Introduction

Currently, interest in the problems of the complex world of art, the need to understand its place and role in the broad context of culture is gaining relevance. Orientation and value changes in modern history force a new attitude to science and culture, and in art to see not only a self-sufficient means of cognition of reality, but also a way of valuable comprehension of the world, the self-consciousness of culture. Baroque appeared in Italy at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, as a papal style. But soon the baroque became popular outside of Rome and the Vatican throughout Europe and lasted until the 18th century. It was used to decorate the palaces of noble families. In France, during the time of Louis XIV, the baroque was especially widespread.

The term "baroque" is translated as "bizarre, strange, artsy." Its origin is not entirely clear, in everyday life this word is still used as a synonym for strange, bizarre, unusual, pretentious, unnatural. This term was used by jewelers, denoting non-standard pearls that masters of the Baroque era knew how to use for decorative purposes. "Baroque time" includes many styles and trends (mannerism, classicism, baroque and rococo) and "baroque style". There must be something really bizarre and strange in this style, even if experts differ greatly in its assessment. Some believe that the art of the Baroque is wrong, inflated, cumbersome, contrary to the harmonious and life-affirming art of the Renaissance. Others see the grandiosity, plasticity, striving for beauty in the Baroque and therefore consider it rather a continuation of the Renaissance. There is a third opinion: the art of the baroque type is a late, crisis stage of different eras in artistic culture. At the same time, many scientists insist that the crisis stage of the Renaissance is not yet baroque, they give it a special name - mannerism. Nevertheless, even connoisseurs will not always decide with certainty whether the author belongs to the Renaissance, Mannerism or Baroque.

The work consists of introduction, main part, conclusion and bibliography.

1. Characteristics of the epochal Baroque style

"Everyone - style" - these words of the famous French scientist Buffon perfectly characterize the main aesthetic views of a person of the Baroque era. This style cannot be confused with any other style. Baroque- the embodiment of the era in which he appeared. Baroque combines two concepts, namely: style and lifestyle.

The culture of the 17th century embodies the complexity of this time. It is difficult to find a century that would give so many brilliant names in all areas of human culture. Europe 17th century - this is the era of manufactory production and the water wheel - the engine. The development of manufactory production gave rise to the need for scientific developments. Scientists such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler made fundamental changes in their views on biblical picture universe. In the developments of Leibniz, Newton, Pascal, the failure of medieval nature was revealed. All this allowed to make a lot of discoveries and inventions. Algebra and analytical geometry are created, open differential equations and integral calculus in mathematics, formed a number of important laws in physics, chemistry, astronomy.

For spiritual life Society XVII in. great importance had great geographical and natural scientific discoveries: the first voyage of Christopher Columbus to America, the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gamma, the circumnavigation of Magellan, the discovery of the movement of the Earth around the Sun by Copernicus, and the studies of Galileo. New knowledge destroyed the old ideas about the unchanging harmony of the world, about limited space and time, commensurate with man.

Formation of the historical Baroque style, primarily associated with the crisis of the ideals of the Italian Renaissance in the middle of the XVI century. and the rapidly changing "picture of the world" at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. At the same time, the new art of the Baroque style grew on the forms of Renaissance Classicism. The previous century in Italy was artistically so strong that its ideas, despite all the tragic collisions, could not suddenly disappear, they continued to have a significant impact on the minds of people. And the masterpieces of the art of the "High Renaissance" - the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael - seemed out of reach. This is the essence of all the contradictions of the "Baroque era". It was a time of painful changes in worldview, unexpected turns in human thought, partly caused by great geographical and natural scientific discoveries.

ideological basis new style there was a weakening of the spiritual culture and spiritual strength of religion, a split in the church (into Protestants and Catholics), the struggle of various creeds, reflecting the interests of various classes: Catholicism expressed feudal tendencies, Protestantism - bourgeois. At the same time, the state acquires a greater role, respectively, there was a struggle between religious and secular principles.

Worldview foundations of style formed as a result of shocks, which were in the XVI century. The Reformation and Copernicus. The notion of the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a most rational being, has changed. Man began to recognize himself as "something in between everything and nothing" in Pascal's words, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."

In 1445 I. Gutenberg laid the foundation for printing, in 1492 X. Columbus discovered America, Vasco da Gama in 1498 - the sea route to India. In 1519-1522. Magellan made the first round-the-world voyage, by 1533 Copernicus' discovery of the Earth's motion around the Sun began to gain recognition. The studies of Galileo, Kepler and Newtonian "celestial mechanics" destroyed the old habitual ideas about a closed and motionless world, in the center of which is the Earth and man himself. What used to seem absolutely clear, unshakable and eternal, began to literally crumble before our eyes. Until that time, a person, for example, was absolutely sure that the Earth is a flat saucer, and the Sun sets over its edge, which makes it dark at night. Now they began to convince that the Earth is not a pancake, but a ball, and even revolves around the Sun. This was contrary to visual impressions. The man continued to see as before: a flat, motionless earth and movement celestial bodies over your head. He felt the hardness of material objects, but scientists began to prove that this was just an appearance, but in fact - nothing more than a multitude of pulsating centers electrical forces. There was something to be confused about.

True, Kepler's laws were consistent with the Pythagorean theory of music Celestial Spheres, and Newton was in no hurry to make his discoveries public. But, one way or another, these sciences came into conflict with experience and the visible image of the world. There was an irrevocable psychological breakdown - the basis of the future Baroque style. At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII centuries. discoveries in the field of natural and exact sciences have significantly shaken the image of a complete, motionless and harmonious universe, in the center of which is the “crown of Creation” - man himself.

If quite recently, in the Renaissance, the humanist scientist Picodella Mirandola argued in his “Speech on the Dignity of Man” that man, located in the very center of the world, is omnipotent and can “survey everything and own whatever he wants,” then in the 17th century, C. Pascal wrote his famous words: a person is just a “thinking reed”, his fate is tragic, because, being on the verge of two abysses of “infinity and non-existence”, he is unable to grasp either one or the other with his mind, and turns out to be something in between everything and nothing. He captures only the appearance of phenomena, for he is unable to know either their beginning or end. And these are the words of a great mathematician! What contradictory judgments on the same subject! Even earlier, in the first third of the 16th century, people began to feel acutely the contradictions between appearance and knowledge, ideal and reality, illusion and truth. It was during these years that views were formed, according to which, the more implausible a work of art, the sharper it differs from what is observed in life, the more interesting and attractive it is from an artistic point of view.

On the territory of Italy, foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - begin to host. They dictate the terms of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural positions - it remains cultural center Europe. She is rich in spiritual powers. Power in culture was manifested by adaptation to new conditions. Rome is the center of the Catholic world. Thanks to these circumstances, the nobility and the church need everyone to see their strength and viability. There was no money for the construction of the palazzo, the nobility turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate is becoming popular, like this in the 16th century in Italy, Baroque .

The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. Everything that is "clear and distinct" is thought or has a mathematical expression is true, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word "baroque" is sometimes raised to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco. The first European park appears in Versailles, where the idea of ​​the forest is expressed in the utmost mathematical way: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and the trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. For the first time dressed in the uniform of the baroque army, much attention is paid to the "drill" - the geometric correctness of constructions on the parade ground.

Distinctive features baroque are spatial scope, pomp, splendor and luxury. Note that the variability and play of images of this style can be compared with a sea shell, after which this style was named. Exquisite luxury, splendor and superiority are returning to the decoration of houses after simplicity and minimalism in the decor of the premises.

The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - the promenade (walks in the park); instead of jousting tournaments - "carousels" (horseback rides) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade balls. You can add the appearance of swings and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons, and music turned from spiritual into a pleasant play of sound.

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).

Thus, the Baroque style slowly matured to explode unexpectedly. In this era, several opposing stylistic currents acted destructively, all of them were unstable and "did not correspond to reality." In this circumstance, the key to understanding the words of I. Grabar: "The High Renaissance is already three quarters of the Baroque." Every day it became clearer that Alberti was “not exactly what you need”, that even Bramante was already a little bit pedantic and “dry” and was not so fascinated by the abracadabra of the famous “golden cut” and the mathematics of proportions given in his facade “ Cancelleria.

And only when the frantic Michelangeloo opened his Sistine ceiling and took up the buildings of the Capitol, did everyone understand what each one was ill with and what he hid in his heart ... and new style- Baroque - was created.

2. Characteristics of the national Baroque style

In the 17th century, Rome was the capital of the world in the field of art, attracting artists from all over Europe, so Baroque art soon spread beyond the "eternal city". The Baroque style took its deepest roots outside of Italy in Catholic countries. In each Baroque country, art was fueled by local traditions. In some countries it became more extravagant, as, for example, in Spain and Latin America, where a style of architectural decoration called churrigueresco developed; in others it was toned down to suit more conservative tastes. The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France.

In Catholic Flanders Baroque art flourished in the work of Rubens, to Protestant Holland it had less of an impact. True, the mature works of Rembrandt, extremely lively and dynamic, are clearly marked by the influence of Baroque art.

In France it expressed itself most clearly in the service of the monarchy, and not of the church. Louis XIV understood the importance of art as a means of glorifying royalty. His adviser in this area was Charles Lebrun, who directed the painters and decorators who worked at Louis's palace at Versailles. Versailles, with its grandiose combination of opulent architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and landscape art, was one of the most impressive examples of the fusion of the arts.

For baroque architecture(L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia) are characterized by spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Baroque architecture gravitates towards a solemn "grand style", towards emphasized monumentality, is based on the idea of ​​complexity, diversity, variability of the world, reflects the greatness of the Pope and the Catholic Church, as well as the power and luxury of monarchs and large aristocracy. At this time, Catholic churches, urban and suburban palace and park ensembles are being erected - the square in front of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, country villas in Italy.

The main features of the buildings are a complex curvilinear plan and outlines of lines, whimsical plasticity of facades, the use of complex diverse and picturesque forms based on an oval, ellipse and semicircle, semicircular windows, torn gables, paired columns and pilasters, massive front staircases, the spatial scope of the complexes, the fusion of arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), decorative interiors, the use of mirrors in the design of premises. The order is used as a decorative plastic form along with sculpture. Properties of buildings - the ultimate picturesqueness (pretentiousness), contrast, tension, dynamism of images and the fluidity of complex usually curvilinear forms, the desire for deliberate splendor, to combine reality and illusion. There are often deployed large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, big number rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. Domes acquire complex shapes, often they are multi-tiered, like at St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

In Italian architecture the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna(1556-1629), who broke with mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the façade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to around 1620. The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Victoria (1645-1652). . The most prominent Italian contemporaries of Bernini during this mature Baroque period were the architect Borromini both artist and architect Pietro da Cortona. Somewhat later, Andrea del Pozzo (1642-1709) worked; the plafond painted by him in the church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome (the Apotheosis of St. Ignatius of Loyola) is the culmination of the Baroque trend towards pompous splendor. Spanish baroque, or according to the local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread in Latin America. His most popular monument is the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and they call it ultrabaroque . Baroque style in France expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to French and English Baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. In Belgium An outstanding baroque monument is the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels. The Rubens House in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features. Baroque in Russia appears as early as the 17th century (“Naryshkin Baroque”, “Golitsyn Baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, it was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini - the so-called "Petrine baroque" (more restrained), and reached its peak in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S.I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli. In Germany An outstanding baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I.G. Bühring, H.L. Manter) and the Summer Palace in the same place (G.W. von Knobelsdorff).

The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

Baroque style in painting characterized by the dynamism of the compositions, the "flatness" and pomp of forms, the aristocracy and originality of the plots. Plots based on a dramatic conflict prevailed - religious, mythological or allegorical in nature. Ceremonial portraits are created to decorate interiors.

A feature of the Baroque is not observing the Renaissance harmony for the sake of more emotional contact with the viewer. Compositional effects, expressed in bold contrasts of scales, colors, light and shadow, acquired great importance. But at the same time, baroque artists strive to achieve rhythmic and color unity, the picturesqueness of the whole.

At the origins of Baroque art in painting are two great Italian artists - Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci, who created the most significant works in the late 16th - early 17th centuries. Italian painting of the late 16th century is characterized by unnaturalness and stylistic uncertainty. Caravaggio and Carracci, with their art, restored her integrity and expressiveness.

In Italian painting of the Baroque era developed different genres, but mostly they were allegories, a mythological genre. Pietro da Cortona, Andrea del Pozzo, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, and the Carracci brothers succeeded in this direction. The Venetian school became famous, where the genre of veduta, or urban landscape, gained great popularity. The most famous author of such works is D.A. Canaletto. No less famous are Francesco Guardi and Bernardo Bellotto. Canaletto and Guardi painted views of Venice, while Bellotto (a student of Canaletto) worked in Germany. He owns many views of Dresden and other places. Salvator Rosa (Neapolitan school) and Alessandro Magnasco painted fantastic landscapes. The latter belongs to architectural views, and the French artist Hubert Robert, who worked at a time when interest in antiquity, in Roman ruins, flared up, is very close to him. In their works ruins, arches, colonnades, ancient temples are presented, but in a somewhat fantastic form, with exaggerations. Heroic canvases were painted by Domenichino, and picturesque parables by Domenico Fetti. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) at the beginning of the 17th century. studied in Italy, where he learned the style of Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing his course in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and the South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, learning and spirituality.

Michelangelo Merisi (Caravaggio) (1571-1610) is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The characters are depicted in twilight, from which the rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio adopted the riot of feelings and the characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in the depiction of people and events.

In France Baroque features are inherent in the ceremonial portraits of Iasent Rigaud. His most famous work is a portrait of Louis XIV. The work of Simon Vouet and Charles Lebrun, court painters who worked in the genre of ceremonial portraiture, is characterized as "baroque classicism". The real transformation of baroque into classicism is observed in the canvases of Nicolas Poussin. A more rigid, strict embodiment was given to the Baroque style in Spain, embodied in the works of such masters as Velasquez, Ribera and Zurbaran. They adhered to the principles of realism. By that time, Spain was experiencing its "Golden Age" in art, while being in economic and political decline.

For the art of Spain decorativeness, capriciousness, sophistication of forms, the dualism of the ideal and the real, the bodily and the ascetic, piling up and stinginess, the sublime and the ridiculous are characteristic. Among the representatives: Domenico Theotokopuli (El Greco). He was deeply religious, therefore, his art presents numerous variants of religious plots and festivities: “The Holy Family”, “The Apostles Peter and Paul”, “The Descent of the Holy Spirit”, “Christ on Shrovetide Mount”. El Greco was an excellent portrait painter - he interpreted what he portrayed as surreal, fantastic, imaginary. Hence the deformation of the figures (Gothic elements), extreme color contrasts with a predominance of dark colors, the play of chiaroscuro, a sense of movement. Diego Velasquez (1599-1660) - a great master of psychological portrait, painter of characters. His paintings are distinguished by the multi-figure complexity of compositions, multi-frame, extreme detail, and excellent mastery of color.

Heyday Flemish Baroque falls on 1 floor. XVII century. Rubens became the legislator in the new style. AT early period Baroque style is perceived by Rubens through the prism of Caravaggio's painting - "Exaltation of the Cross", "Descent from the Cross", "The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippe". The transition to the mature phase of the artist's work was a large order for a cycle of paintings "The Life of Marie Medici". The paintings are theatrical, allegorical, the manner of writing is expressive. Rubens demonstrates the incredible life-affirming power of the Baroque, his portraits, especially women's, open up this inexhaustible source of joy for him. In the last period of creativity, Rubens continues the theme of bacchanalia - "Bacchus" - a frankly bodily perception of life. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, van Dyck (1599-1641), achieved recognition.

With the work of Rubens, the new style came to Holland, where it was picked up by Frans Hals (1580/85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velasquez (1599-1660) worked in the style of Caravaggio, and in France, Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundations of a new trend in his work - classicism.

In Holland There were several schools of painting that united major masters and their followers: Franz Hals - in Haarlem, Rembrandt - in Amsterdam, Vermeer - in Delft. In the painting of this country, the baroque had a peculiar character, focusing not on the emotions of the audience, but on their calm, rational attitude to life. Rembrandt emphasized this in the following words: "Heaven, earth, sea, animals, people - all this serves for our exercise."

3. Characterization of individual styles

Baroque architecture is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Brilliant Center architecture baroque became Catholic Rome.

The Italian sculptor and architect is considered the "father of the Baroque". Michelangelo Buonarroti- Medici Chapel in Florence (1520-1534).

Great Michelangelo power and expression individual style in an instant destroyed all the usual ideas about the "rules" of drawing and composition. The mighty figures painted by him on the ceiling visually "destroyed" the pictorial space allotted for them; they did not fit either the scenario or the space of the architecture itself. Everything here was anti-classical. J. Vasari, the famous chronicler of the Renaissance, astonished as others, called this style "bizarre, out of the ordinary and new."

Other works of Michelangelo: the architectural ensemble of the Capitol in Rome, the interior of the Medici Chapel and the lobby of the library of San Lorenzo in Florence - showed classicist forms, but everything in them was embraced by extraordinary tension and excitement. Old elements of architecture were used in a new way, primarily not in accordance with their constructive function. So in the lobby of the library of San Lorenzo, Michelangelo did something completely inexplicable. The columns are doubled, but hidden in the recesses of the walls and do not support anything, so their capitals are some kind of strange endings. Volute-consoles hanging under them do not perform any function at all. There are imaginary, deaf windows on the walls. But most of all, the staircase of the lobby surprises. According to the witty remark of J. Burkhardt, "it is suitable only for those who want to break their necks." On the sides, where necessary, the stairs do not have railings. But they are in the middle, but too low to lean on. The outer steps are rounded with completely useless curls at the corners. By itself, the staircase fills almost everything free space lobby, which is generally contrary to common sense, she does not invite, but only blocks the entrance.

In the project of St. Peter's Cathedral (1546), Michelangelo, in contradiction to Bramante, who began construction, subordinated the entire architectural space to the central dome, making the structure dynamic. Bundles of pilasters, double columns, dome ribs depict a coordinated, powerful upward movement. In comparison with the sketches of Michelangelo, the executor of the project Giacomo della Porta in 1588-1590. strengthened this dynamics by sharpening the dome; he made it not hemispherical, as was customary in the art of the Renaissance, but elongated, parabolic.

The onset of the Baroque era meant the return of romance to the architecture of Christian churches. In this sense, O. Spengler’s statement about the evolution of Michelangelo’s work is noteworthy: “Out of the deepest dissatisfaction with the art on which he wasted his life, his eternally unsatisfied need for expression broke the architectonic canon of the Renaissance and created the Roman Baroque ... And in the person of Michelangelo, the sculptor” the history of European sculpture has ended. Really, Michelangelo - the true "father of the Baroque", since in his statues, buildings, drawings there is, at the same time, a return to the spiritual values ​​​​of the Middle Ages and a consistent discovery of new principles of shaping. This ingenious artist, having exhausted the possibilities of classical plasticity, in the late period of his work created previously unseen expressive forms. His titanic figures are depicted not according to the rules of plastic anatomy, which served as the norm for the same Michelangelo just some ten years ago, but according to other, irrational form-building forces, brought to life by the imagination of the artist himself.

One of the first signs of Baroque art: redundancy of means and confusion of scales. In the art of Classicism, all forms are clearly defined and delimited from each other. "Sistine Plafond" That's why Michelangelo is the first work of the Baroque style that in it there was a clash of figures drawn, but sculptural in palpability, and an incredible architectural framework painted on the ceiling, not at all consistent with the real space of architecture. The dimensions of the figures also mislead the viewer, they do not harmonize, but are dissonant even with the picturesque, illusory space created for them by the artist.

"Genius Baroque" J.L. Bernini (1598-1680). The largest architectural work of Bernini - the end of many years of construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome and the decoration of the square in front of him (1656-1667). In the interior of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, over the tomb of the Apostle Peter, he erected a huge, exorbitantly enlarged tent - a ciborium 29 m high (the height of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome). From a distance, a tent made of blackened and gilded bronze on four twisted columns with “curtains” and statues from the nave of the cathedral seems just a toy, a quirk of interior decoration. But close up, it stuns and overwhelms, turning out to be a colossus of inhuman proportions, which is why the dome above it seems as immeasurable as the sky.

Two mighty wings of the monumental colonnade, built according to his project, closed the vast expanse of the square. Diverging from the main, western facade of the cathedral, the colonnades first form a trapezoid shape, and then turn into a huge oval, emphasizing the special mobility of the composition, designed to organize the movement of mass processions. 284 columns and 80 columns 19 m high make up this four-row covered colonnade, 96 large statues crown its attic. As you move around the square and change your point of view, it seems that the columns move closer, then move apart, and the architectural ensemble seems to unfold in front of the viewer. Decorative elements are masterfully included in the design of the square: the unsteady strings of water from two fountains and a slender Egyptian obelisk between them, which accentuate the middle of the square. But in the words of Bernini himself, the square, “like open arms”, captures the viewer, directing his movement to the facade of the cathedral, decorated with grandiose added Corinthian columns, which rise and dominate all this solemn baroque ensemble. Emphasizing the spatiality of the overall solution of the complex square and the cathedral, Bernini also determined the main point of view on the cathedral, which is perceived from a distance in its majestic unity.

Bernini knew well and took into account the laws of optics and perspective. From a distant point of view, shortening in perspective, the colonnades of the trapezoidal square set at an angle are perceived as straight, and the oval square is perceived as a circle. The same properties of artificial perspective were skillfully applied in the construction of the main Royal Staircase connecting the Cathedral of St. Peter with the Papal Palace. It makes a grandiose impression thanks to the precisely calculated gradual narrowing of the flight of stairs, the coffered vault of the ceiling and the reduction of the columns framing it. By intensifying the effect of the perspective reduction of the staircase going deeper, Bernini achieved the illusion of an increase in the size of the staircase and its length.

In all its splendor, the skill of Bernini as a decorator manifested itself in the design of the interior of the Cathedral of St. Peter. He singled out the longitudinal axis of the cathedral and its center - the under-dome space with a luxurious, bronze ciborium (canopy, 1624-1633), in which there is not a single calm outline. All forms of this decorative structure are agitated. Twisted columns rise steeply to the dome of the cathedral; with the help of a textured variety, bronze imitates lush fabrics and fringe trim.

AT fine arts This period was dominated by plots based on dramatic conflict, - religious, mythological or allegorical. Ceremonial portraits are created to decorate interiors. A feature of the Baroque is the non-observance of Renaissance harmony for the sake of more emotional contact with the viewer. Compositional effects, expressed in bold contrasts of scales, colors, light and shadow, acquired great importance. But at the same time, baroque artists strive to achieve rhythmic and color unity, the picturesqueness of the whole. Baroque painting is characterized by dynamism, "flatness" and pomp of forms, the most character traits baroque - catchy flamboyance and dynamism; a striking example is Rubens, Caravaggio.

Rubens Peter Paul(1577-1640) - Flemish painter, draftsman, head of the Flemish school of Baroque painting. In life, Rubens embodied the baroque ideal of a virtuoso, focused on the outside of things, for whom the whole world was a stage. The contradictions of the Rubens era in painting reconciled seemingly irreconcilable opposites. His great intellect and powerful vital energy allowed him to create a holistic, unique style based on various borrowings, in which the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, learning and spirituality are wonderfully merged. His epic canvases thus define the scale and style of mature baroque painting. They are full of splashing, inexhaustible energy and ingenuity, and are, like his heroic nude figures, the personification of a sense of vitality. The depiction of such a rich being on such a grand scale required an expansion of the arena of action, which could only be provided by baroque with its theatricality - in the best sense of the word. The sense of drama was inherent in Rubens to the same extent as in Bernini. "The Exaltation of the Cross" - the first large altarpiece, testifies to how much he owed to Italian art. Muscular figures detailed to showcase them physical strength and passion of feelings, reminiscent of the images of the Sistine Chapel of Michelangelo and the gallery of the Palazzo Farnese Annibale Carracci, and in the manner of lighting the picture there is something from Caravaggio. Nevertheless, the success of the panel owes much to Rubens' amazing ability to combine Italian influences with Netherlandish ideas, giving them a modern sound in the process of creation. In scale and conception, the painting is more heroic than any other northern work, but still it is impossible to imagine its appearance without Rogier van der Weyden's Descent from the Cross.

Rubens is a Flemish realist who is equally attentive to the details of life, as can be seen from such details as the image of foliage, armor and a dog in the foreground. These diverse elements, brought together with the highest skill, form a composition of great dramatic power. An unstable, menacingly swaying pyramid of bodies in a typical Baroque manner breaks the limits of the frame, giving the viewer a sense of participation in this action.

In the 1620s, Rubens' dynamic style reached its pinnacle in huge decorative works commissioned by churches and palaces. The most famous cycle of paintings made by Rubens for the Luxembourg Palace in Paris and dedicated to the glorification life path Mary Medici, widow of Henry IV and mother of Louis XIII. Everything here is connected by a single rhythm of circular motion: heaven and earth, historical figures and allegorical characters, even drawing and painting, since Rubens used such pictorial sketches in preparing his compositions. Unlike artists of previous eras, he preferred to develop his paintings in regards to light and color from the very beginning (most of his drawings are figure studies or portrait sketches). Such a holistic vision, at the origins of which, although still without obvious achievements, stood the great Venetians, was the most valuable legacy of Rubens for painters of subsequent generations.

Michelangelo Merisi, who was nicknamed after his birthplace near Milan Caravaggio, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting.

Already in the first works performed in Rome, he appears as a bold innovator, he challenged the main artistic directions of that era - to mannerism and academism, opposing them with the harsh realism and democracy of his art. The hero of Caravaggio is a man from the street crowd, a Roman boy or youth, endowed with coarse sensual beauty and the naturalness of a thoughtlessly cheerful being; the hero of Caravaggio appears either in the role of a street vendor, a musician, an ingenuous dandy, listening to a crafty gypsy, or in the guise and with the attributes of the ancient god Bacchus. These inherently genre characters, flooded with bright light, are pushed close to the viewer, depicted with emphasized monumentality and plastic tangibility.

The period of creative maturity opens a cycle of monumental paintings dedicated to St. Matthew. In the first and most significant of them - "The Calling of the Apostle Matthew", - transferring the action of the gospel legend to a semi-basement room with bare walls and a wooden table, making people from the street crowd participate in it, Caravaggio at the same time built an emotionally strong dramaturgy of a great event - an invasion the light of Truth to the very bottom of life. The “cellar light”, penetrating into a dark room after Christ and St. Peter, highlights the figures of the people gathered around the table and at the same time emphasizes the miraculous nature of the appearance of Christ and St. Peter, his reality and at the same time unreality, snatching out of the darkness only part of the profile of Jesus, the thin brush of his outstretched hand, the yellow cloak of St. Peter, while their figures dimly appear from the shadows

His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which the rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. The art of Caravaggio had a huge influence on the work of not only many Italian, but also the leading Western European masters of the 17th century - Rubens, Jordans, Georges de Latour, Zurbaran, Velazquez, Rembrandt.

Thus, Baroque artists opened up to art new methods of spatial interpretation of form in its ever-changing life dynamics, and activated their life position. The unity of life in the sensual-bodily joy of being, in tragic conflicts, is the basis of beauty in baroque art.

Conclusion

Thus, Baroque is a characteristic of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, the center of which was Italy and then spread throughout Western Europe. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization".

Its appearance was a historically natural process, prepared by all previous development. The style found its implementation differently in different countries, revealing their national characteristics. At the same time had common features, typical for all European art and for all European culture:

1. Church dogmatism, which led to an increase in religiosity;

2. Increasing the role of the state, secularism, the struggle of two principles;

3. Increased emotionality, theatricality, exaggeration of everything;

4. Dynamics, impulsiveness;

5. Decorative, picturesque, excess of elements.

It would not be an exaggeration to say that "baroque" is one of the most frilly, opulent styles.

The baroque style is fully consistent with the lifestyle characteristic of that era. This is a style based on the use of classical order forms, brought into a state of dynamic tension, sometimes reaching convulsions.

The Baroque time contributed to the formation of national art schools with their own characteristics (Flanders, Holland, France, Italy, Spain, Germany).

List of sources used

1. Vlasov V.G. Styles in Art: Dictionary. - in 3 vols. T.1 / V.G. Vlasov. - St. Petersburg: Kolna, 1998. - 540 p.

2. Gombrich E. History of Art / E. Gombrich. - M.: AST, 2008. - 688 p.

3. Grushevitskaya T.G. Dictionary of World Artistic Culture / T.G. Grushevitskaya, M.A. Guzik, A.P. Sadokhin. - M.: Academy, 2001. - 408 p.

4. Dass F. Baroque. Architecture between 1600 and 1750 / F. Dass; per. from fr. E. Murashkintseva. - M.: AST, 2004. - 160 p.

5. Ilyina T.V. Art history. Western European Art: Textbook. - M. Higher. school, 2000. - 368 p.

6. Kagan M.S. Basics of the theory artistic culture: Textbook / M.S. Kagan, L.M. Mosolova, P.S. Sobolev; Under total ed. L.M. Mosolova. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 2001. - 288 p.

Application

Rice. 1 - Piazza in front of St. Peter's, designed by Lorenzo Bernini

Rice. 2 - Michelangelo. Fragment of the vault of the Sistine Chapel

ital. - whimsical) - a direction in art of the late XVI - ser. XVIII centuries, associated with the nobility and church culture of the period of absolutism, striving to reflect grandeur, splendor, splendor.

Great Definition

—

Incomplete definition ↓

BAROQUE

(Italian Barocco - pretentious, strange, bizarre) - one of the main artistic styles in the art of Europe and America at the end of the 16th - the middle of the 18th centuries, which is characterized by expressiveness, pomp, dynamics. The style originated in Italy, and then spread to several European countries. Many forms of art were influenced by this style, but it had the strongest influence on architecture, painting and sculpture. The main artistic goal of the Baroque was the desire to amaze the imagination and feelings of the audience, to evoke in them a sense of unusualness and surprise. This goal was achieved through contrasts, decorativeness, splendor and elegance, increased emotionality, expression and grace of forms.

Baroque art was based on some features of the art of the Renaissance - a life-affirming character, vigor, and a tendency to synthesize the arts. Therefore, the Baroque is characterized by a high degree of interpenetration of architecture, sculpture, and painting. This synthesis is a fundamental feature of the Baroque, which at the same time is characterized by contrast, tension, a fusion of illusion and reality, the sublime and everyday, the ideal and the material. Baroque art is also distinguished by pomp and exaltation of images.

The painting of this style was dominated by decorative compositions of a religious, mythological or allegorical nature, ceremonial portraits, in which the artists boldly used light contrasts and impressive compositions. At the same time, the rhythmic and color unity, the pictorial integrity of the composition, the free, temperamental creative manner of the artists were of great importance. The most famous representatives of this style in painting were M. Caravaggio, P. Rubens, D. Velasquez, Van Dyck, I. Nikitin, A. Antropov.

Baroque architecture is distinguished by its powerful spatial scope, the complexity of forms merging with each other, the curvilinear plans and outlines, and the connection with the surrounding space. Jewelry has become sophisticated. The space of the premises illusory expanded due to the restless play of chiaroscuro. It was in the Baroque era that urban and palace and park ensembles became widespread. Outstanding Baroque architects were L. Bernini, F. Borromini, G. Guarini, B. Rastrelli, D. Ukhtomsky, S. Chevakinsky. The architectural masterpieces of the Baroque include the Church of St. Charles Borromeo in Vienna, the Zwinger Palace in Dresden, the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, and the ensembles of Tsarskoye Selo.

In baroque music, it is characterized by an increase in dramatic sound, the expression of deep spiritual experiences of a person, and the establishment of new musical means. The formation of the baroque in music occurred with the help of the "Camerata" - an association of poets and musicians who sought to revive the ancient tragedy and embody its features in an opera in Florence. As a result, sonata, suite, as well as vocal genres - opera, oratorio, cantata - were developed in music. Among the most famous composers of the Baroque style are A. Vivaldi, J. S. Bach, G. Handel. Ter-min "baroque" received wide use thanks to the Swiss historian Jacob Burkhard, who in the 19th century. used it in a disparaging sense as "pretentious".

The masters of the Baroque era sought to synthesize various types of arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), to create an ensemble, which often included elements of wildlife, transformed by the artist’s imagination: water, vegetation, wild stones, thoughtful effects of natural and artificial lighting, which caused a flourishing garden architecture. The structure of the architectural order was preserved in the Baroque buildings, but instead of the clear orderliness, calmness and regularity characteristic of the classics, the forms became fluid, mobile, and acquired complex, curvilinear outlines. The straight lines of the cornices were "torn"; the walls were shattered by bundled columns and profuse sculptural decorations. Buildings and squares actively interacted with the surrounding space (D. L. Bernini. Ensemble of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, 1657-63; Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, 1653-58; F. Borromini. Church of San Carlo alle Cuatro Fontane in Rome, 1634-67; G. Guarino, Church of San Lorenzo in Turin, 1668-87).

Baroque sculpture is characterized by a special tactility, materiality in the interpretation of forms, virtuoso, reaching the illusory, demonstration of the texture of the depicted objects, the use various materials(bronze, gilding, multi-colored marbles), contrasts of light and shadow, violent emotions and movements, pathos of gestures and facial expressions (D. L. Bernini, brothers K. D. and E. K. Azam).

Baroque painting is characterized by monumentality and spectacular decorativeness, the neighborhood of the ideally sublime (the Carraci brothers, G. Reni, Guercino) and the mundane mundane (Caravaggio). Baroque principles were most fully manifested in magnificent formal portraits (A. Van Dyck, G. Rigaud); in luxurious still lifes, which showed the abundant gifts of nature (F. Snyders); in allegorical compositions, where the figures of rulers and nobles coexisted with images of ancient gods, personifying the virtues of those portrayed (P. P. Rubens). Plafond (ceiling) painting experienced a bright heyday (frescoes of the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome by A. del Pozzo, 1685-99; ceiling of the Barberini Palace in Rome by P. da Cortona, 1633-39; murals of the Palazzo Labia in Venice by G. B. Tiepolo, ca 1750). Baroque plafonds created the illusion of the disappearance of the roof, a “breakthrough” into the sky with swirling clouds, where crowds of mythological and biblical characters were carried away in a swift colorful whirlpool. The works of the greatest masters of the 17th century: D. Velasquez, Rembrandt, F. Hals, and others find contact with the Baroque style.

In Russia, baroque elements appeared later than in Europe - in the second half. 17th century - in the murals of Yaroslavl churches, in arts and crafts, in the buildings of the so-called. Naryshkin baroque, the traditions of which were developed in his work by I. P. Zarudny (“Menshikov Tower” in Moscow, 1704–07). An active penetration of style into Russian culture occurs with the beginning of the Petrine reforms in the first decades of the 18th century; in the 1760s baroque is replaced by classicism. At the invitation of Peter I, many foreign masters come to Russia: architects D. Trezzini, A. Schluter, G. I. Mattarnovi, N. Michetti, sculptors N. Pino, B. K. Rastrelli, painters I. G. Tannauer, L. Caravak, engravers A. Shkhonebek, P. Picard and others.

In accordance with Peter's personal tastes, visiting and domestic artists were guided mainly by a more restrained version of the baroque that had developed in Holland; Russian art remained alien to the mystical exaltation of the works of Italian masters. In Russia, baroque coexisted (and often intertwined) not with classicism, as was the case in Europe, but with the emerging rococo. Portrait became the leading genre of painting. The baroque style permeated the entire system of decorating holidays and celebrations of the early 18th century, which took shape in the reign of Peter I (illuminations, fireworks, erected from temporary materials triumphal arches richly decorated with decorative painting and sculpture). The leading baroque sculpture in Russia was the Italian B. K. Rastrelli. In his portraits and monuments, the solemn elation of the image, the complexity of the spatial composition are combined with jewelry subtlety in the execution of details (“Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child”, 1741). A vivid example of Baroque naturalism is the "Wax Person" of Peter I (1725), created by Rastrelli.

In Russian painting of the Petrine era (I. N. Nikitin, A. M. Matveev), the influence of the Baroque is felt in a special elation, increased internal energy portrait images.

The heyday of the Baroque in Russia fell on the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741–61). The most striking embodiment of style in architecture was the solemn, full of life-affirming pathos buildings created by B. F. Rastrelli (Winter Palace, 1732–33; palaces of M. I. Vorontsov, 1749–57, and S. G. Stroganov, 1752–54, in St. Petersburg). The grandiose garden and park ensembles in Peterhof (1747–52) and Tsarskoye Selo (1752–57) fully embodied the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts, and landscape art. Bright - blue, white, gold - the colors of the palace facades; the water cascades and fountains in the parks, with their incessant noise and the incessant movement of falling water, reflecting the glare of the sun during the day, and at night the ghostly fires of fireworks, all created a festive spectacle. In the church architecture of Rastrelli, the traditions of European baroque and ancient Russian architecture were combined (Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, 1748–54). Leading baroque architects of the mid-18th century. there were also S. I. Chevakinsky, who worked in St. Petersburg (Nikolsky Naval Cathedral, 1753–62), and D. V. Ukhtomsky, who built in Moscow (Red Gate, 1753–57).

In plafond painting, the most recognized masters were the Italians D. Valeriani and A. Perezinotti, who also successfully worked in the genre of theatrical and decorative art. In the work of Russian masters, the portrait remained the leading genre. In the works of A.P. Antropov, the baroque was embodied in the images of the portrayed, saturated with power and strength, the contrast of internal energy and external immobility, stiffness, in natural authenticity of individual, carefully written details, in bright, decorative colorfulness.

Russian engraving of the Baroque era (A.F. Zubov) combined rationalism, efficiency with showiness in depicting naval battles, solemn processions, and ceremonial views of the new capital of Russia. Engravers ser. 18th century often turned to the urban landscape (ceremonial views of St. Petersburg, made according to the originals of M. I. Makhaev), as well as to scientific, cognitive topics (artistic execution of architectural plans, geographical maps, projects for decorative design of triumphal gates, fireworks and illuminations, teaching aids, atlases and book illustrations). These graphic works combined documentary thoroughness in the image the smallest details and an abundance of decorative elements - cartouches with inscriptions, vignettes, rich and abundant ornamentation.

The Baroque style with its dynamic forms, contrasts and restless play of chiaroscuro comes to life again in the era of romanticism.

Great Definition

—

Incomplete definition ↓

Ticket 21

Baroque architecture and sculpture. The work of Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

The main features of the Baroque.

Baroque is a style in art, architecture, literature that originated in Italy.

Baroque combines two concepts: lifestyle and style. The main features of the Baroque are pomp and flamboyance, grandiosity and solemnity, luxury and magnificence.

This style is characterized by dynamics, intensity of feelings, tension and contrast, it combines reality with fantasy. Baroque inspired sensual-physical enjoyment of life.

Baroque style main features

The main features of the Baroque, perhaps, are dynamic forms and curved lines. It is characterized by contrasts of rhythms and scales, light and shadow, materials and textures. This style shows a passion for allegories, similitudes, complex metaphors and other expressive art forms.

Baroque architecture loses its harmonious balance, and the circle becomes an oval, the square becomes a rectangle, the centric is replaced by an extended one. Instead of balanced proportions, complex constructions and a variety of forms appear. At the same time, axes and symmetry dominate in Baroque architecture.

In the Baroque, a person appears as a multifaceted personality with a rich and complex inner world and dramatic experiences. Baroque art is characterized by the realism with which the person is depicted. Conflict, tension and movement abound in the Baroque. A striking example is the sculpture "The Rape of Proserpina" by Bernini.

It is a highly ornamental style with a strong harmonic basis.

It was distinguished by expressiveness, an abundance of decor, pomp and excess in everything. Painting, sculpture, architecture were combined into new spatial relationships, both real and illusory.

The baroque style has the following characteristic features:

Main themes - mythology and religion

The lexicon has been enriched with colloquial and foreign words

Use of complex metaphors and epithets

Visible dynamics

Use of contrasts

Variety of genres

Architectural structures are different from each other and have an individual style

Lots of jewelry and golden elements

The viewer must be amazed, surprised and enlightened by the work of art

Everything must be huge and magnificent

Almost no straight lines

An abundance of curved lines, rounded and wavy shapes

Monumentality

allegories

Oppositions

Emotionality and sensuality

Search for a person in the world, questions of being

Complex syntax

Unusual and unique

Acting and theatricality

Introduction.

AT modern world in almost all areas artistic activity already generated styles are used. So the Baroque style is used in a wide variety of arts and arts and crafts. For example, to this day, ornate patterns of the Baroque style are used in jewelry, ornaments and patterns are used when dyeing fabrics. A high level of use of baroque decor in interior decoration. The use of knowledge about the stylistic features of the Baroque can allow students to perform interesting tasks within a given style. For example, the creation of ornaments, compositions from plant elements, the use of these developments in modeling, embroidery, sewing dolls, decorating household items, clothes, furniture can develop and improve the skills of schoolchildren, and it is quite possible that even bring novelty to an already defined and formed style as baroque.

Definition

Baroque (Italian barocco, literally - bizarre, strange), one of the dominant styles in the architecture and art of Europe and Latin America in the late 16th - mid-18th century. Baroque embodied new ideas about the unity, infinity and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability; his aesthetics was built on the collision of man and the world, ideal and sensual principles, reason and irrationalism. Baroque art is characterized by grandiosity, pomp and dynamics, pathetic elation, intensity of feelings, addiction to spectacular entertainment, the combination of illusory and real, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow. In the Baroque era, the synthesis of arts acquired a comprehensive character: urban ensembles, palaces and churches, thanks to the bizarre plasticity of facades, the restless play of chiaroscuro, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, acquired picturesqueness and dynamism, as if flowing into the surrounding space; the interiors of buildings were decorated with multi-colored sculptures, moldings, carvings, mirrors and murals illusoryly expanded the space, and ceiling painting created the effect of yawning vaults. In the fine arts of the Baroque, the idealization of images is combined with unexpected compositional and optical effects, reality - with fantasy, religious affectation - with emphasized sensuality.

Prerequisites for the emergence and historical formation of the Baroque style

The formation of the historical Baroque style is primarily associated with the crisis of the ideals of the Italian Renaissance in the middle of the 16th century. and the rapidly changing "picture of the world" at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. At the same time, the new art of the Baroque style grew on the forms of Renaissance Classicism. The previous century in Italy was artistically so strong that its ideas, despite all the tragic collisions, could not suddenly disappear, they continued to have a significant impact on the minds of people. And the masterpieces of the art of the "High Renaissance" - the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael - seemed out of reach. This is the essence of all the contradictions of the "Baroque era". It was a time of painful changes in worldview, unexpected turns in human thought, partly caused by great geographical and natural scientific discoveries. The ideological basis of the new style was the weakening of the spiritual culture and spiritual strength of religion, the split of the church (into Protestants and Catholics), the struggle of various creeds, reflecting the interests of various classes: Catholicism expressed feudal tendencies, Protestantism - bourgeois. At the same time, the state acquires a greater role, respectively, there was a struggle between religious and secular principles. The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of a shock, as they were in the 16th century. The Reformation and Copernicus. The notion of the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a most rational being, has changed. Man began to recognize himself as "something in between everything and nothing" in Pascal's words, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end." In 1445 I. Gutenberg laid the foundation for printing, in 1492 X. Columbus discovered America, Vasco da Gama in 1498 - the sea route to India. In 1519-1522. Magellan made the first round-the-world voyage, by 1533 Copernicus' discovery of the Earth's motion around the Sun began to gain recognition. The studies of Galileo, Kepler and Newtonian "celestial mechanics" destroyed the old habitual ideas about a closed and motionless world, in the center of which is the Earth and man himself. What used to seem absolutely clear, unshakable and eternal, began to literally crumble before our eyes. The belief that the Earth is a ball, and even revolves around the Sun, contradicted visual impressions. The man continued to see as before: a flat motionless earth and the movement of celestial bodies above his head. He felt the hardness of material objects, but scientists began to prove that this was just an appearance, but in fact - nothing more than a multitude of pulsating centers of electrical forces. There was something to be confused about. But, one way or another, these sciences came into conflict with experience and the visible image of the world. There was an irrevocable psychological breakdown - the basis of the future Baroque style. At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII centuries. discoveries in the field of natural and exact sciences have significantly shaken the image of a complete, motionless and harmonious universe, in the center of which is the “crown of Creation” - man himself. If quite recently, in the Renaissance, the humanist scientist Picodella Mirandola argued in his “Speech on the Dignity of Man” that man, located in the very center of the world, is omnipotent and can “survey everything and own whatever he wants,” then in the 17th century, C. Pascal wrote his famous words: a person is just a “thinking reed”, his fate is tragic, because, being on the verge of two abysses of “infinity and non-existence”, he is unable to grasp either one or the other with his mind, and turns out to be something in between everything and nothing. He captures only the appearance of phenomena, for he is unable to know either their beginning or end. And these are the words of a great mathematician! What contradictory judgments on the same subject! Even earlier, in the first third of the 16th century, people began to feel acutely the contradictions between appearance and knowledge, ideal and reality, illusion and truth. It was during these years that views were formed, according to which, the more implausible a work of art, the sharper it differs from what is observed in life, the more interesting and attractive it is from an artistic point of view. On the territory of Italy, foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - begin to host. They dictate the conditions of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural positions - it remains the cultural center of Europe. She is rich in spiritual powers. Power in culture was manifested by adaptation to new conditions. Rome is the center of the Catholic world. Thanks to these circumstances, the nobility and the church need everyone to see their strength and viability. There was no money for the construction of the palazzo, the nobility turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate is becoming popular, and this is how Baroque appeared in Italy in the 16th century. The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. Everything that is "clear and distinct" is thought or has a mathematical expression is true, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment.

Characteristic features, the ideology of the Baroque style

The distinctive features of the Baroque are the spatial scope, splendor, splendor and luxury. Note that the variability and play of images of this style can be compared with a sea shell, after which this style was named. Exquisite splendor and superiority returns to the decoration of houses after simplicity and minimalism in the decor of the premises. The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - the promenade (walks in the park); instead of jousting tournaments - "carousels" (horseback rides) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade balls. You can add the appearance of swings and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons, and music turned from spiritual into a pleasant play of sound. Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music). In painting, the emotional, rhythmic and coloristic unity of the whole, the unconstrained freedom of the brushstroke, acquired great importance, in sculpture - the pictorial fluidity of form, a sense of the variability of the image. In the homeland of the Baroque, in Italy, this style found its most striking and complete embodiment in the works of the architect and sculptor Lorenzo Bernini, the architect Francesco Borromini, the painter Pietro da Cortona, full of religious and sensual affectation; later it evolved to the fantastical buildings of Guarini Guarino, the bravura painting of Salvatore Rosa and Alessandro Magnasco, the dizzying lightness of the paintings by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. In Flanders, in the paintings of such artists as Jan Siberechts, Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, David Teniers, and in Holland in the paintings of Rembrandt van Rijn, Gerard Terborch, Jan Vermeer, Gerrit van Honthorst, Hendrik Averkamp, ​​Frans Hals, Jacob Ruisdael, Pieter de Hooch, the emotionality and expression of the Baroque merged with a powerful life-affirming beginning. In Spain in the 17th century, some baroque features appeared in the ascetic architecture of Juan Bautista de Herrera, in the paintings of Diego Velasquez, Jusepe de Ribera and Francisco Zurbaran, in the sculpture of Juan Martinez Montañez; they reached extraordinary complexity and decorative sophistication in the 18th century in the buildings of José Benito Churriguera. Baroque received a peculiar interpretation in Austria (architects Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt, painter Franz Anton Maulberch) and the states of Germany (architects and sculptors Balthasar Neumann, Andreas Schlüter, Matthäus Daniel Pöppelman, the Azam brothers, the Dientzenhofer family of architects who also worked in the Czech Republic), as well as in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Russia and other European countries. In the first half of the 18th century, the baroque evolved to the graceful lightness of the rococo style, coexisted and intertwined with it, and from the 1770s it was everywhere replaced by classicism.

Spread of the Baroque

In the 17th century, Rome was the capital of the world in the field of art, attracting artists from all over Europe, so Baroque art soon spread beyond the "eternal city". The Baroque style took its deepest roots outside of Italy in Catholic countries. In each Baroque country, art was fueled by local traditions. In some countries it became more extravagant, as, for example, in Spain and Latin America, where a style of architectural decoration called churrigueresco developed; in others it was toned down to suit more conservative tastes. The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France. In Catholic Flanders, Baroque art flourished in the work of Rubens; in Protestant Holland, it had a less noticeable influence. True, the mature works of Rembrandt, extremely lively and dynamic, are clearly marked by the influence of Baroque art. In France it expressed itself most clearly in the service of the monarchy, and not of the church. Louis XIV understood the importance of art as a means of glorifying royalty. His adviser in this area was Charles Lebrun, who directed the painters and decorators who worked at Louis's palace at Versailles. Versailles, with its grandiose combination of opulent architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and landscape art, was one of the most impressive examples of the fusion of the arts.

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Baroque architecture gravitates towards a solemn "grand style", towards emphasized monumentality, is based on the idea of ​​complexity, diversity, variability of the world, reflects the greatness of the Pope and the Catholic Church, as well as the power and luxury of monarchs and large aristocracy. At this time, Catholic churches, urban and suburban palace and park ensembles are being erected - the square in front of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, country villas in Italy. The main features of the buildings are a complex curvilinear plan and outlines of lines, whimsical plasticity of facades, the use of complex diverse and picturesque forms based on an oval, ellipse and semicircle, semicircular windows, torn gables, paired columns and pilasters, massive front staircases, the spatial scope of the complexes, the fusion of arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), decorative interiors, the use of mirrors in the design of premises. The order is used as a decorative plastic form along with sculpture. Properties of buildings - the ultimate picturesqueness (pretentiousness), contrast, tension, dynamism of images and the fluidity of complex usually curvilinear forms, the desire for deliberate splendor, to combine reality and illusion. Large-scale colonnades are often found, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron. In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the façade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to around 1620. The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Victoria (1645-1652). . Bernini's most prominent Italian contemporaries during this mature Baroque period were the architect Borromini and the painter and architect Pietro da Cortona. Somewhat later, Andrea del Pozzo (1642-1709) worked. ); the plafond painted by him in the church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome (the Apotheosis of St. Ignatius of Loyola) is the culmination of the Baroque trend towards pompous splendor. Spanish baroque, or local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. His most popular monument is the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and it is called ultra-baroque. In France, the baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. In Belgium, the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels is an outstanding baroque monument. The Rubens House in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features. Baroque appeared in Russia as early as the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, it was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini - the so-called "Petrine baroque" (more restrained), and reached its peak in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S.I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli. In Germany, the outstanding baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I.G. Bühring, H.L. Manter) and the Summer Palace in the same place (G.W. von Knobelsdorff). The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

Baroque in painting

At the origins of the tradition of Baroque art in painting are two great Italian artists - Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci, who created the most significant works in the last decade of the 16th century - the first decade of the 17th century. Italian painting of the late 16th century is characterized by unnaturalness and stylistic uncertainty. Caravaggio and Carracci, with their art, restored her integrity and expressiveness. In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the façade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to around 1620. The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Victoria (1645-1652). . Michelangelo Merisi (Caravaggio) (1571-1610) is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The characters are depicted in twilight, from which the rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio adopted the riot of feelings and the characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in the depiction of people and events. The art of Spain is characterized by decorativeness, capriciousness, sophistication of forms, the dualism of the ideal and the real, the bodily and the ascetic, piling up and stinginess, the sublime and the ridiculous. Among the representatives of the Baroque in Spain: Domenico Theotokopuli (El Greco). He was deeply religious, therefore, his art presents numerous variants of religious plots and festivities: “The Holy Family”, “The Apostles Peter and Paul”, “The Descent of the Holy Spirit”, “Christ on Shrovetide Mount”. El Greco was an excellent portrait painter - he interpreted what he portrayed as surreal, fantastic, imaginary. Hence the deformation of the figures (Gothic elements), extreme color contrasts with a predominance of dark colors, the play of chiaroscuro, a sense of movement. Diego Velasquez (1599-1660) - a great master of psychological portrait, painter of characters. His paintings are distinguished by the multi-figure complexity of compositions, multi-frame, extreme detail, and excellent mastery of color. The heyday of the Flemish Baroque falls on the 1st floor. XVII century. Rubens became the legislator in the new style. In the early period, the Baroque style is perceived by Rubens through the prism of Caravaggio's painting - "Exaltation of the Cross", "Descent from the Cross", "The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippus". The transition to the mature phase of the artist's work was a large order for a cycle of paintings "The Life of Marie Medici". The paintings are theatrical, allegorical, the manner of writing is expressive. In the last period of creativity, Rubens continues the theme of bacchanalia - "Bacchus" - a frankly bodily perception of life. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, van Dyck (1599-1641), achieved recognition. With the work of Rubens, the new style came to Holland, where it was picked up by Frans Hals (1580/85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velasquez (1599-1660) worked in the style of Caravaggio, and in France, Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundations of a new trend in his work - classicism. In Holland, there were several schools of painting that united major masters and their followers: Franz Hals - in Haarlem, Rembrandt - in Amsterdam, Vermeer - in Delft. In the painting of this country, the baroque had a peculiar character, focusing not on the emotions of the audience, but on their calm, rational attitude to life. Rembrandt emphasized this in the following words: "Heaven, earth, sea, animals, people - all this serves for our exercise."

"Father of the Baroque"

The Italian sculptor and architect Michelangelo Buonarroti - the Medici Chapel in Florence (1520-1534) is considered the "father of the Baroque". The great Michelangelo, with the power and expression of his individual style, in an instant destroyed all the usual ideas about the "rules" of drawing and composition. The mighty figures painted by him on the ceiling visually "destroyed" the pictorial space allotted for them; they did not fit either the scenario or the space of the architecture itself. Everything here was anti-classical. J. Vasari, the famous chronicler of the Renaissance, astonished as others, called this style "bizarre, out of the ordinary and new." Other works of Michelangelo: the architectural ensemble of the Capitol in Rome, the interior of the Medici Chapel and the lobby of the library of San Lorenzo in Florence - showed classicist forms, but everything in them was embraced by extraordinary tension and excitement. Old elements of architecture were used in a new way, primarily not in accordance with their constructive function. So in the lobby of the library of San Lorenzo, Michelangelo did something completely inexplicable. The columns are doubled, but hidden in the recesses of the walls and do not support anything, so their capitals are some kind of strange endings. Volute-consoles hanging under them do not perform any function at all. There are imaginary, deaf windows on the walls. But most of all, the staircase of the lobby surprises. According to the witty remark of J. Burkhardt, "it is suitable only for those who want to break their necks." On the sides, where necessary, the stairs do not have railings. But they are in the middle, but too low to lean on. The outer steps are rounded with completely useless curls at the corners. By itself, the staircase fills almost all the free space of the lobby, which is generally contrary to common sense, it does not invite, but only blocks the entrance. In the project of St. Peter's Cathedral (1546), Michelangelo, in contradiction to Bramante, who began construction, subordinated the entire architectural space to the central dome, making the structure dynamic. Bundles of pilasters, double columns, dome ribs depict a coordinated, powerful upward movement. In comparison with the sketches of Michelangelo, the executor of the project Giacomo della Porta in 1588-1590. strengthened this dynamics by sharpening the dome; he made it not hemispherical, as was customary in the art of the Renaissance, but elongated, parabolic. Indeed, Michelangelo is the true "father of the Baroque", since in his statues, buildings, drawings there is, at the same time, a return to the spiritual values ​​​​of the Middle Ages and a consistent discovery of new principles of shaping. This ingenious artist, having exhausted the possibilities of classical plasticity, in the late period of his work created previously unseen expressive forms. His titanic figures are depicted not according to the rules of plastic anatomy, which served as the norm for the same Michelangelo just some ten years ago, but according to other, irrational form-building forces, brought to life by the imagination of the artist himself. One of the first signs of Baroque art: redundancy of means and confusion of scales. Michelangelo’s “Sistine Plafond” is therefore the first work of the Baroque style, because in it there was a clash of figures drawn, but sculptural in tangibility, and an incredible architectural frame painted on the ceiling, not at all consistent with the real space of architecture.

3) The Baroque style originated in France.

4) Baroque did not spread almost anywhere in Europe.

5) Michelangelo - "Father of the Baroque".

6) The Baroque style was formed in the 14th century.

4. The painting of which architectural object is shown in the picture?

5. Try painting your favorite flower or plant in the baroque style.

6. Find some baroque ornaments on your own and make your own pattern (As a homework)

Answers on questions

1. Baroque (Italian barocco, literally - bizarre, strange), one of the dominant styles in the architecture and art of Europe and Latin America in the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. to spectacular spectacle, the combination of illusory and real, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow.

2. The main historical event preceding the appearance of the Baroque was the era of Enlightenment. New discoveries changed the worldview in the art of the Renaissance. The inaccessibility of the works of Renaissance artists gave rise to a crisis in art, due to which the Baroque was formed as a style.

3. In Italy.

4. The art of the Baroque is characterized by grandiosity, pomp and dynamics, pathetic elation, intensity of feelings, addiction to spectacular entertainment, the combination of the illusory and the real, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow. Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and splendor, to combine reality and illusion.

5. Italian painting of the late 16th century is characterized by unnaturalness and stylistic uncertainty. Caravaggio and Carracci restored her integrity and expressiveness with their art. The art of Spain is characterized by decorativeness, capriciousness, sophistication of forms, the dualism of the ideal and the real, the bodily and ascetic, piling up and avarice, sublime and ridiculous.

6. Caravaggio, Carracci, El Greco, Michelangelo, Velasquez, Vermeer, van Dyck and others.

7. He was especially popular in Catholic countries, as well as in Latin America and almost all of Europe. France, Germany, Netherlands, Spain, Russia, etc.

8. Rebirth.

9. Rococo.

10 Michelangelo

Answers to tasks

1. 1 - Caravaggio. Position in the coffin.

3 - Jan Vermeer. Girl in a turban.

4 - Anthony van Dyck. Samson and Delilah.

2. Renaissance, baroque, rococo, classicism.

4. Painting of the Sistine Chapel.

5. Examples of patterns for completing the task.

Baroque (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “prone to excesses”, port. perola barroca - “pearl of irregular shape” - a characteristic of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries.

Baroque era

The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - the promenade (walks in the park); instead of jousting tournaments - "carousels" (horseback rides) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and a masquerade ball. You can add the appearance of swings and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons, and music turned from spiritual into a pleasant play of sound.

Baroque features

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music).

baroque man

Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, arrogance, tyranny, bestiality and ignorance. The Baroque woman cherishes the pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, frilly hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She is in heels.

And the ideal of a man in the Baroque era becomes a gentleman, a gentleman - from the English. gentle: “soft”, “gentle”, “calm”. He prefers to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and wear powdered wigs. Why force, if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket.

Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek discovers tiny living organisms under a microscope (1675). Huge sailboats plow the expanses of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on geographical maps peace. Travelers and adventurers become literary symbols of the era.

Baroque in sculpture

Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was an Italian Lorenzo Bernini(1598-1680). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as an altar group "The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved from marble and the clothes of characters fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.

In Spain, in the era of the Baroque style, wooden sculptures prevailed, for greater credibility they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often put on the statue.

Baroque in architecture

For baroque architecture ( L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy B. F. Rastrell and in Russia Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) are characterized by spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades are often found, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

Baroque in the interior

The baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury, although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.

Wall painting (one of the types of monumental painting) has been used in decorating European interiors since early Christian times. In the Baroque era, it was most widely used. The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: a ceiling decorated with frescoes, marble walls and parts of the decor, gilding. Color contrasts were characteristic - for example, the marble floor, decorated with tiles in a checkerboard pattern. Abundant gilded jewelry was a characteristic feature of this style.

Furniture was a piece of art, and was intended almost exclusively for interior decoration. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive, richly colored fabric. Huge beds with canopies and flowing down bedspreads, giant wardrobes were widespread. Mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture material.

Baroque style is not suitable for small spaces, as massive furniture and decorations take up a large amount of space.

baroque fashion

The fashion of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the period of the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. This is the age of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonial reigned at the court. The suit was subject to etiquette. France was a trendsetter in Europe, so other countries quickly adopted French fashion. This was the century when Europe established general fashion, and national features receded into the background or were preserved in the folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were also worn in Russia by some aristocrats, although not everywhere.

The costume was characterized by stiffness, splendor, an abundance of jewelry. The ideal of a man was Louis XIV, the "sun king", a skilled rider, dancer, shooter. He was short, so he wore high heels.

Baroque in painting

The Baroque style in painting is characterized by the dynamism of compositions, the “flatness” and pomp of forms, the aristocracy and originality of subjects. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are catchy flamboyance and dynamism; a prime example is creativity Rubens and Caravaggio.

Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), nicknamed after his birthplace near Milan Caravaggio, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which the rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggists, and the current itself was called caravagism, such as Annibale Carracci(1560-1609) or Guido Reni(1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and the characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in the depiction of people and events.

Peter Paul Rubens(1577-1640) at the beginning of the 17th century. studied in Italy, where he learned the manner Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing his course in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and the South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, scholarship and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque achieved international recognition, Van Dyck(1599-1641). With creativity Rubens the new style came to Holland, where it was picked up Frans Hals(1580/85-1666),Rembrandt(1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain in a manner Caravaggio created Diego Velazquez(1599-1660), and in France - Nicolas Poussin(1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the baroque school, laid the foundations of a new trend in his work - classicism.