the survey, while maintaining the anonymity of the assessments; substantiation of the experts' answers at the request of the organizers. The method is designed to obtain relatively reliable information in situations of its acute insufficiency, for example, in problems of long-term scientific and technical complex forecasting.

- The method of "collective generation of ideas" (brainstorming) is appropriate for determining options development of the object of forecasting and obtaining productive results in a short time by involving all experts in an active creative process.

The essence of this method is to mobilize the creative potential of experts during brainstorming and generate ideas, followed by the destruction (destruction, criticism) of these ideas and the formulation of counter-ideas.

- The method of “commissions” consists in determining the consistency of opinions of experts on promising areas development of the object of forecasting, formulated earlier by individual specialists.

The final result is displayed either as an average judgment, or as an arithmetic mean, or as a weighted average of the assessment.

5) Testing - a diagnostic procedure, which consists in the application of tests.

Tests are usually given to the test subjects either in the form of a list of questions requiring short and unambiguous answers, or in the form of tasks, the solution of which does not take much time and also requires unambiguous solutions, or in the form of some short-term practical work of the test subjects, for example, qualifying trial work in vocational education, in labor economics, etc. Tests are divided into blank, hardware (for example, on a computer) and practical; for individual and group use.

Here, perhaps, are all the empirical methods-operations that the scientific community has at its disposal today. Next, we will consider empirical methods-actions, which are based on the use of methods-operations and their combinations.

2.2. Empirical methods (methods-actions)

Empirical methods-actions should, first of all, be divided into two classes.

2.2.1. Object tracking methods are methods for studying an object without significant changes or transformations.

After all, according to the principle of complementarity, the researcher (observer) cannot but change the object.

These include: the tracking method itself and its particular manifestations - examination, monitoring, study and generalization of experience.

1) Tracking - a method consisting of the operations of observation and measurement.

Tracking, often, in a number of sciences is, perhaps, the only empirical method-action. For example, in astronomy. After all, astronomers can not yet influence the studied space objects. The only possibility is to track their state through methods-operations: observation and measurement. The same, to a large extent, applies to such branches of scientific knowledge as geography, demography, etc., where the researcher cannot change anything in the object of study.

In addition, tracking is also used when the goal is to study the natural functioning of an object. For example, when studying certain features of radioactive radiation or when studying the reliability of technical devices, which is checked by their long-term operation.

2) Examination - how special case tracking method is the study of the object under study with one or another measure of depth and detail, depending on the tasks set by the researcher.

A synonym for the word “examination” is “inspection”, which means that the examination is basically the initial study of an object, carried out to familiarize itself with its state, functions, structure, etc.

Surveys are most often applied in relation to organizational structures - enterprises, institutions, etc. – or in relation to public entities, for example, settlements, for which surveys can be external and internal.

External surveys: a survey of the socio-cultural and economic situation in the region, a survey of the goods and services market and the labor market, a survey of the state of employment of the population, etc. Internal surveys: surveys within the enterprise, institutions - surveys of the state of the production process, surveys of the contingent of employees, etc.

The survey is conducted through the methods-operations of empirical research: observation, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written survey, involvement of experts, etc.

Any examination is carried out according to a detailed program developed in advance, in which the content of the work, its tools (compilation of questionnaires, test kits, questionnaires, a list of documents to be studied, etc.), as well as criteria for assessing the phenomena and processes to be studied, are planned in detail.

This is followed by the following stages: collecting information, summarizing materials, summing up and preparing reporting materials.

At each stage, it may be necessary to adjust the survey program when the researcher or a group of researchers conducting it is convinced that the collected data is not enough to obtain the desired results, or the collected data do not reflect the picture of the object under study, etc.

According to the degree of depth, detail and systematization, surveys are divided into:

– aerobatic(reconnaissance) surveys carried out for preliminary, relatively surface orientation in the object under study;

– specialized(partial) surveys conducted to study certain aspects, aspects of the object under study;

– modular(complex) examinations - for the study of whole blocks, complexes of questions programmed by the researcher on the basis of a sufficiently detailed preliminary study of the object, its structure, functions, etc.;

– systemic surveys - conducted already as full-fledged independent studies on the basis of isolating and formulating their subject, purpose, hypothesis, etc., and involving a holistic consideration of the object, its system-forming factors.

At what level to conduct a survey in each case, the researcher or the research team decides, depending on the goals and objectives of scientific work.

3) Monitoring is a constant supervision, regular monitoring of the state of an object, the values ​​of its individual parameters in order to study the dynamics of ongoing processes, predict certain events, and also prevent undesirable phenomena.

For example, environmental monitoring, synoptic monitoring, etc.

4) Study and generalization of experience (activity).

When conducting research, the study and generalization of experience (organizational, industrial, technological, medical, pedagogical, etc.) used for various purposes:

- to determine the existing level of detail of enterprises, organizations, institutions,

- functioning of the technological process,

- identifying shortcomings and bottlenecks in the practice of a particular field of activity,

- studying the effectiveness of the application of scientific recommendations,

- identifying new patterns of activity that are born in the creative search of advanced leaders, specialists and entire teams.

The study and generalization of best practices is one of the main sources for the development of science, since this method allows to identify actual scientific problems, creates a basis for studying the patterns of development of processes in a number of areas of scientific knowledge, primarily in the so-called technological sciences.

The object of study can be:

Mass experience - to identify the main trends in the development of a particular industry National economy;

Negative experience - to identify typical shortcomings and bottlenecks;

Best practices, in the process of which new positive findings are identified, generalized, become the property of science and practice.

Best Practice Criteria:

1) Novelty. It can manifest itself in varying degrees: from the introduction of new provisions in science to the effective application of already known provisions.

2) High performance. Best practices should deliver above average results for the industry, group of similar facilities, etc.

3) Compliance with modern achievements of science. Achievement high results does not always indicate the correspondence of experience to the requirements of science.

4) Stability- maintaining the effectiveness of the experiment under changing conditions, achieving high results for a sufficiently long time.

5) Replicability– possibility of use of experience by other people and organizations. Best practices can be made available to other people and organizations. It cannot be associated only with the personal characteristics of its author.

6) Optimality experience - achieving high results with a relatively economical expenditure of resources, and also not to the detriment of solving other problems.

The study and generalization of experience is carried out by such empirical methods as operations such as observation, surveys, the study of literature and documents, etc.

The disadvantage of the tracking method and its varieties - survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience as empirical methods-actions - is the relatively passive role of the researcher - he can study, track and generalize only what has developed in the surrounding reality, without being able to actively influence what is happening. processes. We emphasize once again that this shortcoming is often due to objective circumstances. This shortcoming is deprived of object transformation methods: experimental work and experiment.

Another class of methods is associated with the active transformation of the object being studied by the researcher - let's call these methods transforming methods - this class will include such methods as experimental work and experiment.

2.2.2. Transformative methods - methods associated with the active transformation of the object being studied by the researcher

The methods that transform the object of study include experimental work and experiment. The difference between them lies in the degree of arbitrariness of the researcher's actions.

1) Experimental work - a non-strict research procedure in which the researcher makes changes to the object based on the idea of ​​expediency

An experiment is a completely rigorous procedure where the researcher must strictly follow the requirements of the experiment.

Experimental work is, as already mentioned, a method of making deliberate changes to the object under study with a certain degree of arbitrariness. So, the geologist himself determines where to look, what to look for, by what methods - to drill wells, dig pits, etc. In the same way, an archaeologist, paleontologist determines where and how to excavate. Or in pharmacy, a long search for new drugs is carried out - out of 10 thousand synthesized compounds, only one becomes a drug. Or, for example, experienced work in agriculture.

Experimental work as a research method is widely used in the sciences related to human activities - pedagogy, economics, etc., when models are created and tested, as a rule, copyright: firms, educational institutions etc., or various author's methods are created and tested. Or an experimental textbook, an experimental preparation, a prototype are created and then they are tested in practice.

Experimental work is in a sense similar to a thought experiment - both here and there, as it were, the question is posed: “what happens if ...?” Only in a mental experiment the situation is played out “in the mind”, while in experimental work the situation is played out by action.

But, experimental work is not a blind chaotic search through “trial and error”.

Experimental work becomes a method of scientific research with the following conditions :

- When it is put on the basis of data obtained by science in accordance with a theoretically justified hypothesis.

- When it is accompanied by deep analysis, conclusions are drawn from it and theoretical generalizations are created.

In experimental work, all methods-operations of empirical research are used: observation, measurement, analysis of documents, peer review, etc.

Experimental work occupies, as it were, an intermediate place between object tracking and experiment.

It is a way of active intervention of the researcher in the object. However, experimental work gives, in particular, only the results of the effectiveness or inefficiency of certain innovations in a general, summary form. Which of the factors of the implemented innovations give a greater effect, which less, how they influence each other - experimental work cannot answer these questions.

For a deeper study of the essence of a particular phenomenon, the changes occurring in it, and the reasons for these changes, in the process of research, they resort to varying the conditions for the occurrence of phenomena and processes and the factors influencing them. Experiment serves this purpose.

2) Experiment - a general empirical research method, the essence of which is that phenomena and processes are studied under strictly controlled and controlled conditions.

Basic principle of the experiment- a change in each research procedure of only one of some factors, while the rest remain unchanged and controllable.

If it is necessary to check the influence of another factor, the following research procedure is carried out, where this factor is changed last factor, while all other controllable factors remain unchanged, and so on.

During the experiment, the researcher deliberately changes the course of some phenomenon by introducing a new factor into it.

A new factor introduced or changed by the experimenter is called experimental factor, or independent variable.

Factors that have changed under the influence of the independent variable are called dependent variables.

There are many classifications of experiments in the literature.

Depending on the nature of the object under study, it is customary to distinguish between physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc. experiments.

According to the main goal, experiments are divided into verification (empirical verification of a certain hypothesis) and search (collection of the necessary empirical information to build or refine the put forward conjecture, idea).

Depending on the nature and variety of the means and conditions of the experiment and the methods of using these means, one can distinguish between direct (if the means are used directly to study the object), model (if a model is used that replaces the object), field (in natural conditions, for example, in space), laboratory (under artificial conditions) experiment.

Finally, one can speak of qualitative and quantitative experiments, based on the difference in the results of the experiment.

Qualitative experiments, as a rule, are undertaken to identify the impact of certain factors on the process under study without establishing an exact quantitative relationship between characteristic quantities.

To ensure the exact value of the essential parameters that affect the behavior of the object under study, a quantitative experiment is necessary.

Depending on the nature of the experimental research strategy, there are:

1) experiments carried out by the method of "trial and error";

2) experiments based on a closed algorithm;

3) experiments using the "black box" method, leading to conclusions from knowledge of the function to knowledge of the structure of the object;

4) experiments with the help of an “open box”, which allow, based on knowledge of the structure, to create a sample with specified functions.

AT last years wide use received experiments in which the computer acts as a means of cognition. They are especially important when real systems do not allow either direct experimentation or experimentation with the help of material models. In a number of cases, computer experiments dramatically simplify the research process - with their help, situations are “played out” by building a model of the system under study.

In talking about experiment as a method of cognition, one cannot fail to note one more type of experimentation, which plays an important role in natural science research. This is a mental experiment - the researcher operates not with concrete, sensual material, but with an ideal, model image. All knowledge gained in the course of mental experimentation is subject to practical verification, in particular in a real experiment. Therefore, this type of experimentation should be attributed to the methods of theoretical knowledge (see above). P.V. Kopnin, for example, writes: “Scientific research is really experimental only when the conclusion is drawn not from speculative reasoning, but from sensory, practical observation of phenomena. Therefore, what is sometimes called a theoretical or thought experiment is not actually an experiment. A thought experiment is ordinary theoretical reasoning that takes the external form of an experiment.

The theoretical methods of scientific knowledge should also include some other types of experiment, for example, the so-called mathematical and simulation experiments. "The essence of the method of mathematical experiment is that experiments are carried out not with the object itself, as is the case in the classical experimental method, but with its description in the language of the corresponding section of mathematics." A simulation experiment is an idealized study by simulating the behavior of an object instead of actual experimentation. In other words, these types of experimentation are variants of a model experiment with idealized images. More details about mathematical modeling and simulation experiments are discussed below in the third chapter.

So, we have tried to describe the research methods from the most general positions. Naturally, in each branch of scientific knowledge, certain traditions have developed in the interpretation and use of research methods. Thus, the frequency analysis method in linguistics will refer to the tracking method (method-action) carried out by the methods of document analysis and measurement operations. Experiments are usually divided into ascertaining, training, control and comparative. But all of them are experiments (methods-actions) carried out by methods-operations: observations, measurements, testing, etc.

General logical methods and techniques of research.

Methods of empirical research

Observation- purposeful passive study of objects, based mainly on the data of the senses. In the course of observation, we gain knowledge not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but also - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

Observation can be direct and indirect by various devices and other technical devices. As science develops, it becomes more and more complex and mediated. Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design (what exactly is observed); the possibility of control by either repeated observation or using other methods (for example, experiment). An important point of observation is the interpretation of its results - decoding of instrument readings, etc.

Experiment- active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process under study, a corresponding change in the object under study or its reproduction under specially created and controlled conditions determined by the goals of the experiment. In its course, the object under study is isolated from the influence of side circumstances that obscure its essence and is presented in a “pure form”.

The main features of the experiment:

a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object of study, up to its change and transformation;

b) the ability to control the behavior of the object and check the results;

c) multiple reproducibility of the object under study at the request of the researcher;

d) the possibility of discovering such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions.

Types (types) of experiments are very diverse. So, according to their functions, research (search), verification (control), reproducing experiments are distinguished. According to the nature of objects, physical, chemical, biological, social, etc. are distinguished. There are qualitative and quantitative experiments. Widespread in modern science received a thought experiment - a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects.

Comparison- a cognitive operation that reveals the similarity or difference of objects (or stages of development of the same object), i.e. their identity and differences. It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out according to the features that are essential for this consideration. At the same time, objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy, and serves as the starting point for the comparative historical method. Its essence is the identification of the general and the particular in the cognition of various stages (periods, phases) of the development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena.

Description- a cognitive operation consisting in fixing the results of an experience (observation or experiment) using certain notation systems adopted in science.

Measurement- a set of actions performed using certain means in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in accepted units measurements.

It should be emphasized that the methods of empirical research are never implemented "blindly", but are always "theoretically loaded", guided by certain conceptual ideas.

Methods of theoretical knowledge

Formalization- displaying meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created to accurately express thoughts in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas), which is associated with the construction of artificial languages ​​(the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.).

Formalization serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization of programming of computing devices, and thus the computerization of not only scientific and technical, but also other forms of knowledge.

The main thing in the process of formalization is that it is possible to perform operations on the formulas of artificial languages, to obtain new formulas and relations from them. Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols. Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that differ in content, the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.

But, as the Austrian logician and mathematician of the 20th century showed. Kurt Gödel, in a content theory there always remains an unrevealed unformalizable remainder. The ever deeper formalization of the content of knowledge never reaches absolute completeness, because the development (change) of the subject of knowledge and knowledge about it never stops. This means that formalization is internally limited in its capabilities. It has been proved that there is no general method that allows any reasoning to be replaced by calculation (“let's count!” Leibniz dreamed) does not exist. Gödel's theorems gave a fairly rigorous substantiation of the fundamental impossibility of complete formalization of scientific reasoning and scientific knowledge in general.

Axiomatic Method- a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are derived from them in a purely logical way, through proof. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), special rules of inference are formulated. Therefore, the proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from the previous formulas according to some rule of inference.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing already obtained scientific knowledge. It is of limited use, since it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized content theory.

Hypothetical-deductive method- a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived. Thus, this method is based on the derivation (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the truth value of which is unknown. And this means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably have a probabilistic character.

The general structure of the hypothetical-deductive method:

a) familiarization with factual material that requires a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of already existing theories and laws. If not, then:

b) putting forward guesses (hypotheses, assumptions) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using a variety of logical techniques;

c) an assessment of the solidity and seriousness of the assumptions and the selection of the most probable from the set of them;

d) deduction from the hypothesis (usually by deductive means) of consequences with specification of its content;

e) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, the confirmation of individual consequences does not guarantee its truth (or falsity) as a whole. The hypothesis that is best based on the test results goes into theory.

A variation of the hypothetical-deductive method can be considered mathematical hypothesis, where hypotheses are some equations that provide a modification of previously known and verified states. By changing the latter, they make up a new equation expressing a hypothesis that relates to new phenomena. The hypothetical-deductive method (as well as the axiomatic one) is not so much a method of discovery as a way of constructing and substantiating scientific knowledge, since it shows exactly how a new hypothesis can be arrived at.

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete- a method of theoretical research and presentation, consisting in the movement of scientific thought from the original abstraction ("beginning" - one-sided, incomplete knowledge) through successive stages of deepening and expanding knowledge to the result - a holistic reproduction in the theory of the subject under study. As a prerequisite this method includes the ascent from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, to the allocation in thinking of individual aspects of the subject and their "fixing" in the corresponding abstract definitions.

The movement of cognition from the sensory-concrete to the abstract is precisely the movement from the individual to the general; such logical methods as analysis and induction prevail here. The ascent from the abstract to the mental-concrete is the process of moving from individual general abstractions to their unity, the concrete-universal; the methods of synthesis and deduction dominate here. Such a movement of cognition is not some kind of formal, technical procedure, but a dialectically contradictory movement that reflects the contradictory development of the subject itself, its transition from one level to another in accordance with the deployment of its internal contradictions.

General logical methods and techniques of research

Analysis- real or mental division of an object into its constituent parts and synthesis - their combination into a single organic whole, and not into a mechanical unit. The result of synthesis is a completely new formation.

When applying these methods of research, it should be borne in mind that, firstly, the analysis should not lose sight of the quality of the subjects. Each field of knowledge has its own limit of division of the object, beyond which we pass into another world of properties and regularities (atom, molecule, etc.). Secondly, a kind of analysis is also the division of classes (sets) of objects into subclasses - their classification and periodization. Thirdly, analysis and synthesis are dialectically interconnected. But some types scientific activity are predominantly analytical (eg analytical chemistry) or synthetic (eg synergetics).

abstraction- the process of mental abstraction from a number of properties and relations of the phenomenon under study with the simultaneous selection of properties of interest to the researcher (primarily essential, general). As a result of this process, various kinds of “abstract objects” are obtained, which are both individual concepts and categories (“whiteness”, “development”, “contradiction”, “thinking”, etc.), and their systems. The most developed of them are mathematics, logic, dialectics, philosophy.

Finding out which of the properties under consideration are essential and which are secondary is the main question of abstraction. This question in each specific case is decided primarily depending on the nature of the subject under study, as well as on the specific objectives of the study.

Generalization- the process of establishing the general properties and characteristics of an object, closely related to abstraction. Moreover, any signs (abstract-general) or essential (concrete-general, law) can be distinguished.

Idealization- a mental procedure associated with the formation of abstract (idealized) objects that are fundamentally unrealizable in reality ("point", "ideal gas", "absolutely black body", etc.). These objects are not "pure fictions", but a very complex and very indirect expression of real processes. They represent some limiting cases of the latter, serve as a means of analyzing them and constructing theoretical ideas about them.

An idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes. Having formed theoretical constructs about such objects with the help of idealization, one can further operate with them in reasoning as with a really existing thing and build abstract schemes of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.

Theoretical statements, as a rule, directly refer not to real, but to idealized objects, cognitive activity with which allows you to establish significant connections and patterns that are inaccessible when studying real objects, taken in all the variety of their empirical properties and relationships.

Induction - the movement of thought from the individual (experience, facts) to the general (their generalization in conclusions) and deduction - the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual. These are opposite, mutually complementary trains of thought. Since experience is always infinite and incomplete, inductive conclusions always have a problematic (probabilistic) character. Inductive generalizations are usually considered as empirical truths (empirical laws).

From the types of inductive generalizations, popular, incomplete, complete, scientific and mathematical induction is distinguished. Logic also considers inductive methods of establishing causation- Canons of induction (Bacon-Mill's rules of inductive research). These include methods: the only similarity, the only difference, similarity and difference, concomitant changes and the method of residuals. A characteristic feature of deduction is that it always leads from true premises to a true, reliable conclusion, and not to a probabilistic (problematic) one. Deductive reasoning makes it possible to obtain new truths from existing knowledge, and, moreover, with the help of pure reasoning, without resorting to experience, intuition, common sense, etc.

Analogy(correspondence, similarity) - the establishment of similarities in some aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects. On the basis of the revealed similarity, an appropriate conclusion is made - a conclusion by analogy. Its general scheme is: object B has features a, b, c, d; object C has features b, c, d; therefore, the object C may have the attribute a. Thus, analogy provides not reliable, but probable knowledge. When inferring by analogy, the knowledge obtained from the consideration of an object (“model”) is transferred to another, less studied and less accessible object for research.

Modeling- a method of studying certain objects by reproducing their characteristics on another object - a model that is an analogue of one or another fragment of reality (real or mental) - the original model. Between the model and the object of interest to the researcher, there must be a known similarity (similarity) - in physical characteristics, structure, functions, etc.

The forms of modeling are very diverse and depend on the models used and the scope of modeling. By the nature of the models, material (objective) and ideal modeling are distinguished, expressed in the corresponding sign form. Material models are natural objects that obey in their functioning the natural laws of physics, mechanics, etc. In the material (object) modeling of a particular object, its study is replaced by the study of some model that has the same physical nature as the original (models of aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc.).

With ideal (sign) modeling, models appear in the form of graphs, drawings, formulas, systems of equations, sentences of natural and artificial (symbols) languages, etc. At present, mathematical (computer) modeling has become widespread.

Systems approach- a set of general scientific methodological principles (requirements), which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.

These requirements include:

a) identifying the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements;

b) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure;

c) study of the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment;

d) study of the nature of the hierarchy inherent in this system;

e) providing a comprehensive multi-aspect description of the system;

f) consideration of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

The specificity of the system approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the study on revealing the integrity of the developing object and the mechanisms that ensure it, on identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them into a single theoretical picture.

An important concept of the systems approach is the concept of "self-organization". This concept characterizes the process of creating, reproducing or improving the organization of a complex, open, dynamic, self-developing system, the links between the elements of which are not rigid, but probabilistic in nature (a living cell, an organism, a biological population, a human collective, etc.).

In modern science, self-organizing systems are a special subject of study of synergetics, a general scientific theory of self-organization, focused on the search for laws of any nature - natural, social, cognitive (cognitive).

Structural-functional (structural) method is built on the basis of highlighting their structure in integral systems - a set of stable relationships and relationships between its elements and their roles (functions) relative to each other.

The structure is understood as something invariant (unchanging) under certain transformations, and the function is understood as the “purpose” of each of the elements of a given system (the functions of a biological organ, the functions of a state, the functions of a theory, etc.).

The main requirements (procedures) of the structural-functional method (which is often considered as a kind of systematic approach):

a) study of the structure, structure of the system object;

b) study of its elements and their functional characteristics;

c) analysis of changes in these elements and their functions;

d) consideration of the development (history) of the system object as a whole;

e) representation of the object as a harmoniously functioning system, all elements of which "work" to maintain this harmony.

Probabilistic statistical methods are based on taking into account the action of many random factors that are characterized by a stable frequency. This makes it possible to reveal the necessity (law) through the combined action of many accidents. These methods are based on the theory of probability, which is often denounced as the science of chance.

Probability- a quantitative measure (degree) of the possibility of the appearance of a certain phenomenon, event under certain conditions. The range of probability is from zero (impossibility) to one (reality). These methods are based on the distinction between dynamic and statistical laws according to such a criterion (basis) as the nature of the predictions that follow from them. In laws of the dynamic type, predictions have a precisely defined unambiguous character (for example, in classical mechanics).

In statistical laws, predictions are not reliable, but only probabilistic in nature, which is due to the action of many random factors, through the complex interweaving of which necessity is expressed. As the history of scientific knowledge has shown, "we are only now beginning to appreciate the significance of the entire range of problems associated with necessity and chance."

Probabilistic-statistical methods are widely used in the study of mass, rather than individual phenomena of a random nature ( quantum mechanics, statistical physics, synergetics, sociology, etc.). Today, more and more people talk about the penetration of a probabilistic style of thinking into science.

An important role of general scientific approaches lies in the fact that, due to their “intermediate nature”, they mediate the mutual transition of philosophical and particular scientific knowledge (as well as the corresponding methods). The named methods are called general scientific because they are used in all sciences, but necessarily taking into account the peculiarities of the subject of each science or scientific discipline and the specifics of the knowledge of natural, social and spiritual phenomena.

Thus, in the social sciences and humanities, the results of observation largely depend on the personality of the observer, his attitudes towards life, value orientations and other subjective factors. In these sciences, a simple (ordinary) observation is distinguished, when facts and events are recorded from the outside; participatory (participant observation), when the researcher turns on, “gets used” to a certain social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events "from the inside". In psychology, such forms of observation as self-observation (introspection) and empathy have long been used - penetration into the experiences of other people, the desire to understand their inner world - their feelings, thoughts, desires, etc.

A type of participant observation is ethnomethodology, the essence of which is to supplement the results of the description and observation of social phenomena and events with the idea of ​​their understanding. This approach is now increasingly being used in ethnography, social anthropology, sociology and cultural studies.

More and more developed social experiments which contribute to the implementation of new forms of social organization and optimization of social management. The object of a social experiment, in the role of which a certain group of people acts, is one of the participants in the experiment, whose interests have to be taken into account, and the researcher himself is included in the situation he is studying.

In psychology, in order to reveal how this or that mental activity is formed, the subject is placed in various experimental conditions, offering to solve certain problems. In this case, it becomes possible to experimentally form complex mental processes and study their structure more deeply. This approach has received in educational psychology the name of the formative experiment. Social experiments require the researcher to strictly observe moral and legal norms and principles. Here (as in medicine) the requirement is very important - "do no harm!". main feature social experiments - in "the ability to serve as a tool for penetrating the secrets of the intimately human" (V. V. Ilyin).

In the social sciences and humanities, in addition to the philosophical and general scientific ones, specific means, methods and operations are used, due to the peculiarities of the subject of these sciences. Among them:

1) idiographic method - description individual features single historical facts and events;

2) dialogue (“question-answer method”);

3) understanding and rational (intentional);

4) analysis of documents - qualitative and quantitative (content analysis);

5) surveys - either "face to face" (interviews), or in absentia (questionnaire, postal, telephone, etc. surveys). There are mass and specialized surveys, in which the main source of information is competent professional experts;

6) projective methods (characteristic of psychology) - a method of indirect study of a person's personal characteristics based on the results of his productive activity;

7) testing (in psychology and pedagogy) - standardized tasks, the result of which allows you to measure some personal characteristics (knowledge, skills, memory, attention, etc.). There are two main groups of tests - intelligence tests (the famous IQ coefficient) and achievement tests (professional, sports, etc.). When working with tests, the ethical aspect is very important; in the hands of an unscrupulous or incompetent researcher, tests can cause serious harm;

8) biographical and autobiographical methods;

9) the method of sociometry - the application of mathematical tools to the study of social phenomena. Most often used in the study of "small groups" and interpersonal relationships in them;

10) game methods - used in the development of managerial decisions - simulation (business) games and open-type games (especially when analyzing non-standard situations). Among the game methods, psychodrama and sociodrama are distinguished, where participants play individual and group situations, respectively.

Thus, in scientific knowledge there is a complex, dynamic, subordinated system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, orientation, etc., which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions and the subject of research.

Science begins as soon as one begins to measure.

Exact science is unthinkable without measure.

D. I. Mendeleev

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge differ in the subject, means and results of the study. Knowledge is a practice-tested result of cognition of the surrounding world; generalized reflection of reality in human thinking. The difference between the empirical and theoretical levels of research does not coincide with the difference between sensory and rational cognition, although the empirical level is predominantly sensory, while the theoretical is rational.

The structure of scientific research that we have described is, in a broad sense, a method of scientific knowledge or a scientific method as such. A method is a set of actions designed to help achieve a desired result. The method not only equalizes the abilities of people, but also makes their activities uniform, which is a prerequisite for obtaining uniform results by all researchers. Empirical and theoretical methods are distinguished. Empirical methods include the following.

Observation is a long-term, purposeful and systematic perception of objects and phenomena of the objective world. Two types of observation can be distinguished - direct and with the help of instruments. When observing with the help of appropriate instruments into the microworld, it is necessary to take into account the properties of the instrument itself, its working part, the nature of interaction with the microobject.

Description is the result of observation and experiment, which consists in fixing data using certain notation systems adopted in science. Description as a method of scientific research is carried out both by ordinary language and by special means that make up the language of science (symbols, signs, matrices, graphs, etc.). The most important requirements for scientific description are accuracy, logical rigor and simplicity.

Measurement is a cognitive operation that provides a numerical expression of the measured values. It is carried out at the empirical level of scientific research and includes quantitative standards and standards (weight, length, coordinates, speed, etc.). Measurement is carried out by the subject both directly and indirectly. In this regard, it is divided into two types: direct and indirect. Direct measurement represents a direct comparison of the measured object or phenomenon, property with the corresponding standard; indirectly determining the value of the measured property on the basis of taking into account definitely the dependence on other quantities. Indirect measurement helps to determine quantities in conditions where direct measurement is difficult or impossible. So, for example, the measurement of certain properties of many space objects, galactic microprocesses, etc.

Comparison - a comparison of objects in order to identify signs of similarity or signs of difference between these objects. A well-known aphorism says: "Everything is known in comparison." In order for the comparison to be objective, it must meet the following requirements:

• - it is necessary to compare comparable phenomena and objects (for example, it makes no sense to compare a person with a triangle or an animal with a meteorite, etc.);
• - the comparison should be carried out according to the most important and essential features, since comparison on insignificant grounds can lead to confusion.

An experiment is a scientifically set experiment, with the help of which an object is either reproduced artificially, or placed in precisely taken into account conditions, which makes it possible to study their influence on the object in a “pure form”. Unlike observation, the experiment is characterized by the intervention of the researcher in the position of the objects under study due to the active influence on the subject of research. It is widely used in physics, chemistry, biology, physiology and other natural sciences Oh. The experiment is becoming increasingly important in social research. However, here its significance is limited, firstly, by moral, humanistic considerations; secondly, by the fact that most social phenomena cannot be reproduced in laboratory conditions, and, thirdly, by the fact that many social phenomena cannot be repeated many times, isolated from other social phenomena. So, empirical study is the starting point for the formation of scientific laws, at this stage the object is subjected to primary comprehension, its external features and some regularities (empirical laws) are revealed.

The scientific methods of the theoretical level of research include those presented in fig. 2.2.

Formalization is a reflection of the results of thinking in exact concepts or statements, i.e. construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the processes under study. Formalization plays an important role in the analysis, clarification and explication of scientific concepts. It is inextricably linked with the construction of artificial or formalized scientific laws.

Rice. 2.2.

Axiomatization- construction of theories based on axioms-statements, the proof of the truth of which is not required. The truth of all statements of the axiomatic theory is substantiated as a result of strict adherence to the deductive technique of inference (proof) and finding (or constructing) the interpretation of axiomatic systems. In the very construction of axiomatics, they proceed from the fact that the accepted axioms are true.

Analysis- actual or mental division of a holistic subject into its constituent parts (sides, features, properties, relationships or connections) for the purpose of its comprehensive study. Analysis, decomposing the subject into parts and studying each of them, must necessarily consider them not in themselves, but as parts of a single whole.

Synthesis- the actual or mental reunification of the whole from parts, elements, sides and relationships identified through analysis. With the help of synthesis, we restore the object as a concrete whole in all the variety of its manifestations. In the natural sciences, analysis and synthesis are applied not only theoretically, but also practically. In socio-economic and humanitarian research, the subject of research is subjected only to mental dismemberment and reunification. Analysis and synthesis of methods of scientific research act in an organic unity.

Induction- a method of research and a method of reasoning in which a general conclusion about the properties of objects and phenomena is built on the basis of individual facts or private premises. So, for example, the transition from the analysis of facts and phenomena to the synthesis of the acquired knowledge is carried out by the method of induction. With the help of the inductive method, it is possible to obtain knowledge that is not reliable, but probable, and of varying degrees of reliability.

Deduction- this is the transition from general reasoning or judgments to particular ones. Derivation of new provisions with the help of laws and rules of logic. The deductive method is of paramount importance in the theoretical sciences as a means of their logical ordering and construction, especially when the true positions are known, from which logically necessary consequences can be obtained.

Generalization- the logical process of transition from singular to general, from less general to more common knowledge, - in this case, the general properties and features of the objects under study are established. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper reflection of reality, penetration into its essence.

Analogy is a method of cognition, which is a conclusion, during which, on the basis of the similarity of objects in terms of some characteristics (properties and relationships), a conclusion is made about their similarity in other properties of relationships. Inference by analogy plays an essential role in the development of scientific knowledge. Many important discoveries in the field of natural science were made by transferring the general patterns inherent in one area of ​​phenomena to phenomena in another area. So, X. Huygens, based on the analogy of the properties of light and sound, came to the conclusion about the wave nature of light. J.K. Maxwell extended this conclusion to the characteristics electromagnetic field. The identification of a certain similarity between the reflective processes of a living organism and some physical processes contributed to the creation of the corresponding cybernetic devices.

Mathematization is the penetration of the apparatus of mathematical logic into the natural and other sciences. Mathematization of modern scientific knowledge characterizes its theoretical level. With the help of mathematicians, the main patterns of development of natural science theories are formulated. Mathematical Methods are widely used in the socio-economic sciences. The creation (under the direct influence of practice) of such branches as linear programming, game theory, information theory and the emergence of electronic mathematical machines opens up completely new perspectives.

Modeling is the study of an object by creating and studying its model (copy), which replaces the original, from certain sides, of interest to the researcher. Depending on the playback method, i.e. from the means by which the model is built, all models can be divided into two types: “acting”, or material, models; "imaginary" or ideal models. Material models include mock-ups of a bridge, a dam of a building, an aircraft, a ship, etc. They can be built from the same material as the object under study, or on the basis of a purely functional analogy. Ideal, mental models are divided into mental structures (models of an atom, galaxy), theoretical schemes that reproduce the properties and relationships of the object under study in an ideal form, and sign (math formulas, chemical signs and symbols, etc.). Cybernetic models stand out in particular, which replace still insufficiently studied control systems, help to explore the laws of functioning of a given system (for example, modeling individual functions of the human psyche).

Abstraction is a method of cognition in which there is a mental distraction and rejection of those objects, properties and relationships that make it difficult to consider the object of study in a “pure” form, which is necessary at this stage of study. Through the abstracting work of thinking, all concepts, categories of natural and socio-economic sciences arose: matter, motion, mass, energy, space, time, plant, animal, species, goods, money, cost, etc.

In addition to the considered empirical and theoretical methods, there are general scientific research methods, which include the following.

Classification - the division of all studied subjects into separate groups in accordance with some feature important to the researcher.

The logical method is a method of reproducing in thinking a complex developing object in the form of a certain theory. In the logical study of the object, we are distracted from all accidents, insignificant facts, zigzags, i.e. from which the most important, essential determining the general course and direction of development is singled out.

The historical method is when all the details, the facts of a cognizable object are reproduced in all the concrete diversity of historical development. The historical method involves the study of a specific development process, and the logical method - the study of the general patterns of movement of the object of knowledge.

Of great importance in modern science have acquired statistical methods that allow you to determine the average values, which, in turn, allow you to determine the general that is typical (typical) for the entire set of objects under study.

So, at the theoretical level, an explanation of the object is carried out, its internal connections and essential processes (theoretical laws) are revealed. If empirical knowledge is the starting point for the formation of scientific laws, then the theory makes it possible to empirically explain the material. Both these levels of knowledge are closely related. Common to them are those forms in which sensory images (sensations, perceptions, representations) are realized and rational thinking(concepts, judgments and conclusions).

Define the term "science".

Science is a field of human activity aimed at developing and systematizing objective knowledge about reality. The basis of this activity is the collection of facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, the synthesis of new knowledge or generalizations that not only describe observed natural or social phenomena, but also allow building cause-and-effect relationships with the ultimate goal of forecasting. Those hypotheses that are confirmed by facts or experiments are formulated in the form of laws of nature or society.

Science in a broad sense includes all the conditions and components of the relevant activity:

division and cooperation scientific work;

scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment;

research methods;

scientific information system;

the total amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.

Define the term "scientific research".

Scientific research is the process of studying, experimenting, conceptualizing and testing theory related to obtaining scientific knowledge.

Types of scientific research:

Basic research undertaken primarily to generate new knowledge regardless of application perspectives.

Applied research is aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals, solving specific problems.

Monodisciplinary research is carried out within the framework of a separate science.

Interdisciplinary research requires the participation of specialists various areas and is carried out at the intersection of several scientific disciplines.

A comprehensive study is carried out using a system of methods and techniques, through which scientists seek to cover the maximum (or optimal) possible number of significant parameters of the reality under study.

A single-factor or analytical study is aimed at identifying one, the most significant, in the opinion of the researcher, aspect of reality.

Exploratory research is aimed at determining the prospects of working on a topic, finding ways to solve scientific problems.

Critical research is carried out in order to refute an existing theory, model, hypothesis, law, etc., or to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality. Critical research is carried out in those areas where a rich theoretical and empirical stock of knowledge has been accumulated and where there are proven methods for the implementation of the experiment.

Clarifying research. This is the most common type of research. Their goal is to establish boundaries within which theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, in comparison with the initial experimental sample, the conditions for conducting the study, the object, and the methodology change. Thus, it is registered to which area of ​​reality the previously obtained theoretical knowledge extends.

Reproducing research. Its goal is an exact repetition of the experiment of predecessors in order to determine the reliability, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained. The results of any study should be replicated in a similar experiment conducted by another scientific worker with the appropriate competence. Therefore, after the discovery of a new effect, pattern, creation of a new technique, etc. there is an avalanche of replicating studies designed to test the results of the discoverers. Reproducing research is the basis of all science. Therefore, the method and the specific technique of the experiment must be intersubjective, i.e. the operations carried out during the study should be reproduced by any qualified researcher.

Development is a scientific research that puts into practice the results of specific fundamental and applied research.

3. Define the concept of "scientific knowledge".

Scientific knowledge is a system of knowledge about the laws of nature, society, and thinking. Scientific knowledge is the basis of the scientific picture of the world, since it describes the laws of its development. Essence of scientific knowledge[edit | edit wiki text]

Scientific knowledge is:

cognitive basis of human activity;

socially conditioned activity;

knowledge with varying degrees of certainty.

Empirical and theoretical levels[edit | edit wiki text]

Scientific knowledge is usually considered at two levels - empirical and theoretical. Each of these levels uses its own special methods of research and has a different meaning for scientific knowledge in general.

Empirical knowledge[edit | edit wiki text]

Empirical knowledge is accumulated as a result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment. Science relies on firmly established facts obtained empirically, that is, experimentally. At the empirical level, there is an accumulation of facts, their primary systematization and classification. Empirical knowledge makes it possible to formulate empirical rules, regularities and laws that are statistically derived from observed phenomena.

The main methods of empirical knowledge are:

Experiment - observation of objects and phenomena in controlled or artificially created conditions in order to identify their essential characteristics;

Observation - a purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality without making changes to the reality that is being investigated;

Measurement - identification of quantitative characteristics of the studied reality. As a result of the measurement, objects are compared according to certain properties;

Comparison - simultaneous identification of the relationship and evaluation of properties or features common to two or more objects;

Description - fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of information about objects and phenomena.

Information obtained using empirical methods is subjected to statistical processing. After that, scientists can make certain generalizations. The information received must be verified, so scientists are required to describe in detail the sources of information and the methods used.

Theoretical knowledge[edit | edit wiki text]

Empirical knowledge by itself can rarely exhaustively explain a particular phenomenon. Such knowledge is not very heuristic, that is, it does not open up new possibilities for scientific research. That is why a theoretical level of knowledge is needed, at which the obtained empirical data fit into a certain system. At the same time, without certain theoretical principles, it is impossible to start any empirical research.

Thus, the essence of theoretical knowledge is a description, explanation and systematization of processes and patterns identified empirically, as well as an attempt to holistically capture reality.

The main methods of theoretical knowledge are:

Formalization - the construction of abstract models that should explain the essence of the phenomena under study;

Axiomatization is a theoretical construction based on axioms, that is, statements whose truth does not need to be proved;

The hypothetical-deductive method is the construction of deductively interconnected hypotheses that explain empirical facts.

The main components of theoretical knowledge are:

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is what is not yet known, but what needs to be known, i.e., this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that arose in the course of cognition and requires an answer; The problem includes two main stages of the movement of knowledge - formulation and solution.

A hypothesis is a form of knowledge in the form of an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts. Hypothetical knowledge is probabilistic, not reliable, and requires verification and justification. Some hypotheses subsequently turn into theories, while others are modified, refined and concretized, and others are discarded as false. The decisive criterion for the truth of a hypothesis is practice in all its forms, while the logical (theoretical) criterion of truth plays an auxiliary role.

Theory is knowledge that gives a holistic display of regular and essential connections in a certain area of ​​reality. The theory is built to explain the objective reality. The main task of the theory is the description, systematization and explanation of all available empirical data. However, the theory does not directly describe the surrounding reality. When formulating a theory, researchers operate with ideal objects, which, unlike real ones, are characterized not by an infinite, but by a limited number of properties.

The theoretical level of knowledge has two components - fundamental theories and theories that describe a specific area of ​​reality based on the corresponding fundamental theories.

4. Describe the stages of development of scientific research.

Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, the following distinguishing features are usually indicated: - it is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks; - this is a process aimed at searching for something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, at new coverage of the issues under consideration; - it is characterized by systematicity: here the research process itself and its results are ordered, brought into the system; Stages of scientific research. Any particular study can be presented as a series of steps. Choice of research topic. Definition of the object and subject of research. Definition of goals and objectives. Formulation of the title of the work. Hypothesis development. Drawing up a research plan. Literature work. Choice of research methods. Organization of research conditions. Conducting research (collecting material). Processing of research results. Formulation of conclusions. Work form. Each stage has its own tasks, which are often solved sequentially, and sometimes simultaneously.

5. What is a scientific problem and a problem situation?

The concepts of "problem" and "problem situation" should also not be confused. A problem is a certain state of scientific knowledge; The problem must be recognized and formulated precisely theoretically. As for the problem situation, this concept characterizes the current scientific, technical and practical needs. For example, in medical biological sciences they talk about the problems of preventing a particular disease, but in this case we are talking about a problematic situation, which includes a whole set of needs not only theoretical, but also organizational, social, everyday psychological and other plans. Any scientific problem is surrounded by its own scientific and practical context (i.e., a problem situation), in which it matures. But the opposite is not true: far from every problematic situation is translated into a conscious scientific problem.

6. Give a classification of sciences.

Attempts to classify the areas of human knowledge on various grounds have been made since antiquity. So, Aristotle (one of the first attempts) singled out three large groups of such areas: theoretical (physics and philosophy), practical (gives guiding ideas for human behavior, ethics and politics) and creative, poetic (knowledge is carried out to achieve something beautiful, aesthetics ). Theoretical knowledge (knowledge is conducted for its own sake) he divided (according to its subject) into: 1) “first philosophy” (later “metaphysics” - the science of the higher principles and the first causes of everything that exists, inaccessible to the senses and comprehended speculatively); 2) mathematics; 3) physics (studies the various states of bodies in nature). Aristotle did not identify the formal logic he created with philosophy, he considered it the “organ” (tool) of any cognition.

The classification of the Roman encyclopedist Mark Varro included the following sciences: grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astrology, music, medicine and architecture.

Muslim Arab scientists divided the sciences into Arabic (poetics, oratory) and foreign sciences (astronomy, medicine, mathematics).

Attempts at classification continued into the Middle Ages. Hugh of Saint Victor in the Didascalicon divides the sciences into four groups:

Theoretical sciences (mathematics, physics).

Practical Sciences.

Mechanical sciences (navigation, agriculture, hunting, medicine, theater).

Logic, including grammar and rhetoric.

F. Bacon divided the sciences into 3 groups (depending on such cognitive abilities like memory, reason, imagination)

history as a description of facts (including natural and civil history);

theoretical sciences, or "philosophy" in the broad sense of the word;

poetry, literature, art in general.

Roger Bacon also distinguished four classes of sciences: grammar and logic, mathematics, natural philosophy, metaphysics and ethics. At the same time, he considered mathematics to be the basis of the sciences of nature.

7. Define “scientific research.

8. Specify the goals and objectives of scientific research.

The purpose and objectives of the study determine the directions in which the applicant reveals the topic of the dissertation.
The purpose of the research, set in the work, is what the applicant strives for in his scientific research, that is final result work. The purpose of the work is usually consonant with the title of the topic of the dissertation research. The purpose of the work may be to describe a new phenomenon, study its characteristics, identify patterns, etc. The formulation of the research goal usually begins with a preamble: “develop ..”, “establish ...”, “substantiate ...”, “identify ...”, etc.
After formulating the goal, research tasks (thesis tasks) are formed. The objectives of the study determine the main stages of the study to achieve the goal. When formulating research objectives, it must be taken into account that the description of the solution of these problems will be the content of the chapters and paragraphs of the dissertation, the titles of which are consonant with the tasks set. When defining tasks, it is necessary to break scientific research into main stages and, in accordance with their content, formulate research tasks. Each stage is usually dedicated to a separate task. In the list of tasks to be solved, it is necessary to single out the largest ones without splitting them into smaller tasks. The formulation of tasks usually begins with the words: "Explore the essence", "clarify the definition", "systematize", "analyze", "clarify and supplement", "substantiate", etc.

9. Justify the requirements for scientific research.

There are a number of requirements for a review and analytical study:

Correlation of the content of the analyzed literature with the chosen topic;

Completeness of the list of studied literature;

The depth of study of primary literary sources in the content of the abstract;

Systematic presentation of available literature data;

Logic and literacy of the text of the abstract, accuracy of design, compliance with bibliographic requirements.

experimental research is the most time-consuming and complex type of research, but at the same time it is the most accurate and scientifically useful. In an experiment, some artificial (experimental) situation is always created, the causes of the phenomena being studied are singled out, the consequences of the actions of these causes are strictly controlled and evaluated, and statistical relationships between the studied and other phenomena are revealed. To conduct an experimental study, the following requirements must be met:

1) a clear statement of the problem, topic, goals and objectives of the study, the hypotheses tested in it;

2) the establishment of criteria and signs by which it will be possible to judge how successful the experiment was, whether the hypotheses proposed in it were confirmed or not;

3) precise definition of the object and subject of research;

4) selection and development of valid and reliable methods for psychodiagnostics of the states of the object and object under study before and after the experiment;

5) the use of consistent logic to prove that the experiment was successful;

6) determining the appropriate form for presenting the results of the experiment;

7) description of the area of ​​scientific and practical application of the results of the experiment, formulation of practical conclusions and recommendations arising from the above experiment.

10. Describe the forms and methods of scientific research.

empirical and theoretical. In science razlampir and theoret levels of research. This distinction has as its basis 1. - methods of cognizing activity; 2. - the nature of the results achieved. Empirical research involves the development of a research program, organization of observation and experiments, description and generalization of expert data, their classification, and primary generalization. In a word, empirical cognition is characterized by fact-fixing activity. Theoretical knowledge is essential knowledge, carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders. Here the tools are concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses... Historically, empiric knowledge precedes theorists, but it is impossible to achieve complete and true knowledge only in this way.

Empirical research reveals more and more data from observation and experiment, sets new tasks for theoretician thinking, stimulates it to further improvement. However, the enriched theoretical knowledge poses ever more complex tasks for observation and experiment.

Any observation does not begin with the collection of facts, but with an attempt to solve some problem, the cat is always based on a well-known assumption, guess, problem statement.

Statement of the problem and research program. People seek to know what they do not know. A problem is a question with which we turn to nature itself, to life, to practice and theory. It is sometimes no less difficult to pose a problem than to find its solution: the correct formulation of problems to a certain extent directs the search activity of thought, its striving. When a scientist poses a problem and tries to solve it, he inevitably develops and researches a program, builds a plan for his activities. At the same time, he proceeds from the alleged answer to his question. This presupposed answer acts as a hypothesis.

observation and experiment. Observation is a deliberate, directed perception aimed at revealing the essential properties and relations of the object of knowledge. It might. direct and indirect devices. Observation acquires scientific significance when, in accordance with the research program, it allows you to display objects with the highest accuracy and can be repeated many times under varying conditions.

But a person cannot confine himself to the role of only an observer: observation only fixes what life itself gives, and research requires an experiment, with the help of which an object is either reproduced artificially, or it is placed in a certain way given conditions that meet the goals of research. During the expert, the researcher actively intervenes in the research process.

In the process of cognition, a thought experiment is also used, when the mind in the mind operates with certain images, mentally puts the object in certain conditions.

Expert storied. On the one hand, it is able to confirm or disprove the hypothesis, and on the other hand, it contains the possibility of revealing unexpected new data.

That. Experimental activities have a complex structure: theoretic foundations of ex-scientific theories, hypotheses; mat basis - devices; direct implementationexper; experimental observation; quantity and quality analysis of rez experiments, their theoretic generalization.

A necessary condition for research is the establishment of facts. Fact, from factum - done, accomplished. A fact is a phenomenon of the material or spiritual world, which has become a certified property of our consciousness, the fixation of an object, phenomenon, property or relationship. “Facts are the air of a scientist,” Pavlov said. The most characteristic of a scientific fact is its reliability. The fact must be comprehended, substantiated. Facts are always mediated by our understanding, interpretation. For example, testimonies. People talk about the same thing, but in different ways. That. evidence is by no means a complete guarantee of the real reliability of a fact.

Facts in themselves do not constitute science. Facts must be subjected to selection, classification, generalization and explanation, then they will be included in the fabric of science. The fact contains a lot of random. Therefore, the basis for n analysis is not just a single fact, but a multitude of facts reflecting the main trend. Only in mutual connection and integrity can facts serve as a basis for generalization theory. Any theory can be constructed from correspondingly selected facts.

Description and explanation. In the course of observations and experiments, description and recording are carried out. Main n. the requirement for the description is its reliability, the accuracy of reproduction of observational and experimental data.

Explanation is an operation oriented towards identifying the causal dependence of the object of research, comprehending the patterns of its functioning and development, and, finally, revealing its essence. To explain means to comprehend an object in the light of already existing, historically accumulated knowledge, defined principles, laws, categories.

Hypothesis. Not a single theory was born ready-made. At first it exists as a hypothesis. At the same time, the hyp itself does not appear immediately, it goes through a certain stage of formation. At first it is a conjecture, a conjecture arising from the observation of new facts. It can be subject to changes, modifications... In p-theformer, the hypothesis itself is the most probable assumption. A hypothesis is an assumption based on facts, an inference that tries to penetrate into the essence of an area of ​​the world that has not yet been sufficiently studied.

The substantiation and proof of the hypothesis is carried out on the basis of the analysis of the accumulated knowledge, comparing it with the already known facts, with established new facts and those facts that may be established in the future. In other words, substantiating a hypothesis involves evaluating it from the point of view of its effectiveness in explaining existing facts and foreseeing new ones.

Hyp acts as a generalization of existing knowledge. But it is fundamentally probabilistic. The value of a hypothesis is determined by the level of its probability. (Freud. The core of the Earth from marmalade).

Theories. Theory is the highest, substantiated, logically consistent system of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the essential properties, patterns, cause-and-effect relationships that determine the nature of the functioning and development of a certain area of ​​reality.

A theory can change by incorporating new ideas and facts into it. When, within the framework of a given theory, a contradiction is revealed that is insoluble within its framework, then its resolution leads to the construction of a new theory. The core of the theory is constituted by the laws included in it. In theory, the following essential moments are distinguished: the initial empirical basis (facts, data of experiments); various kinds of assumptions, postulates, axioms; the logic of the theory, admissible within the framework of the theor rules, log inferences and doc-in; the totality of the derived statements with their proofs; the laws of the sciences, as well as foresight.

There are descriptive theories, mathematized, interpretative and deductive theories.

Revolutions become turning points in the history of science. The roar in science is expressed as a change in its basic principles, concepts, categories, laws, theories. in changing the scientific paradigm. A paradigm is understood as: norms developed and accepted in a given scientific community, samples of empirical and theoretic thinking, which have acquired the character of beliefs; a way of choosing an object of study and explaining a certain system of facts in the form of sufficiently substantiated principles and laws, an image of a logically consistent theory.

11. Describe the stages of research work.

The peculiarity of scientific work is that it is, first of all, a purposeful and vigorous activity. Systematic organization, validity and proof are characteristic of science. Although known in science random discoveries However, only a carefully planned and well-equipped scientific research makes it possible to reveal and deeply understand the objective laws governing the development of both nature and society. That is, for the success of scientific research, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out in a certain sequence. These plans and the sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of scientific research.

With regard to applied research work, the following main stages are distinguished.

1. Formulation of the topic, definition of the goal, objectives, object and subject of research.

2. Drawing up a concept, program and research plan.

3. Development of a system of research methods and techniques for their effective application.

4. Collection, systematization and analysis of empirical material. Experimental studies. Testing and refining the hypothesis.

5. Analysis and presentation of the research results.

6. Implementation of the results and determination of economic efficiency.

4.1. The formulation of the topic, the definition of the goal, objectives, object and subject of research. This stage of scientific research involves:

ü general familiarization with the problem on which the study should be carried out;

ü preliminary acquaintance with the literature and classification of the most important areas;

ü selection and compilation of bibliographic lists of domestic and foreign literature;

ü study of scientific and technical reports on the topic of various organizations of the relevant profile;

ü compilation of annotations of sources;

ü preparation of abstracts on the topic;

ü analysis, comparison, criticism of the information being processed;

ü generalization, criticism, drawing up one's own opinion on the issues worked out;

ü formulation of methodological conclusions on the review of information.

Thus, the main attention at the first stage is given to the study and analysis of literary and other sources in order to:

1) substantiation of the scientific problem and research topic;

2) identification and accumulation of scientific facts through the analysis and synthesis of various sources of knowledge, as well as a scientific description of facts;

3) theoretical generalization of the results of primary scientific research (explanation, comparison, conclusions);

4) formulation of the object, subject, purpose and objectives of the study.

Let's define the terminology of this stage. In research work, directions, problems and topics are distinguished.

Scientific direction- the scope of scientific research of the scientific team, dedicated to the solution of any major, fundamental theoretical and experimental problems in a particular branch of science.

A problem is a complex scientific problem that covers a significant area of ​​research and has a perspective value.

A problem is a discrepancy between what is desired and what is real; a controversial situation in science that requires its resolution.

The problem is the initial stage of research, at which the researcher is aware of the presence of the unknown and sets himself the goal of making the unknown known through search, cognitive activity. The presence of a problem acts as a motive for research (“trigger”).

That is why the preliminary stage of research of any kind is to identify and formulate the problem, determine its relevance, significance and scope.

The correct formulation of the problem is half the success, since it means the ability to separate the main from the secondary and to separate what is known from what is unknown on the research topic, and this determines the strategy for further search.

Any problem consists of a number of topics.

A topic is a complex scientific problem that needs to be solved, covering a certain area of ​​scientific research.

Topics can be theoretical, practical, mixed.

The formulation (selection) of problems or topics is a difficult, responsible task. The theme must have the following characteristics:

A) relevance - the value of the topic on this moment time for the progress of science and technology. This is the answer to why this study needs to be done right now, not later;

B) scientific novelty - the topic in such a formulation has never been developed and is not being developed at the present time, i.e. duplication is excluded;

C) cost-effectiveness - the solutions proposed as a result of scientific research should be more efficient already existing solutions;

D) practical significance - the possibility of using the results of scientific research to solve actual problems and tasks, both in production and in related or interdisciplinary research.

E) compliance with the profile of the scientific team (organization).

Equally important is the selection of the object and subject of research. Recall the definition (see paragraph 2): scientific research is an activity aimed at a comprehensive study of an object, process or phenomenon, their structure and relationships, as well as obtaining and putting into practice useful results for a person. Its object is a material or ideal system, and its subject is the structure of the system, the interaction of its elements, various properties, patterns of development, etc.

The object of research is certain phenomena of reality that exist outside and independently of our consciousness.

It must be remembered that the object of research exists objectively, regardless of the will of people, it is not created or constructed by them.

The object of research can be, for example:

ü social institutions and systems (school, university, hospital, education system, healthcare system);

the individual elements social institutions and systems (teaching staff, students, content of higher medical education);

ü processes (training, education, socialization, market exchange);

ü mechanisms for the functioning of systems and processes (pedagogical technologies for the formation of competencies);

ü various activities, states and personality traits;

ü dependencies and relationships (for example, personality - group, conflicts between individuals), etc.

The subject of research, unlike the object, is subjective, that is, it is determined by the researcher himself. The object and subject of research are, of course, interconnected. But the subject of research, as a rule, covers only individual elements and relationships of the object under study.

The subject of research is what the researcher's attention is directly directed to, about which new (missing) information is required.

The subject of the study is the generalizing structure (arrangement) of the object under study or its separate particular aspects, conditionally isolated mechanisms of the object's vital activity, which predetermine the observed properties (manifestations) of the object under consideration.

For example, an object is a sociotechnical system, and an object is an economic structure of a sociotechnical system.

Anatomy - a living organism - the structure of a living organism.

Physiology - a living organism - processes inside a living organism.

Generalizing and private structures, and individual mechanisms of the life activity of a thing or phenomenon have their carriers, namely, the things and phenomena themselves. The required information can be "removed" only from things and phenomena in their integral life activity. In this regard, the information base of the study is often confused with its object.

For example, when studying demographic processes (fertility, migration, mortality), information is "removed" by regions and settlements. Meanwhile, neither settlements nor regions are objects of study. They are an information base, and not only in terms of demographics, but also in many other processes associated with other aspects of their life.

A form of scientific foresight in scientific research is a hypothesis - a necessary link between theory and ongoing research on the way to obtaining new knowledge. See definition and requirements above (clause 3.). Sometimes scientific research is carried out without a hypothesis. This happens when the task is set, on the one hand, to turn “everyone knows” from ordinary opinion into a scientifically established fact, and on the other hand, to give an accurate scientific description of “everyone knows” facts.

Initially put forward hypotheses can be corrected, supplemented, developed in the course of the study, but according to the results of the study, it should be clearly indicated that from the initial hypothetical assumptions it was confirmed, what changes were made to their content, which did not receive proper confirmation at all (because in science and a negative result very important).

In the structure of scientific research, an important place is occupied by its purpose and objectives.

The goal of any type of activity is understood as the ideal image of the desired result.

The purpose of the study is the planned end result, which is of great theoretical and practical importance for a particular branch of scientific knowledge.

It is intended not to illustrate already established and indisputable provisions, but to reveal new connections and relationships. The universal goal of any research is to obtain new, reliable knowledge about nature and society, which makes it possible to transform, adapt nature and society itself to human needs.

The goal has a decisive influence on the organization, methodology and other structural components of scientific research, acts as its dominant, as a beacon illuminating the path for the researcher in the complex contradictions of the problem under study. The purpose of a scientific study is to clearly outline its scope and content, to answer the question of what the essence of the problem under study is and whether it is possible to obtain the necessary data for its comprehensive coverage during the study.

The objectives of the study are very diverse. They may include, in one case, the disclosure of the essence of complex physiological, economic, pedagogical and other phenomena and processes, in the other case, the identification of the relationship between the factors affecting students and the changes that occur in their personal characteristics under the influence of these factors, in the third - the development of new forms and methods of training and education of young people, the treatment of certain diseases, fourthly, to determine the conditions under which one or another method or means of influence bring the greatest effect, etc.

Research objectives are specific directions for studying certain aspects of the problem under study, the implementation of which leads to the achievement of the overall goal of the study.

Research objectives are mainly in two forms: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical tasks include:

ü establishing, clarifying and classifying scientific facts that relate to the subject of research, characterizing them and the observed dependencies;

ü the study of specific conditions and the scope of dependencies, formulated in the form of trends, patterns, principles;

ü empirical verification of the truth of patterns, theories, hypotheses, models;

ü setting the reality of the alleged hypothetical processes, phenomena;

ü Solving constructive cognitive problems.

Theoretical tasks include:

ü identification and study of specific causes, relationships, dependencies, interactions, processes that make it possible to explain certain facts of reality;

ü building new hypotheses that theoretically explain the discovered facts, trends, processes, phenomena, cause-and-effect relationships, mechanisms of activity;

the formulation of theoretical knowledge in a form that allows it to be empirically verified.

Usually in scientific papers three to five research tasks are put forward. It's not essential. The main thing is that when solving them, the essence of the phenomenon under study should be revealed.

It must be emphasized that all research tasks, regardless of their type, are in close interaction and inseparable interdependence. At the same time, each task exists in a dialectical unity in the common goal of the study, its object, subject and hypothesis.

Drawing up the concept, program and plan of the study.

The concept of research is a set of basic provisions (ideas) on how research should be conducted. This is a holistic, logically linked system of views, united by some common idea and aimed at achieving the goal of the study.

The choice of the research concept is significantly influenced by the paradigm prevailing in a given time interval in a particular branch of knowledge.

A scientific paradigm is a system of views arising from the fundamental ideas and scientific achievements of major (outstanding) scientists, which determine the direction of thinking of the bulk of researchers.

Based on the concept, a detailed program is developed.

The research program is a set of provisions that defines the purpose and objectives of the study, its subject, the conditions for conducting the study, the resources used and the expected result.

The program is considered as a means to achieve the goal of the study, as a form of concretization of the concept.

Program sections:

1) justification of the relevance of the chosen topic;

2) disclosure of the degree of its development in scientific literature;

3) object, subject, purpose, objectives and hypothesis of the study;

4) theoretical and methodological foundations, a system of methods;

5) scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance;

6) resource provision;

7) how the approbation and verification of the received theoretical conclusions and practical recommendations will be carried out;

8) research performance indicators;

9) stages and scope of work and other issues, the solution of which will contribute to the successful implementation of the work plan.

Based on the program, a detailed plan is developed.

Research plan - a set of indicators that reflect the relationship and sequence of key activities (actions) leading to the full implementation of the program and problem resolution. The research plan is considered as an organizing factor for consistent movement towards the research goal.

4.3. Development of a system of research methods and techniques for their effective application. This stage is extremely important and will be discussed in the next lecture.

4.4. Collection, systematization and analysis of empirical material. Experimental studies. Testing and refining the hypothesis. This stage is central to scientific research. The history of science convinces us that it is possible to draw some scientific conclusions and develop theoretical propositions only on the basis of facts (see paragraph 3 for the definition).

Requirements for the collection of empirical material:

ü select not random facts, but only those that are “measured” and have precise criteria that characterize them;

ü take not individual facts, but the whole set of facts related to the issue under consideration, without a single exception;

ü Facts are valuable only when they are deeply comprehended;

ü after collecting and accumulating factual material, it is necessary to classify the facts, analyze and summarize them.

Conducting an experiment at this stage involves additional stages that are typical for experimental studies:

ü development of the purpose and objectives of the experiment;

the planning of the experiment;

ü development of research program methodology;

- the choice of measuring instruments;

ü designing devices, models, apparatuses, models, stands, installations and other means of experiment;

ü substantiation of measurement methods;

ü conducting an experiment in a laboratory, on experimental sites, at enterprises;

ü processing of measurement results.

An experiment is one of the stages of a study. But the stage is so important that its role is often exaggerated to an independent study. Experiments are often seen as synonymous with research.

Meanwhile, the experiment itself is one of the most expensive ways of purposefully obtaining information necessary to prove (refute) the hypothesis put forward during the study, which cannot be obtained in any other way.

An experiment is the “placement” of an object of study in special conditions, the observation of its behavior due to changing conditions, and the fixation of information (indicators) reflecting this behavior. Based on the results of the experiment, the hypothesis put forward can be confirmed or refuted.

Experience is a single experiment. In an experiment, as a rule, a series or even several series of monotonous experiments are set up.

The experiment is most often carried out according to original, carefully thought-out methods. For example, the experiment of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (to prove the presence of conditioned reflexes and signaling system conducted on dogs).

Special care is required to conduct a social experiment, since in its process a specific effect may appear, called the Pygmalion effect (discovered by R. Rosenthal).

The Pygmalion effect is a manifestation of the experimenter's prejudice that affects the result of the experiment. That is, by formulating the attitude of the experimenter to the subject, in some cases it is possible to predict the outcome of the experiment.

So, for example, when teachers were characterized by students in one case as capable, and in another as incapable (with their virtually identical abilities), then a positive attitude towards students in the first case had a positive effect on the pedagogical situation in general and the success of students, as well as their grades. .

12. The concept of the methodology of scientific knowledge.

THE CONCEPT OF METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE

Methodology of science is a scientific discipline that studies methods of scientific and cognitive activity. Methodology in a broad sense (see Methodology) is a rational-reflexive mental activity, the directed study of ways a person transforms reality - methods (rational actions that need to be taken in order to solve a specific problem or achieve a specific goal - see Method). The application of methods is carried out in any field of scientific and cognitive activity (see Science). The methodology of science carries out research, search, development and systematization of the methods used in this activity to obtain scientific knowledge and those general principles by which it is directed (see Methods of scientific knowledge).

The methodology of science has always been organically linked with philosophy of science and theory of knowledge(epistemology), as well as logic(see Logic) in general and especially with the logic of science. All these types of rational-reflexive activity of cognitive thinking and scientific-cognitive activity are closely intertwined with each other, and any artificial demarcation of them is hardly possible and unproductive. Nevertheless, in the general context of all these disciplines, the concept of the methodology of science is focused on the maximum possible approximation to the real practice of scientific activity, on the identification and articulation of constructive methods of action for the construction of scientific knowledge.

scientific knowledge is an institutionally fixed type of activity in which the development of reality by a person becomes an instrumentally mediated process of interaction researchers(scientists). The effectiveness of such interaction, and therefore the reproduction and development of science as such, is ensured by the accumulation and transmission of cognitive experience and knowledge, which becomes possible due to sustainable cognitive practices, which are the methods for implementing the scientific and cognitive process. The systematic development of scientific methods turns out to be the most important condition for the formation and development of science as a social system. The use of scientific methods makes the process of scientific research a potentially reproducible procedure, which is of fundamental importance in terms of ensuring the reliability of research results, since the latter become verifiable parameters. In addition, the mediation of scientific research by scientific methods that have been formed and are subject to transformation makes it possible to train scientists and is a prerequisite for the specialization of the scientific and cognitive process, creating conditions for the formation of science as a professional infrastructure with a complex system of division of labor and, due to this, capable of concentrating and coordinating research resources.

Modern scientific knowledge is a complex process of interaction between researchers regarding the formation and use of scientific knowledge in order to understand, explain, predict and transform reality. The specialization of research activities in modern science presupposes the differentiation of methods for implementing the scientific and cognitive process. Moreover, the reproducibility of the latter within a single, albeit non-linear, structure of activity suggests that such methods are not a disparate set of cognition tools created in the course of the development of science, but a set of functionally interconnected cognitive practices.

Methodological research in modern science is usually divided into general, private and specific:

General methodology of science explores the problems of substantiating scientific knowledge, regardless of in which of the specific scientific disciplines it was obtained. Its central problems are: the study of such universal operations of scientific knowledge as explanation and understanding, as well as ways of substantiating scientific knowledge; analysis of acceptance criteria (or adequacy) of systems of scientific statements (scientific theories); the study of those systems of categories that are used as coordinates of scientific thinking; differences between natural sciences and cultural sciences; problems of the unity of scientific knowledge.

Private methodology of science explores the methodological problems of individual sciences or their narrow groups, being represented in the cognitive spaces of the relevant disciplines. The scope of this methodology includes, for example, the methodology of physics, the methodology of biology, the methodology of the sciences of the historical series, and many others. So, both in physics and in biology, the operation of explanation is used; however, many biological explanations use the concept of purpose, which loses its meaning in relation to physical objects. What is a goal, or teleological, biological explanation, and why can it be used only in the biological sciences, but not in physics, cosmology, or chemistry? Is it possible to replace the teleological explanation with the usual explanation for other natural sciences in terms of a scientific law? These and similar questions belong to private methodology. characteristic feature Any particular methodology is that, being important for some particular science or a narrow group of sciences, it is almost of no interest to other disciplines.

Concrete methodology of science, sometimes called methodology, explores the methodological aspects associated with individual operations within specific scientific disciplines. Intradisciplinary methods of theoretical and empirical research, including the methodology of specific research, are predominantly highly specialized cognitive practices. The scope of this methodology, which varies from science to science, includes, for example, the method of conducting a physical experiment, the method of experiment in biology, the method of questioning in sociology, the method of analyzing sources in history, and the like.

13. Describe the levels of scientific knowledge methodology

General scheme of Methodology Levels:

1. The highest level is the worldview (philosophical) level;

2. The level of general scientific principles and forms of research (scientific outlook);

3. Specific scientific methodology;

4. The last level - Methods and techniques of research.

1. Philosophical methodology.

The philosophical level of methodology actually functions not in the form of a rigid system of norms or techniques - (leads to the dogmatization of scientific knowledge), but as a system of prerequisites and guidelines for cognitive activity. This includes substantive prerequisites (ideological foundations of scientific thinking, the philosophical "picture of the world") and formal ones, related to the general forms of scientific thinking, to its historically defined categorical structure.

1) it carries out a constructive criticism of the available scientific knowledge in terms of the conditions and limits of its application, the adequacy of its methodological foundation and general trends in its development.

2) philosophy gives a worldview interpretation of the results of science from the point of view of a particular picture of the world.

If the philosophical picture stimulates intrascientific reflection, contributes to the formulation of new problems, the search for new approaches to the objects of scientific study, then the philosophical interpretation of the results of science serves as the starting point of any serious research, a necessary substantive prerequisite for the existence and development of theoretical knowledge and its interpretation into something integral for each stage of development. knowledge.

a necessary component of philosophical methodology is the socio-cultural analysis of science.

The call to reflect on those ideals that are inherent in the philosophy on which we rely. One of the leading value ideals, according to Mamardashvili, is the ideal of rationality. Behind it are adaptive schemes for understanding life, the ideology of mechanistic determinism, the cause-effect scheme (W. Wundt and D. Watson). Both of them have the postulate of immediacy: the cause is unambiguously defined as the effect. Sensation => perception; S=>R.

Critical-constructive f-I - the implementation of the revision of the original axioms of philosophy. worldview revolution.

Example: Ptolemaic world view, geocentric approach. After the works of Copernicus, Galileo, Bruno => change of outlook, heliocentric approach. The transition from a monopicture of the world to the category of diversity. Mamardashvili. According to the Ptolemy system, such accurate optical and measuring instruments, for example, astrolabes, were made that Columbus discovered America using the Ptolemy system. The vision of Copernicus and Bruno did not change, did not discard the world of Ptolemy.

Any serious religious system (Christianity, Islam, Judaism) is a monistic vision of reality. Monism always solves one problem of a synergistic nature: how to build order out of chaos. This is a normal evolutionary step of development, the norms of the movement of thinking. (Theory of dissipative structures).

Any serious philosophical picture of the world constructs reality.

Philosophical pictures of the world decide:

1) the task of generating order from chaos

2) a critical-constructive task, understanding the cultures of thinking that are behind every discovery

3) axeological/value task. Idealization.

4) defines the ideal forms of reality. Hence the constructive function.

2. The level of general scientific principles and forms of research.

This area was widely developed in the 20th century, which was a factor in the transformation of methodological research into a relatively independent area of ​​scientific knowledge.

An example of a meaningful concept is theoretical cybernetics, Vernadsky's concepts of the noosphere. Formal concepts -disciplines applied mathematics(such as operations research, game theory, etc.), logic and methodology of science, which are associated with the analysis of the language of science, methods for constructing scientific theories, logical and methodological features of idealization, formalization, modeling, etc. The general scientific nature of the problems developed at this level does not mean that they necessarily apply to all and any branches of science: their specificity is determined by relative indifference to specific types of subject content and, at the same time, by an appeal to certain common features the process of scientific knowledge in its sufficiently developed forms.

This level is connected with the understanding of causality, with the science of our time. Here, bih-zm, associative psi, mechanical determinism (a brick just doesn't fall on your head like that). The exception is cognitive psi, which considers everything through a prism - a person = a device for receiving, processing, extracting information. Cognitive psi, like bih-zm, sets itself the ideal of rationality. The world is rational, predictable. The rational model of the world is the basis for the construction of all psychologies.

3. Specific scientific methodology.

The level is applicable to a limited class of objects and cognitive situations specific to a given field of knowledge. At this level of methodological research, philosophical and general scientific principles are concretized and transformed in relation to a given science and the reality it studies. Specific scientific methodology - a set of methods, principles of research and procedures used in a particular scientific discipline. the methodology of psychology includes the problems of specifically psychological knowledge (rules and conditions for conducting experiments, requirements for the representativeness of data and methods for processing them), and questions put forward in related sciences (for example, the use of mathematical methods in psychology), or at higher methodology levels. the attraction of methodological means from higher levels cannot be of the nature of a mechanical transfer: in order to give a real, not an imaginary effect, these means must receive an appropriate subject interpretation and development.

4. Methods and technique of research.

The level of research procedure and technique is related to research practice. These are the norms and requirements for the methods of conducting research and practical work. It includes the norms for conducting experimental studies and classifications of ex-types, requirements for the development of psychodiagnostic methods and their classification. Methodological norms are present in practical psychology. It is designed to ensure the uniformity and reliability of the initial data subject to theoretical understanding. This is a set of procedures that ensure the receipt of a uniform and reliable empirical material and its primary processing, after which it can be included in the array of available knowledge. We are dealing with highly specialized methodological knowledge, which, due to its inherent functions of direct regulation of scientific activity, always has a clearly expressed normative character.

Each of the levels of methodological knowledge performs its functions in scientific knowledge. All levels of methodology form a complex system. The philosophical level acts as the substantive basis of any methodological knowledge. Only at this level the cognitive attitudes of the researcher are formed. It reveals the historically specific boundaries of each scientific theory, each method, comprehends the critical situations in the development of scientific discipline. Of paramount methodological importance is also the ideological interpretation of the results of science, given within this level.

But philosophical knowledge works in a specific scientific study not by itself, but in close interconnection with other levels. Philosophical and methodological provisions and principles are refracted and concretized: first at the level of general scientific principles and concepts, and then at the level of special scientific methodology.

The function of delimiting these levels is to overcome errors:

· Reassessment of the degree of common knowledge of lower levels, an attempt to give them a philosophical and ideological characteristic.

· Direct transfer of provisions and regularities, concretization of them on the material of private areas of knowledge.

· The methodology makes it possible to evaluate how correctly the conclusions about a person are obtained and how adequately they are transmitted in culture.

14. Define the concepts of method, method and technique

Method (from other Greek μέθοδος - the path of research or knowledge, from μετά- + ὁδός "path") - a systematized set of steps, actions that are aimed at solving a specific problem or achieving a specific goal.

Unlike a field of knowledge or research, it is authorial, that is, created by a specific person or group of people, a scientific or practical school. Due to their limited scope of action and result, methods tend to become obsolete, being transformed into other methods, developing in accordance with time, the achievements of technical and scientific thought, and the needs of society. A set of homogeneous methods is usually called an approach. The development of methods is a natural consequence of the development of scientific thought.

Species and types

Analytical method

deductive method

Dialectical method

inductive method

Intuitive Method

scientific method

Generic Method

experimental method

and others.

In mathematics[edit | edit wiki text]

A method in mathematics is a synonym for a method, an algorithm for solving a problem, achieving a goal.

A method in object-oriented programming is a procedure or function that belongs to some class or object.

In software engineering, a method is a technical way of building software. Wed with methodology.

A method in computer science is a single generalized way of solving problems of a certain class.

A solution method is erroneous if it gives incorrect results for certain problems.

A solution method is correct if it gives correct results for all problems of the given class.

A technique is, as a rule, a kind of ready-made "recipe", an algorithm, a procedure for carrying out any targeted actions. The technique differs from the method in concretization of techniques and tasks. For example, mathematical processing of experimental data can be explained as a method (mathematical processing), and a specific choice of criteria, mathematical characteristics - as a technique.

1The concept of "methodology" in various industries

1.1Education

1.2 Psychodiagnostics

2Requirements for the methodology

3Methods of teaching physics

3.1 Plan for the analysis of a physical quantity when teaching physics in a basic school:

3.2 Analysis plan physical phenomenon when teaching physics in basic school:

3.3 Plan for the analysis of a physical device when teaching physics in a basic school:

4See also

5Notes

The concept of "methodology" in various industries[edit | edit wiki text]

Education[edit | edit wiki text]

Methodology in education - a description of specific methods, methods, techniques pedagogical activity in separate educational processes; "collection of rules of educational activity".

The method of teaching the subject includes:

learning objectives

educational goals

development goals

educational goals

practical goals

teaching principles

means of education

forms of education

teaching methods

general teaching methods

private teaching methods

Psychodiagnostics[edit | edit wiki text]

The psychodiagnostic method is aimed at solving a wide range of problems, the psychodiagnostic method is aimed at solving particular problems. The technique, in contrast to the method, is a specific instruction for the diagnosis, data processing and interpretation of the results. Within one method, there can be an almost infinite number of methods.

Method requirements[edit | edit wiki text]

The necessary requirements for the methodology, as for a specific “recipe”, procedure, are the following:

realism;

reproducibility;

intelligibility;

compliance with the goals and objectives of the planned action, validity;

performance.

Methods of teaching physics[edit | edit wiki text]

The plan for the analysis of a physical quantity when teaching physics in a basic school: [edit | edit wiki text]

letter designation; view;

defining formula;

units;

what characterizes, shows;

other definitions.

For example, physical quantity density:

letter designation ρ(ro), tabular value;

defining formula ρ=m/V;

units of measure [kg/m3];

characterizes the amount of mass of a substance contained in a unit volume;

another way of determining is tabular;

For example, the physical quantity power:

letter designation R (pe);

defining formula P=A/t;

units of measurement [W];

characterizes the process of doing work electric shock, electrical appliances; shows the work done in a unit of time;

another way to determine is P=UI (for electric current).

Plan for the analysis of a physical phenomenon in teaching physics at a basic school: [edit | edit wiki text]

signs;

conditions of occurrence;

mechanism of the phenomenon (cause);

means of description (values, laws);

application;

prevention of harmful action;

15. Essence and general principles of general scientific and philosophical methodology

Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of the methodology - the organization of activities. (Novikov A.M.)

In the structure of methodological knowledge E.G. Yudin distinguishes four levels: 1) philosophical, 2) general scientific, 3) concrete scientific and 4) technological.

The second level includes general scientific methodology, which is a theoretical position that applies to almost all scientific disciplines.

At the third level is the specific scientific methodology, which is the totality of all the principles and methods used in any particular science.

The fourth level is occupied by technological methodology, which is made up of research methods and techniques, i.e. a set of procedures that ensure the receipt of reliable empirical material and its primary processing. Character at this level is normative and clearly defined.

PHILOSOPHICAL LEVEL

The philosophical level of methodology functions not in the form of a rigid system of norms or techniques (which leads to the dogmatization of scientific knowledge), but as a system of prerequisites and guidelines for cognitive activity. This includes

formal, relating to the general forms of scientific thinking, to its historically defined categorical structure.

Philosophy plays a dual methodological role:

1) it carries out constructive criticism of cash