The need for interdisciplinary connections in teaching is undeniable. Their consistent and systematic implementation significantly enhances the effectiveness of the educational process, forms a dialectical way of thinking of students. In addition, interdisciplinary connections are an indispensable didactic condition for the development of students' interest in knowledge of the foundations of the sciences, including the natural ones.

This is what the analysis of the lessons of physics, chemistry and biology showed: in most cases, teachers are limited to only fragmentary inclusion of interdisciplinary connections (ILC). In other words, they only resemble facts, phenomena or patterns from related subjects.

Teachers rarely include students in independent work on the application of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills in the study of program material, as well as in the process of independently transferring previously acquired knowledge to a new situation. The consequence is the inability of the children to carry out the transfer and synthesis of knowledge from related subjects. There is no continuity in education. Thus, biology teachers continuously “run ahead”, introducing students to various physical and chemical processes occurring in living organisms, without relying on physical and chemical concepts which contributes little to the conscious assimilation of biological knowledge.

A general analysis of the textbooks allows us to note that many facts and concepts are presented in them repeatedly in different disciplines, and their repeated presentation practically adds little to the students' knowledge. Moreover, often the same concept by different authors interpreted in different ways, thereby making it difficult to assimilate them. Often, textbooks use terms that are little known to students, and there are few tasks of an interdisciplinary nature. Many authors almost do not mention that some phenomena, concepts have already been studied in the courses of related subjects, do not indicate that these concepts will be considered in more detail when studying another subject. An analysis of the current programs in natural disciplines allows us to conclude that interdisciplinary connections are not given due attention. Only in general biology programs for grades 10-11 (V.B. Zakharov); “Man” (V.I. Sivoglazov) has special sections “Intersubject communications” with an indication of physical and chemical concepts, laws and theories that are the foundation for the formation of biological concepts. There are no such sections in physics and chemistry curricula, and teachers themselves have to establish the necessary MEAs. And this is a difficult task - to coordinate the material of related subjects in such a way as to ensure unity in the interpretation of concepts.

Interdisciplinary connections of physics, chemistry and biology could be established much more often and more efficiently. The study of processes occurring at the molecular level is possible only if the knowledge of molecular biophysics, biochemistry, biological thermodynamics, elements of cybernetics that complement each other is involved. This information is dispersed in the courses of physics and chemistry, but only in the course of biology does it become possible to consider issues that are difficult for students, using interdisciplinary connections. In addition, it becomes possible to work out concepts common to the cycle of natural disciplines, such as matter, interaction, energy, discreteness, etc.

When studying the basics of cytology, interdisciplinary connections are established with elements of knowledge of biophysics, biochemistry, and biocybernetics. So, for example, a cell can be represented as mechanical system, and in this case, its mechanical parameters are considered: density, elasticity, viscosity, etc. The physicochemical characteristics of the cell allow us to consider it as disperse system, a set of electrolytes, semi-permeable membranes. Without combining "such images" it is hardly possible to form the concept of a cell as a complex biological system. In the "Fundamentals of Genetics and Breeding" section, the MPS is established between organic chemistry (proteins, nucleic acids) and physics (basics of molecular kinetic theory, discreteness electric charge and etc.).

The teacher must plan in advance the possibility of implementing both previous and future connections of biology with the corresponding branches of physics. Information on mechanics (properties of tissues, movement, elastic properties of blood vessels and the heart, etc.) makes it possible to consider physiological processes; about the electromagnetic field of the biosphere - to explain the physiological functions of organisms. Many questions of biochemistry are of the same importance. The study of complex biological systems (biogeocenoses, biosphere) is associated with the need to acquire knowledge about the ways of exchanging information between individuals (chemical, optical, sound), but for this, again, it is necessary to use knowledge of physics and chemistry.

The use of interdisciplinary connections is one of the most difficult methodological tasks of a chemistry teacher. It requires knowledge of the content of programs and textbooks in other subjects. The implementation of interdisciplinary connections in the practice of teaching involves the cooperation of a chemistry teacher with teachers of other subjects.

A chemistry teacher develops an individual plan for the implementation of interdisciplinary connections in a chemistry course. The method of creative work of the teacher in this regard goes through the following stages:

• 1. Studying the program in chemistry, its section "Intersubject communications", programs and textbooks in other subjects, additional scientific, popular science and methodological literature;
• 2. Lesson planning of interdisciplinary connections using course and thematic plans;
• 3. Development of means and methods for implementing interdisciplinary connections in specific lessons (formulation of interdisciplinary cognitive tasks, homework, selection of additional literature for students, preparation of necessary textbooks and visual aids in other subjects, development of methodological methods for their use);
• 4. Development of a methodology for preparing and conducting complex forms organization of training (generalizing lessons with interdisciplinary connections, complex seminars, excursions, circle classes, electives on interdisciplinary topics, etc.);
• 5. Development of methods for monitoring and evaluating the results of the implementation of interdisciplinary connections in education (questions and tasks to identify students' skills to establish interdisciplinary connections).

Planning interdisciplinary connections allows the teacher to successfully implement their methodological, educational, developmental, educational and constructive functions; provide for all the variety of their types in the classroom, in the home and extracurricular work of students.

To establish interdisciplinary connections, it is necessary to select materials, that is, to identify those topics of chemistry that are closely intertwined with topics from courses in other subjects.

Course planning involves brief analysis the content of each educational topic of the course, taking into account intra-subject and inter-subject communications.

For the successful implementation of interdisciplinary connections, a teacher of chemistry, biology and physics must know and be able to:

cognitive component

• the content and structure of related courses;
• · coordinate the study of related subjects in time;
• Theoretical foundations of the problem of MPS (types of classifications of MPS, methods for their implementation, functions of MPS, main components of MPS, etc.);
• ensure continuity in the formation general concepts, the study of laws and theories; use common approaches to the formation of skills and abilities of educational work among students, continuity in their development;
• reveal the relationship of phenomena of different nature, studied by related subjects;
• · to formulate specific teaching and educational tasks based on the goals of the MPS of physics, chemistry, biology;
• analyze educational information related disciplines; the level of formation of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills of students; the effectiveness of the applied teaching methods, forms of training sessions, teaching aids based on the MPS.

structural component

• · to form a system of goals and objectives that contribute to the implementation of the MPS;
• · to plan teaching and educational work aimed at the implementation of the MPS; identify the educational and developmental opportunities of the MPS;
• · design the content of interdisciplinary and integrative lessons, comprehensive seminars, etc. Anticipate the difficulties and errors that students may encounter in the formation of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills;
• · to design methodological equipment of lessons, to choose the most rational forms and methods of teaching on the basis of MPS;
• plan various forms of organization of educational and cognitive activities; design didactic equipment for training sessions. Organizational Component
• organize educational and cognitive activities of students depending on the goals and objectives, on their individual features;
• · to form the cognitive interest of students in the subjects of the natural cycle on the basis of MPS;
• organize and manage the work of intersubject circles and electives; master the skills of NOT; methods of managing students' activities.

Communicative component

• The psychology of communication psychological and pedagogical foundations for the formation of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills; psychological characteristics of students;
• to navigate in psychological situations in the student team; establish interpersonal relationships in the classroom;
• · establish interpersonal relationships with teachers of related disciplines in the joint implementation of the MPS.

Orientation Component

• · theoretical bases of activity on establishment of MPS at studying of subjects of a natural cycle;
• · navigate the educational material of related disciplines; in the system of methods and forms of training that contribute to the successful implementation of the MPS.

Mobilization component

• adapt pedagogical technologies for the implementation of the MPS of physics, chemistry, biology; offer the author's or choose the most appropriate methodology for the formation of interdisciplinary knowledge and skills in the process of teaching physics, chemistry, biology;
• · develop author's or adapt traditional methods of solving problems of interdisciplinary content;
• · master the methodology of conducting complex forms of training sessions; be able to organize self-educational activities to master the technology of implementing MPS in teaching physics, chemistry and biology.

Research component

• · to analyze and summarize the experience of their work on the implementation of the MPS; generalize and implement the experience of their colleagues; conduct a pedagogical experiment, analyze their results;
• · to organize work on the methodological theme of the IPU.

This professiogram can be considered both as a basis for building the process of preparing teachers of physics, chemistry and biology for the implementation of the MPS, and as a criterion for assessing the quality of their training.

The use of interdisciplinary connections in the study of chemistry allows students to get acquainted with the subjects that they will study in senior courses from the first year: electrical engineering, management, economics, materials science, machine parts, industrial ecology, etc. By pointing out in chemistry lessons why and in what subjects students will need this or that knowledge, the teacher motivates the memorization of the material not only for one lesson, to get an assessment, but also changes the personal interests of students of non-chemical specialties.

Relationship between chemistry and physics

Along with the processes of differentiation of chemical science itself, chemistry is currently undergoing integration processes with other branches of natural science. The interrelations between physics and chemistry are developing especially intensively. This process is accompanied by the emergence of more and more related physical and chemical branches of knowledge.

The whole history of the interaction of chemistry and physics is full of examples of the exchange of ideas, objects and methods of research. At different stages of its development, physics supplied chemistry with concepts and theoretical concepts that had a strong impact on the development of chemistry. At the same time, the more complicated chemical research became, the more the equipment and calculation methods of physics penetrated into chemistry. The need to measure the thermal effects of the reaction, the development of spectral and X-ray structural analysis, the study of isotopes and radioactive chemical elements, crystal lattices of matter, molecular structures required the creation and led to the use of the most complex physical instruments - espectroscopes, mass spectrographs, diffraction gratings, electron microscopes, etc.

The development of modern science has confirmed the deep connection between physics and chemistry. This connection is of a genetic nature, that is, the formation of atoms of chemical elements, their combination into molecules of matter occurred at a certain stage in the development of the inorganic world. Also, this relationship is based on the commonality of the structure of specific types of matter, including the molecules of substances, which ultimately consist of the same chemical elements, atoms and elementary particles. The emergence of a chemical form of motion in nature caused the further development of ideas about electromagnetic interaction studied by physics. On the basis of the periodic law, progress is now being made not only in chemistry, but also in nuclear physics, on the border of which such mixed physico-chemical theories as the chemistry of isotopes and radiation chemistry arose.

Chemistry and physics study almost the same objects, but only each of them sees its own side in these objects, its own subject of study. So, the molecule is the subject of study not only of chemistry, but also molecular physics. If the former studies it from the point of view of the laws of formation, composition, chemical properties, bonds, conditions for its dissociation into constituent atoms, then the latter statistically studies the behavior of the masses of molecules, which determines thermal phenomena, various states of aggregation, transitions from gaseous to liquid and solid phases and vice versa, phenomena not associated with a change in the composition of molecules and their internal chemical structure. The accompaniment of each chemical reaction by the mechanical movement of the masses of the reactant molecules, the release or absorption of heat due to the breaking or formation of bonds in new molecules convincingly testify to the close relationship between chemical and physical phenomena. Thus, the energy of chemical processes is closely related to the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical reactions that release energy, usually in the form of heat and light, are called exothermic. There are also endothermic reactions that absorb energy. All of the above does not contradict the laws of thermodynamics: in the case of combustion, energy is released simultaneously with a decrease in internal energy systems. In endothermic reactions, the internal energy of the system increases due to the influx of heat. By measuring the amount of energy released during a reaction (the heat effect of a chemical reaction), one can judge the change in the internal energy of the system. It is measured in kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).

One more example. Hess' law is a special case of the first law of thermodynamics. It states that the thermal effect of a reaction depends only on the initial and final states of the substances and does not depend on the intermediate stages of the process. Hess's law makes it possible to calculate the thermal effect of a reaction in cases where its direct measurement is for some reason impossible.

With the advent of the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics and the theory of elementary particles, even deeper connections between physics and chemistry were revealed. It turned out that the key to explaining the essence of properties chemical compounds, the very mechanism of the transformation of substances lies in the structure of atoms, in the quantum mechanical processes of its elementary particles and especially the electrons of the outer shell. It was the latest physics that managed to solve such questions of chemistry as nature chemical bond, features of the chemical structure of molecules of organic and inorganic compounds, etc.

In the field of contact between physics and chemistry, such a relatively young branch of the main branches of chemistry as physical chemistry has arisen and is successfully developing, which took shape in late XIX in. as a result of successful attempts quantitative study physical properties of chemicals and mixtures, theoretical explanation of molecular structures. The experimental and theoretical basis for this was the work of D.I. Mendeleev (the discovery of the Periodic Law), Van't Hoff (the thermodynamics of chemical processes), S. Arrhenius (the theory of electrolytic dissociation), etc. The subject of her study was general theoretical questions concerning the structure and properties of molecules of chemical compounds, the processes of transformation of substances in connection with the mutual dependence of their physical properties, study of flow conditions chemical reactions and the resulting physical phenomena. Now physical chemistry is a diversified science that closely links physics and chemistry.

In physical chemistry itself, by now, electrochemistry, the study of solutions, photochemistry, and crystal chemistry have stood out and fully developed as independent sections with their own special methods and objects of study. At the beginning of the XX century. also stood out as an independent science that grew up in the depths of physical chemistry colloid chemistry. Since the second half of the XX century. due to intensive development of problems nuclear energy the newest branches of physical chemistry arose and received great development - high-energy chemistry, radiation chemistry (the subject of its study are reactions occurring under the action of ionizing radiation), and isotope chemistry.

Physical chemistry is now considered as the broadest general theoretical foundation of all chemical science. Many of her teachings and theories have great importance for the development of inorganic and especially organic chemistry. With the advent of physical chemistry, the study of matter began to be carried out not only by traditional chemical research methods, not only in terms of its composition and properties, but also in terms of the structure, thermodynamics and kinetics of the chemical process, as well as in terms of the connection and dependence of the latter on the impact of phenomena inherent in other forms of movement (light and radiation exposure, light and heat exposure, etc.).

It is noteworthy that in the first half of the XX century. there was a boundary line between chemistry and new branches of physics ( quantum mechanics, the electronic theory of atoms and molecules) is a science that later became known as chemical physics. She widely applied theoretical and experimental methods latest physics to the study of the structure of chemical elements and compounds, and especially the mechanism of reactions. Chemical physics studies the interconnection and mutual transition of the chemical and subatomic forms of the motion of matter.

In the hierarchy of basic sciences given by F. Engels, chemistry is directly adjacent to physics. This neighborhood provided the speed and depth with which many branches of physics fruitfully wedged into chemistry. Chemistry, on the one hand, borders on macroscopic physics - thermodynamics, physics continuous media, and on the other - with microphysics - static physics, quantum mechanics.

It is well known how fruitful these contacts were for chemistry. Thermodynamics gave rise to chemical thermodynamics - the study of chemical equilibrium. Static physics formed the basis of chemical kinetics - the doctrine of speeds chemical transformations. Quantum mechanics revealed the essence of Mendeleev's Periodic Law. The modern theory of chemical structure and reactivity is quantum chemistry, i.e. application of the principles of quantum mechanics to the study of molecules and "X transformations".

Another evidence of the fruitful influence of physics on chemical science is the ever-expanding use of physical methods in chemical research. The striking progress in this area is especially clearly seen in the example of spectroscopic methods. More recently from an infinite range electromagnetic radiation chemists used only a narrow region of the visible and adjacent regions of the infrared and ultraviolet ranges. The discovery by physicists of the phenomenon of magnetic resonance absorption led to the emergence of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, the most informative modern analytical method and method of studying electronic structure molecules, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, a unique method for studying unstable intermediate particles - free radicals. In the short-wavelength region of electromagnetic radiation, X-ray and gamma-ray resonance spectroscopy arose, due to the discovery of Mössbauer. The development of synchrotron radiation has opened up new prospects for the development of this high-energy branch of spectroscopy.

It would seem that the entire electromagnetic range has been mastered, and it is difficult to expect further progress in this area. However, lasers appeared - sources unique in their spectral intensity - and along with them fundamentally new analytical possibilities. Among them is laser magnetic resonance, a rapidly developing highly sensitive method for detecting radicals in a gas. Another, truly fantastic, possibility is the piecemeal registration of atoms with a laser - a technique based on selective excitation, which makes it possible to register only a few atoms of a foreign impurity in a cell. Striking possibilities for studying the mechanisms of radical reactions were provided by the discovery of the phenomenon of chemical polarization of nuclei.

Now it is difficult to name an area of ​​modern physics that would not directly or indirectly influence chemistry. Take, for example, the physics of unstable elementary particles, which is far from the world of molecules built from nuclei and electrons. It may seem surprising that special international conferences discuss the chemical behavior of atoms containing a positron or muon, which, in principle, cannot give stable compounds. However, the unique information about ultrafast reactions, which such atoms make it possible to obtain, fully justifies this interest.

Looking back at the history of the relationship between physics and chemistry, we see that physics has played an important, sometimes decisive role in the development of theoretical concepts and research methods in chemistry. The degree of recognition of this role can be assessed by viewing, for example, the list of laureates Nobel Prize in chemistry. At least one third of this list are the authors of the largest achievements in the field of physical chemistry. Among them are those who discovered radioactivity and isotopes (Rutherford, M. Curie, Soddy, Aston, Joliot-Curie, etc.), laid the foundations of quantum chemistry (Pauling and Mulliken) and modern chemical kinetics (Hinshelwood and Semenov), developed new physical methods (Debye, Geyerovsky, Eigen, Norrish and Porter, Herzberg).

Finally, one should keep in mind the decisive importance that the productivity of the scientist's labor begins to play in the development of science. Physical methods have played and continue to play a revolutionary role in chemistry in this respect. It suffices to compare, for example, the time that an organic chemist spent on establishing the structure of a synthesized compound by chemical means and that he spends now, owning an arsenal of physical methods. Undoubtedly, this reserve of applying the achievements of physics is far from being used sufficiently.

Let's sum up some results. We see that physics on an ever larger scale, and more and more fruitfully intrudes into chemistry. Physics reveals the essence of qualitative chemical regularities, supplies chemistry with perfect research tools. The relative volume of physical chemistry is growing, and there are no reasons that can slow down this growth.

Relationship between chemistry and biology

It is well known that for a long time chemistry and biology went their own way, although the long-standing dream of chemists was the creation of a living organism in the laboratory.

A sharp strengthening of the relationship between chemistry and biology occurred as a result of the creation of A.M. Butlerov's theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds. Guided by this theory, organic chemists entered into competition with nature. Subsequent generations of chemists showed great ingenuity, work, imagination and creative search for a directed synthesis of matter. Their intention was not only to imitate nature, they wanted to surpass it. And today we can confidently state that in many cases this has been achieved.

The progressive development of science in the 19th century, which led to the discovery of the structure of the atom and a detailed knowledge of the structure and composition of the cell, opened up practical opportunities for chemists and biologists to work together on the chemical problems of the doctrine of the cell, on questions about the nature of chemical processes in living tissues, on the conditionality of biological functions. chemical reactions.

If you look at the metabolism in the body with a purely chemical point vision, as did A.I. Oparin, we will see the totality a large number relatively simple and monotonous chemical reactions, which are combined with each other in time, do not occur randomly, but in strict sequence, resulting in the formation of long chains of reactions. And this order is naturally directed towards constant self-preservation and self-reproduction of the entire living system as a whole in given environmental conditions.

In a word, such specific properties of living things as growth, reproduction, mobility, excitability, the ability to respond to changes external environment, associated with certain complexes of chemical transformations.

The significance of chemistry among the sciences that study life is exceptionally great. It was chemistry that revealed the most important role of chlorophyll as chemical basis photosynthesis, hemoglobin as the basis of the respiration process, the chemical nature of the transmission of nervous excitation has been established, the structure of nucleic acids has been determined, etc. But the main thing is that, objectively, chemical mechanisms lie at the very basis of biological processes, the functions of living things. All the functions and processes occurring in a living organism can be expressed in the language of chemistry, in the form of specific chemical processes.

Of course, it would be wrong to reduce the phenomena of life to chemical processes. This would be a gross mechanistic simplification. And a clear evidence of this is the specificity of chemical processes in living systems in comparison with non-living ones. The study of this specificity reveals the unity and interrelation of the chemical and biological forms of the motion of matter. Other sciences that arose at the intersection of biology, chemistry and physics speak of the same: biochemistry is the science of metabolism and chemical processes in living organisms; bioorganic chemistry - the science of the structure, functions and ways of synthesis of compounds that make up living organisms; physico-chemical biology as a science of functioning complex systems information transfer and regulation of biological processes at the molecular level, as well as biophysics, biophysical chemistry and radiation biology.

The major achievements of this process were the identification of chemical products of cellular metabolism (metabolism in plants, animals, microorganisms), the establishment of biological pathways and cycles of biosynthesis of these products; their artificial synthesis was realized, the discovery of the material foundations of the regulatory and hereditary molecular mechanism was made, and the significance of chemical processes, the energy processes of the cell and living organisms in general, was clarified to a large extent.

Nowadays, for chemistry, the application of biological principles is becoming especially important, in which the experience of adapting living organisms to the conditions of the Earth over many millions of years, the experience of creating the most advanced mechanisms and processes is concentrated. There are already certain achievements along this path.

More than a century ago, scientists realized that the basis of the exceptional efficiency of biological processes is biocatalysis. Therefore, chemists set themselves the goal of creating a new chemistry based on the catalytic experience of living nature. A new control of chemical processes will appear in it, where the principles of the synthesis of similar molecules will be applied, catalysts will be created on the principle of enzymes with such a variety of qualities that will far surpass those existing in our industry.

Despite the fact that enzymes have common properties inherent in all catalysts, however, they are not identical to the latter, since they function within living systems. Therefore, all attempts to use the experience of living nature to accelerate chemical processes in the inorganic world face serious limitations. So far, we can only talk about modeling some of the functions of enzymes and using these models for the theoretical analysis of the activity of living systems, as well as the partial practical application of isolated enzymes to speed up some chemical reactions.

Here the most promising direction, obviously, are studies focused on the application of the principles of biocatalysis in chemistry and chemical technology, for which it is necessary to study the entire catalytic experience of living nature, including the experience of the formation of the enzyme itself, the cell, and even the organism.

The theory of self-development of elementary open catalytic systems, in general view put forward by Professor of Moscow State University A.P. Rudenko in 1964, is a general theory of chemical evolution and biogenesis. She solves questions about driving forces and the mechanisms of the evolutionary process, that is, the laws of chemical evolution, the selection of elements and structures and their causality, the height of chemical organization and the hierarchy of chemical systems as a consequence of evolution.

The theoretical core of this theory is the position that chemical evolution is a self-development of catalytic systems and, therefore, catalysts are the evolving substance. In the course of the reaction, there is a natural selection of those catalytic centers that have the greatest activity. Self-development, self-organization and self-complication of catalytic systems occurs due to the constant influx of transformable energy. And since the main source of energy is the basic reaction, the catalytic systems developing on the basis of exothermic reactions receive the maximum evolutionary advantages. Hence, the basic reaction is not only a source of energy, but also a tool for selecting the most progressive evolutionary changes in catalysts.

Developing these views, A.P. Rudenko formulated the basic law of chemical evolution, according to which top speed and the probability forms those paths of evolutionary changes of the catalyst, on which there is a maximum increase in its absolute activity.

A practical consequence of the theory of self-development of open catalytic systems is the so-called "non-stationary technology", that is, technology with changing reaction conditions. Today, researchers come to the conclusion that the stationary regime, the reliable stabilization of which seemed to be the key to the high efficiency of the industrial process, is only a special case of the non-stationary regime. At the same time, many non-stationary regimes were found that contribute to the intensification of the reaction.

At present, the prospects for the emergence and development of new chemistry are already visible, on the basis of which low-waste, waste-free and energy-saving industrial technologies will be created.

Today, chemists have come to the conclusion that, using the same principles on which the chemistry of organisms is built, in the future (without exactly repeating nature) it will be possible to build a fundamentally new chemistry, a new control of chemical processes, where the principles of synthesis of similar molecules will be applied. It is envisaged to create converters that use sunlight with high efficiency, converting it into chemical and electrical energy, as well as chemical energy into light of great intensity.

Conclusion

Modern chemistry is represented by many different directions in the development of knowledge about the nature of matter and methods of its transformation. At the same time, chemistry is not just a sum of knowledge about substances, but a highly ordered, constantly evolving system of knowledge that has its place among other natural sciences.

Chemistry studies the qualitative diversity of material carriers chemical phenomena, the chemical form of motion of matter. Although structurally it intersects in certain areas with physics, biology, and other natural sciences, it retains its specificity.

One of the most significant objective grounds for singling out chemistry as an independent natural science discipline is the recognition of the specificity of the chemistry of the relationship of substances, which manifests itself primarily in a complex of forces and various types of interactions that determine the existence of two and polyatomic compounds. This complex is usually characterized as a chemical bond that arises or breaks during the interaction of particles of the atomic level of the organization of matter. The appearance of a chemical bond is characterized by a significant redistribution of the electron density in comparison with the simple position of the electron density of unbound atoms or atomic fragments that are close to the bond distance. This feature most accurately separates the chemical bond from various manifestations of intermolecular interactions.

The ongoing steady increase in the role of chemistry as a science within the framework of natural science is accompanied by the rapid development of fundamental, complex and applied research, the accelerated development of new materials with desired properties and new processes in the field of production technology and processing of substances.

NATURAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITARIAN CULTURE

Culture is one of the most important characteristics of human life. Each individual is a complex biosocial system that exists through interaction with environment. The necessary natural connections with the environment determine its needs, which are important for its normal functioning, life and development. Most human needs are met through labor.

Thus, under the system of human culture, one can understand the world of things, objects created by man (his activity, labor) in his historical development. Leaving aside the question of the complexity and ambiguity of the concept of culture, we can dwell on one of its simplest definitions. Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by man, as well as the very human ability to produce and use these values.

As we can see, the concept of culture is very broad. It, in fact, covers an infinite number of the most diverse things and processes associated with human activity and its results. The diverse system of modern culture, depending on the goals of the activity, is usually divided into two large and closely related areas - material (scientific) and spiritual (humanitarian) culture. .

Subject area first - pure natural phenomena and properties, connections and relations of things, "working" in the world of human culture in the form of natural sciences, technical inventions and adaptations, production relations, etc. The second type of culture (humanitarian) covers the field of phenomena in which the properties, connections and relations of the people themselves, both social and spiritual (religion, morality, law, etc.) are represented.

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Phenomena human consciousness, psyches (thinking, knowledge, evaluation, will, feelings, experiences, etc.) belong to the world of the ideal, spiritual. Consciousness, spiritual is very important, but only one of the properties of a complex system, which is a person. However, a person must exist materially in order to manifest his ability to produce ideal, spiritual things. The material life of people is an area of ​​human activity that is associated with the production of objects, things that ensure the very existence, human life and satisfy his needs (food, clothing, housing, etc.).

For human history many generations created a colossal world of material culture. Houses, streets, plants, factories, transport, communication infrastructure, household institutions, the supply of food, clothing, etc. - all these are the most important indicators of the nature and level of development of society. Based on the remains of material culture, archaeologists manage to quite accurately determine the stages of historical development, the characteristics of societies, states, peoples, ethnic groups, and civilizations.

Spiritual culture is associated with activities aimed at satisfying not the material, but the spiritual needs of the individual, that is, the needs for development, improvement inner peace a person, his consciousness, psychology, thinking, knowledge, emotions, experiences, etc. The existence of spiritual needs distinguishes a person from an animal. These needs are satisfied in the course of not material, but spiritual production, in the process of spiritual activity.

The products of spiritual production are ideas, concepts, ideas, scientific hypotheses, theories, artistic images, moral standards and legal laws, religious beliefs etc., which are embodied in their special material carriers. Such carriers are language, books, works of art, graphics, drawings, etc.

Analysis of the system of spiritual culture as a whole makes it possible to single out the following main components: political consciousness, morality, art, religion, philosophy, legal awareness, and science. Each of these components has a specific subject, its own way of reflection, performs specific social functions in the life of society, contains cognitive and evaluative moments - a system of knowledge and a system of assessments.

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Science is one of the most important components of material and spiritual culture. Its special place in spiritual culture is determined by the value of knowledge in the way of being of a person in the world, in practice, material and objective transformation of the world.

Science is a historically established system of knowledge of the objective laws of the world. Scientific knowledge obtained on the basis of cognition methods tested by practice is expressed in various forms: in concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses, theories, a scientific picture of the world, etc. It makes it possible to predict and transform reality in the interests of society and man.

Modern science is a complex and diverse system of individual scientific disciplines, of which there are several thousand and which can be combined into two areas: fundamental and applied sciences.

Fundamental sciences aim at the knowledge of the objective laws of the world that exist regardless of the interests and needs of man. These include mathematical sciences, natural (mechanics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, geography, etc.), humanitarian (psychology, logic, linguistics, philology, etc.). Fundamental sciences are called fundamental because their conclusions, results, theories determine the content of the scientific picture of the world.

Applied sciences are aimed at developing ways to apply the knowledge obtained by fundamental sciences about the objective laws of the world to meet the needs and interests of people. Applied sciences include cybernetics, technical sciences (applied mechanics, technology of machines and mechanisms, strength of materials, metallurgy, mining, electrical engineering, nuclear energy, astronautics, etc.), agricultural, medical, and pedagogical sciences. In applied sciences, fundamental knowledge acquires practical significance, is used to develop the productive forces of society, improve the subject sphere of human existence, and material culture.

The concept of "two cultures" is widespread in science - the natural sciences and the humanities. According to the English historian and writer C. Snow, there is a huge gap between these cultures, and scientists studying the humanities and exact branches of knowledge increasingly do not understand each other (disputes between "physicists" and "lyricists").

There are two aspects to this problem. The first is connected with the patterns of interaction between science and art, the second - with the problem of the unity of science.

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In the system of spiritual culture, science and art do not exclude, but presuppose and complement each other where we are talking about the formation of a holistic, harmonious personality, about the completeness of the human worldview.

Natural science, being the basis of all knowledge, has always influenced the development humanities(through methodology, worldview ideas, images, ideas, etc.). Without the application of the methods of the natural sciences, the outstanding achievements of modern science about the origin of man and society, history, psychology, etc. would be unthinkable. New prospects for the mutual enrichment of natural science and humanitarian knowledge open up with the creation of the theory of self-organization - synergetics.

Thus, not the confrontation of different "cultures in science", but their close unity, interaction, interpenetration is a natural trend of modern scientific knowledge.

One of the sciences that combines the content of natural and social scientific disciplines is gerontology. This science studies the aging of living organisms, including humans.

On the one hand, the object of its study is wider than the object of many scientific disciplines that study man, and on the other hand, it coincides with their objects.

At the same time, gerontology focuses primarily on the aging process of living organisms in general and humans in particular, which is its subject. It is the consideration of the object and subject of study that makes it possible to see both the general and the specific of scientific disciplines that study a person.

Since the object of study of gerontology is living organisms in the process of their aging, we can say that this science is both a natural science and social science discipline. In the first case, its content is determined by the biological nature of organisms, in the second - by the biopsychosocial properties of a person, which are in dialectical unity, interaction and interpenetration.

One of the fundamental natural science disciplines that has a direct connection with social work (and, of course, with gerontology) is the medicine. This area of ​​science (and at the same time practical activity) is aimed at preserving and strengthening people's health, preventing and treating diseases. Having an extensive system of branches, medicine in its scientific and practical activities solves the problems of maintaining health and treating the elderly. Its contribution to this sacred cause is enormous, as evidenced by the practical experience of mankind.

It should also be noted that the special significance geriatrics as a branch of clinical medicine that studies the characteristics of diseases in elderly and senile people and develops methods for their treatment and prevention.

Both gerontology and medicine are based on knowledge biology as a set of sciences about living nature (a huge variety of extinct living beings that now inhabit the Earth), about their structure and functions, origin, distribution and development, relationships with each other and with inanimate nature. The data of biology are the natural scientific basis for the knowledge of nature and the place of man in it.

Of undoubted interest is the question about the ratio social work and rehabilitation, which is playing an increasingly important role in theoretical studies and practical activities. In its most general form, rehabilitationology can be defined as a doctrine, the science of rehabilitation as a rather capacious and complex process.

Rehabilitation (from Late Latin rehabilitation - restoration) means: firstly, the restoration of a good name, former reputation; restoration of former rights, including through administrative and judicial procedures (for example, the rehabilitation of the repressed); secondly, the application to the defendants (primarily to minors) of measures of an educational nature or punishments not related to deprivation of liberty, in order to correct them; thirdly, a set of medical, legal and other measures aimed at restoring or compensating for impaired body functions and the ability to work of patients and disabled people.

Unfortunately, representatives of industry-specific, specific scientific disciplines do not always indicate (and take into account) the latter type of rehabilitation. While social rehabilitation is of paramount importance in the life of people (restoration of basic social functions personality, public institution, social group, their social role as subjects of the main spheres of society). In terms of content, social rehabilitation, in essence, in a concentrated form, includes all aspects of rehabilitation. And in this case, it can be considered as social rehabilitation in a broad sense, i.e., including all types of people's life activities. Some researchers single out the so-called vocational rehabilitation, which is included in social rehabilitation. More precisely, this type of social and labor rehabilitation could be called.

Thus, rehabilitation is one of the most important areas, technologies in social work.

To clarify the relationship between social work and rehabilitation as scientific directions it is important to understand the object and subject of the latter.

The object of rehabilitation is certain groups of the population, individuals and layers that need to restore their rights, reputation, socialization and resocialization, restore health in general or impaired individual functions of the body. The subject of rehabilitation studies are the specific aspects of the rehabilitation of these groups, the study of the patterns of rehabilitation processes. Such an understanding of the object and subject of rehabilitology shows its close connection with social work, both as a science and as a specific type of practical activity.

Social work is the methodological basis of rehabilitology. Performing the function of developing and theoretically systematizing knowledge about the social sphere (together with sociology), analyzing existing forms and methods of social work, developing optimal technologies for solving social problems of various objects (individuals, families, groups, strata, communities of people), social work as a science contributes to - directly or indirectly - the solution of issues that are the essence, the content of rehabilitation.

The close connection between social work and rehabilitation as sciences is also determined by the fact that they are, in essence, interdisciplinary, universal in their content. This connection, by the way, at the Moscow State University of Service was also conditioned organizationally: in the framework of the Faculty of Social Work in 1999, a new department was opened - medical and psychological rehabilitation. Medico-psychological rehabilitation and now (after the transformation of the department) remains the most important structural unit of the Department of Psychology.

Speaking about the methodological role of social work in the formation and functioning of rehabilitation, one should also take into account the influence of knowledge in the field of rehabilitation on social work. This knowledge contributes not only to the concretization of the conceptual apparatus of social work, but also to the enrichment of understanding of those patterns that socionomes study and reveal.

Concerning technical sciences, then social work is associated with them through the process of informatization, because the collection, generalization and analysis of information in the field of social work is carried out using computer technology, and the dissemination, assimilation and application of knowledge and skills - other technical means, visual agitation, demonstration of various devices and devices , special clothing and footwear, etc., designed to facilitate self-service, movement along the street, housekeeping, etc. for certain categories of the population - pensioners, the disabled, etc.

Technical sciences are of great importance in creating an appropriate infrastructure that provides an opportunity to improve the efficiency of all types and areas of social work, including the infrastructure of various spheres of life as specific objects of social work.

One of the regularities in the development of natural science is the interaction of the natural sciences, the interconnection of all branches of natural science. Science is thus a single entity.

The main ways of interaction are the following:

The study of one subject at the same time by several sciences (for example, the study of man);

The use of one science of knowledge obtained by other sciences, for example, the achievements of physics are closely related to the development of astronomy, chemistry, mineralogy, mathematics and use the knowledge gained by these sciences;

Using the methods of one science to study objects and processes of another. A purely physical method - the method of "tagged atoms" - is widely used in biology, botany, medicine, etc. The electron microscope is used not only in physics: it is also necessary for the study of viruses. The phenomenon of paramagnetic resonance finds application in many branches of science. In many living objects, nature has purely physical tools, for example, a rattlesnake has an organ capable of perceiving infrared radiation and capturing temperature changes by a thousandth of a degree; the bat has an ultrasonic locator that allows it to navigate in space and not bump into the walls of the caves where it usually lives, etc.;

Interaction through technology and production, carried out where data from several sciences are used, for example, in instrument making, shipbuilding, space, automation, military industry, etc.;

Interaction through learning common properties various kinds matter, a vivid example of which is cybernetics - the science of control in complex dynamic systems of any nature (technical, biological, economic, social, administrative, etc.) that use feedback. The management process in them is carried out in accordance with the task and continues until the management goal is achieved.

In the process of development of human knowledge, science is increasingly differentiated into separate branches that study particular issues of multifaceted reality. On the other hand, science develops a unified picture of the world, reflecting the general patterns of its development, which leads to a broader synthesis of sciences, i.e. ever deeper understanding of nature. The unity of the world lies at the basis of the unity of the sciences, towards which the development of knowledge is ultimately directed at each individual coil of human knowledge. The path to the unity of sciences lies through the integration of its individual branches, which implies the integration of various theories and research methods. Thus, in the course of development modern sciences differentiation processes are intertwined with the processes of science integration: physics is subdivided into mechanics, and that, in turn, into kinematics, dynamics and statics; molecular, atomic, nuclear physics, thermodynamics, electricity, magnetism, optics, etc.; medical institutes train doctors of various specialties: therapists, surgeons, psychiatrists, cardiologists, ophthalmologists, urologists, etc. – the range of specializations is very wide, but any graduate of a medical institute is a doctor.

Differentiation scientific knowledge into separate areas prompts to identify the necessary connections between them. Many frontier sciences are emerging, for example, on the border between physics and chemistry, new branches of science have arisen: physical chemistry and chemical physics (in Moscow under Russian Academy Sciences (RAS) there are institutes of physical chemistry and chemical physics); on the border between biology and chemistry - biochemistry; biology and physics - biophysics. By virtue of the unity of science, the integration of principles in one of its areas is necessarily connected with the integration in another. Summarizing the above, we can state the fact that the differentiation and integration of natural science is an incomplete, open process. natural science is not closed system, and the question of the essence of natural science becomes clearer with each new discovery.

According to the General Systems Theory (GTS), the most important property of systems with a complex structure is their hierarchy (from the Greek hierarchia - ladder of subordination), characterized by the presence of subordination or subordination of its subsystems or structural levels. Hierarchy exists in the natural sciences as well. For the first time, it was pointed out by the French physicist André Ampère (1775-1836), who tried to find the principle of natural classification of all the natural sciences known in his time. He placed physics in first place as a more fundamental science.

Ideas about the subordination of the natural sciences are widely discussed today. At the same time, there are two areas in science: reductionism(from the Latin reduction - return), according to which everything "higher" is reduced to a simpler - "lower", i.e. all biological phenomena to chemical, and chemical to physical, and integratism(everything is vice versa).

The difference between reductionism and integratism lies only in the direction of movement of the scientist's thought. In addition, the hierarchy of the main natural sciences has a cyclically closed character. cyclicality is a property inherent in nature itself. Here are some examples: the circulation of substances in Nature, the change of day and night, the change of seasons, a plant, dying, leaves seeds on Earth, from which a new life then appears. Therefore, natural science, which has a single object of study - Nature, which has this property, also has it.

Science classification

It is convenient to classify the sciences according to the “world”, i.e., in which field of knowledge, science “acts”. Four such "worlds" can be distinguished: the world of ideas, the world of nature, the world of culture and the world of man (life, or practical). According to this criterion, sciences are grouped into four classes: intellectual science, natural science, cultural studies and praxeology.

Intellectualism as a subject uses the world of ideas, concepts of numbers, figures, values. These sciences include mathematics,

philosophy, theology, etc. The intellectual sciences do not set themselves any practical goal. The intellectual sciences "do not care" whether their results will be applied or not.

Natural science as a class of sciences is fundamentally different from intellectualism. His subject is nature, living and non-living. Natural science arises in the process of a person's collision with the surrounding reality. The basis of natural science is the experience that is gained by directly studying objects or phenomena. This experience cannot be gained by thinking.

Culturology combines social and historical sciences: sociology, history, ethnography, etc.

Praxeology combines sciences aimed at practical application, they are also called applied sciences. Applied physics, mathematics, chemistry, psychology, etc. apply the acquired knowledge wherever possible. Praxeology also includes economics, pedagogy, political science, jurisprudence and other sciences that implement generally accepted or significant values ​​with the help of scientific methods. Unlike natural science, praxeology is subjective - the application of knowledge can be the opposite. For example, chemical knowledge can be used to create modern drugs or, conversely, chemical weapons.

Place of chemistry among the natural sciences

Chemistry is one of the natural sciences, that is, the sciences that study the objects and phenomena of nature. All natural sciences study nature, but from different angles. So, for example, the same body can be studied by chemistry, physics, and astronomy. But for chemistry, first of all, it is important chemical composition body and the transformations that can happen to it. Since the nuclei of atoms do not change in chemical reactions, but only rearrangement occurs electronic structure atoms and molecules, then the following definition can be proposed for chemistry:

Chemistry is the science of the transformations of substances associated with changes in the electronic environment of atomic nuclei.

The constituent parts of chemicals are chemical particles: atoms, molecules and ions. Their dimensions are about 10 -10 -10 -6 m (Fig. 41.1, p. 236). Larger and smaller objects are studied by other natural sciences.

Chemistry, studying atoms, molecules, chemical substances and their interactions, must make full use of the laws of physics.

Rice. 41.1. Comparison of the sizes of natural objects and the sciences that study them

In turn, biology and geology, studying their objects, must also adopt chemical laws.

Back in the 18th century, the connection between chemistry and physics was noticed and used in his work by M. V. Lomonosov, who wrote: “A chemist without knowledge of physics is like a person who has to look for everything by touch. And these two sciences are so interconnected that they cannot be perfect without each other.

Structure of chemical science

In modern chemistry, at least five sections are distinguished: inorganic, organic, physical, analytical and macromolecular chemistry. Each of these sections is also divided into independent disciplines (Scheme 7). Sometimes also isolated general chemistry, the subject of which is closely related to inorganic chemistry: chemical elements, the simplest inorganic compounds formed by them, and general physical and chemical laws. However, there are no clear boundaries between individual sections.

Scheme 7. The structure of chemical science

Modern chemistry is characterized by integration with other sciences, thanks to which new sections of it arise.

Relationship between chemistry and physics

The interrelationships between chemistry and physics are developing especially intensively. At different stages of its development, physics was a source of various theoretical concepts for chemistry, exerting a significant influence on its development. The more complex chemical experiments became, the more equipment and physical research methods they required. To measure the thermal effects of reactions, conduct spectral and structural analysis, study isotopes and radioactive chemical elements, crystal lattices of substances, molecular structures, complex physical instruments are needed - spectroscopes, mass spectrographs, electron microscopes, etc.

Modern physics has contributed to the study of the nature of the chemical bond, the features of the chemical structure of the molecules of organic and inorganic compounds.

On the border of physics and chemistry, a new branch of chemistry arose - physical chemistry. The subject of its study is the structure and properties of the molecules of chemical compounds, the influence of various factors on the conditions for the occurrence of chemical reactions. Physical chemistry today is the general theoretical foundation of all chemical science. Her theories are of great importance for the development of inorganic and, especially, organic chemistry.

In the first half of the 20th century, a new branch of physics was formed - quantum mechanics, the electronic theory of atoms and molecules, which later became known as chemical physics. It studies the relationship and mutual transformations of chemical and subatomic forms of energy.

Relationship between chemistry and biology

The relationship between chemistry and biology was facilitated by the formation of organic chemistry. The development of science made it possible to study in detail the structure and composition of a living cell, chemical processes in living organisms, and made it possible to reveal the relationship between the biological functions of an organism and chemical reactions.

Such properties of living things as growth, reproduction, mobility, and the ability to respond to changes in the external environment are associated with certain complexes of chemical transformations in cells.

The importance of chemistry in biological research is extremely great. It was thanks to chemistry that the role of chlorophyll as the chemical basis of photosynthesis, hemoglobin as the basis of the respiration process was revealed. The chemical nature of the transmission of nervous excitation was elucidated, the structure of nucleic acids was determined, etc. It turned out that all the functions and processes occurring in a living organism can be expressed in the language of chemistry in the form of specific chemical reactions.

On the border of biology, chemistry and physics, the following sciences arose: biochemistry - the science of metabolism and chemical processes in living organisms; bioorganic chemistry - the science of the structure, functions and methods of synthesis of compounds that make up living organisms; physical and chemical biology is the science of the functioning of complex information transmission systems and the regulation of biological processes at the molecular level, as well as biophysics, biophysical chemistry and radiation biology.

Key Idea

All natural sciences study nature, but each in its own way. Only the unification of all knowledge together creates a complete picture of the world.

test questions

492. Give the definitions of the science of chemistry known to you. What is the subject of study of chemistry?

493. By what principle are modern sciences classified?

494. What sciences are natural?

495. What, in your opinion, is studied by biochemistry, cosmochemistry, geochemistry, agrochemistry, crystal chemistry and analytical chemistry?

496. What are the main tasks of chemistry?

497. Name what is the object of study: a) astronomy; b) biology; c) geography; d) physics. What is the connection between the subjects of study of these sciences and what chemistry studies?

498. What is the relationship between chemistry and other natural sciences?

499. Analyze fig. 41.1. Compare the sizes of the objects indicated on it with the sciences that study them. Give examples of objects that are simultaneously the subject of study of various natural sciences.

500. What do you think is the subject of study of the chemical disciplines listed in Scheme 7?

This is textbook material.