The objective dialectic of society's self-development in the wealth of tendencies of spiritual life is comprehensively reflected in the system of concepts: "style", "direction", "flow", "method", "manner".

Modern aesthetic theory chooses the concept of "direction" as the starting point, seeing it as an effective means of systematizing art. It is able to reveal the dialectic of the typical and the individual, the universal and the special, mainly in the art of the New Age - a period when the individualization of the spiritual experience of mankind is extremely deepening, creating a wealth of directions, trends, stylistic manners in various types of art. The study of the problem occurs mainly on the material of the literature.

If we consider patterns artistic development during its long history, the more fruitful is the approach proposed at the time by G. Hegel. To systematize the patterns of the historical life of art, Hegel uses the concept of style. Style as a category of artistic creativity reflects the internal unity of the figurative system and means of artistic expression generated by the artistic idea and the practice of its sensual embodiment in the material of art. Hegel proves that style in art is a "volumetric" concept. It covers the specifics of art as a sensual embodiment of an idea, that is, its essential feature. The concept of "style" can also be extended to certain laws of artistic representation, arising from the nature of the type of art in which the image is presented. Say, in music there is a church and opera style, in painting - a style historical paintings and genre works and the like. The concept of "style" also comprehends the type of artistic thinking.

The system of concepts that reflects the historical life of society, embodied in the language of art, began to take shape in the 18th century. True, the concept of "style" has been known in European culture since antiquity. At first it was used in a purely philological sense - to explain the features of the construction of sentences in speech and writing. In this sense, it was rooted in the poetics and rhetoric of antiquity and the Middle Ages. The purpose of the style was to observe the proper phraseological turns and vocabulary, depending on the type of literature (the ancient doctrine of the three styles was preserved until the era of classicism). I. Winkelman applied it in a broader sense: to refer to the patterns of artistic development in general. F. Schiller (“Beautiful in Art”), following Winckelmann, connects the beauty of artistry with the presence of style, that is, he considers style as a type of artistic creativity. This concept comprehends the features artistic language, means of expression conditioned by the material of art and the subject of the image. In contrast to the subjectivism of the artist (manner), style is seen as the highest independence of the image from all subjective and objectively random definitions.

Romantics consciously strive to create a stylistic unity of art, relying, on the one hand, on the experience of classical Greece, and on the other, on folk art. In their work, style is recognized as the basis of artistry. Style is associated with the artist's individual work, but so individual in it, in which the artist's participation in the infinite, the divine is embodied. Romantic poets see prophets, foretell the liberation of mankind from oppressive reality by creating a "poetic world" (Novalis, Schlegel).

Hegel discovers what is natural in the development of art on the basis of the stylistic unity of its types. He considers style as the artistry of the image corresponds to the nature of the depicted and the nature of a certain type of art. The concept of style in this sense is opposed to manner. According to the philosopher, the manner arises due to the fact that the artist proceeds from his own whims, instead of observing the laws of artistic formation. Based on the history of the artistic development of mankind, he combines all the wealth of art into a certain system of creation. art forms. Therefore, their style features are placed in symbolic, classical, romantic forms.

In the future, it was on the basis of Hegel's ideas that the study of the patterns of artistic development was also carried out by well-known art historians (A. Wrigley "The Emergence of Baroque Art in Rome"; G. Wölfflin "Renaissance and Baroque", "Basic Concepts of Art History. The Problem of the Evolution of Style in New Art", V. Weidle "The Dying of Art" and others). In the work "Renaissance and Baroque" G. Wölfflin analyzes the style of epochs as historical and typological formations, successively replacing each other. V. Weidle connects particularly fruitful periods of the artistic development of society with the stylistic unity of art. He sees the origins of the common in artistic formation in the "psychology of the era." D. Likhachev concretizes this idea, believing that the concept of "style of epochs" characterizes those periods of artistic development when there are still no separate trends in art and individual styles artists, that is, styles are formed on the basis of artistic canons. Ukrainian researcher D. Nalivaiko characterizes style as a universal category of artistic creativity, emphasizing that it is not a form proper, and not a synthesis of forms, but "form-forming principles that permeate the structure of a work" . M. Kagan notes the objective certainty of the aesthetically artistic qualities of style: it is conditioned by a certain content, but itself is the quality of the form, the law of its structure.

The inclusiveness of art by the concept of "style" is manifested at several levels: firstly, at the level of the historical life of art (Large style); secondly, at the level of national originality of artistic life; thirdly, at the level of stylistic features of artistic trends and trends; fourthly, at the level of individual artistic styles. In the end, we can talk about the style of a single literary work.

Great styles in art. Style as a structural unity of the figurative system and methods of artistic representation, used to characterize the originality of the art of historical eras, is determined by the concept of large style. The integrity of the life of historical eras, centered around the symbols of universal indifference, is the basis for the creation of Great styles. In the symbolic imagery of the art of the Great Styles, what is essential in spiritual experience is reflected, that is, "what exactly consciousness considered absolute" (Hegel). Since the content of experience is embodied in symbols of universal indifference, they include the principle of their formation.

Given the laws of artistic shaping, the history of mankind can be divided into three stages. Historically, the earliest and longest - the stage of syncretic artistry. It began around 10 thousand years BC. e. and continued until the III-II millennium BC. e. in the regions of North Africa, Asia Minor, India, China, the Black Sea region (areas of the earliest development of culture). Elements of artistry at this stage are not separated from practical life-creation and have not received a specific type of activity, which is art. Characteristic of this stage is the penetration of figurative elements into different kinds practical activities. This is a phenomenon of symbolization of the content of activity and its consequences, a period of mythosvidomo with elements of artistry.

The second stage in the history of artistry is the era of artistic development proper. Its historical time - from the formation of the first states (Sh-P thousand BC) to late XIX in. This is the era in which artistry reaches its peak, is distinguished by a wealth of types, genres, stylistic diversity, a variety of trends, directions, methods. Art is interpreted during this period as the leading type of spiritual experience, it consolidates knowledge, practical skills, ideas about the world in a holistic, sensually perceived form. Artistry develops within the Great styles. According to Hegel's characterization, this is a symbolic, classical, romantic art form. Art within the framework of this stage is defined as the leading form of social consciousness, under the influence of which all the others (religious, moral, philosophical, political, etc.) are influenced.

The third stage is the stage of post artistry. It begins at the end of the 19th century. and is characterized by the destruction of the integrity of the image of the world, the loss of the spiritual certainty of the content and the artistic and figurative language of art, the dominance of the subjectivism of stylistic manners. That is, the essential certainty of art as a certain type of spiritual experience, embodied in a special, integral, artistic-figurative language, is lost. Consequently, art loses its significance as a spokesman and formative force of the spiritual experience of society and the individual. cognitive functions from art to science. The connection between art and practical shaping disappears. (It is replaced by aesthetic formation: the construction of objective forms). Art also loses its connection with morality, since the spiritual life of the individual ceases to be the main subject of artistic creativity. Spirituality, which was the main content of art at all times of its historical heyday, replaces entertainment as such. It appeals not to feelings, but to the emotional sphere of the subject, because it does not contain the need to comprehend the experiences of the subject of indifference. During this period, art finally loses its essential certainty - its artistic and figurative nature.

As already noted, the most fruitful stage in the history of the artistic development of mankind is the era of the Great Styles, which were invested in three main artistic forms: symbolic (the art of the early civilizations of the Middle East); classical (ancient Greek and Roman art); romantic (the art of European countries from the Middle Ages to the 19th century inclusive). Style-educational factors they have the originality of the connection between the idea (the content of art) and the form (sensual-figurative embodiment of the idea). This is the problem of the internal expediency of form, which organizes the development of the idea of ​​a work in all its vitality. The artistic form is designed to reveal the spirituality of the content, its expressive inner vitality - the expediency of just such a way of artistic existence. 3 Given the above, the art form is the main element in creating a style. It is a stable formation, comprehends the spirit of the times, the atmosphere of historical eras, fixing the repetitive in artistic images. The amplitude of the development of the form within the style occurs predominantly in the direction between more perfect and less perfect, that is, the problem is the level of skill, and not the way of seeing.

The originality of the form is due to its time: the lifestyle of the era. For example, the high ancient tragedy in the face of its outstanding representatives Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides reflects the Greeks' understanding of man as a "mortal god". Petty-bourgeois drama of the 18th century conveys not only the democratization of life, but also the narrowing of the scale of human character. The conflict acquires a local content, linking with the daily course of events. The inner world of the bourgeois personality is opposite to the high spiritual impulse, heroic and tragic pathos, characteristic of the ancient hero.

The spiritual basis for the creation of style is a universal over-personal idea. Due to the aesthetic certainty of its manifestation, it is contained in integral image-symbols. This is an idea that is able to acquire vitality, embodied in expressive, sensually perceived, artistically perfect ways of manifestation. The internal integrity of artistry in the day of the Great Styles is due to the integrity of the worldview on the basis of mythology (within the symbolic and classical art forms) and religion (romantic art form). The image of the world and human existence in them is "given" - determined by the content of faith. Therefore, large styles are cultural formations, which is a consequence of the emotionally indifferent, aesthetically determined attitude of large human communities to universal images of indifference (the gods of mythology and the gods of monotheistic religions). Reality appears in them not so much as an object of logical cognition and reflection (forms of relation that alienate the object of indifference from the sensual fullness of its being), but as an object of feelings.

The nature of the images "given" by myth or religious canon, leads to the canonicity of the artistic form. The efforts of the artist are aimed at creating an image consistent with the model. The canon as an aesthetic method of artistic shaping is organic for the Grand styles. It is intended to affirm the "eternal" nature of personal ideas that feed the spirit of the community. Formation within the canon leaves the spiritual essence of the image unchanged. Diversity is carried out mainly due to individual details that deepen the nuances of the relationship without changing their essence. Images in which creeds are embedded are perceived as inspired higher powers suggested by them.

Big style is an integral system capable of self-development. Hegel reveals the natural nature of the development of styles on the basis of the dialectical connection between the idea and the image, showing three types of relationship between the idea and its shaping. In symbolic art, the idea has not yet received a meaningful definiteness in itself. its abstractness leads to the accidental figurativeness of the artistic language. A striking example of this is the art of Ancient Egypt. For example, the figures of sphinxes (a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a man), being the personification of royal power, clearly testify to the conventionality of such a symbol, the abstractness of the form of embodiment of the idea.

The second form - the classical artistic style - eliminates the conventionality of symbolic imagery. It is characterized by the correspondence of the idea and the method of its artistic embodiment, namely: the idea of ​​perfection acquires an expressive, definite life in a human image. It is the most suitable content ideas. On this basis, Hegel rightly notes that it is precisely classical art that creates the completed ideal and allows one to contemplate it as realized. This is ancient Greek art. In it, the idea takes the form of the natural being of individual spirituality. These are the heroes of the tragedies of Behil, Sophocles, Euripides; heroes of sculptural works by Polikleitos, Phidias, Praxiteles, Agesander. In Greek sculpture of the classical era human body in its spirituality - a manifestation of the use of the human spirit: it occupies and organizes the matter of human life.

The third form - the romantic artistic style - breaks with the unity of the idea inherent in classical art and its sensual embodiment in figurative language. Recall that in the classical form of art, spiritual and sensual being arise as an ideal correspondence to each other. It is this vision that is objectionable in the Romantic art form. It reveals a new type of discrepancy between the artistic idea and its sensual embodiment. The spirit unfolds in him as the infinite subjectivity of the idea, cannot be adequately embodied as long as the bodily form is the only definite way of his being. The romantic style is characterized by a self-conscious inner life. In contrast to the sensual ideas about the forms of being of the spirit, characteristic of previous types of art, romantic art goes deep into the inner spiritual life and makes it its own material and content. The romantic form of art emerges as the most developed and sublime manifestation of the vitality of the spirit in its inexhaustible richness. This form is characterized by the fact that the subject of art represents "free concrete spirituality". It should serve as a subject for the "inner spiritual eye". That is, the vitality of the spirit must fit into a form that comprehends the richness of the nuances of its manifestation.

So, the dialectics of self-development of the three Great styles is characterized by the fact that the artistic movement is carried out through the negation of negation: the negation of previous forms, as those that have exhausted themselves, in order to deploy a new level of completeness of the embodiment of the idea in the figurative language of art. If symbolic art is characterized by the ignorance of the image to embody the idea as a result of the imperfection of the idea itself, then classical art is characterized by the unity of the idea and its sensual embodiment in the figurative language of art. The idea of ​​spirituality acquires here an adequate sensual embodiment in the perfect image of a person in the form of spiritualized corporality. The exhaustion of the latter gives rise to a new level of dialectical connection between the idea and the image in romantic art. Here the idea as spirit (universal essence) manifests itself as real being in its fullness in a certain life, capable of unfolding within itself and out of itself. Each of the named Great styles realizes the completeness of its idea in a certain kind of art: in a symbolic form it is architecture; in the classical - sculpture, in the romantic - painting, music and poetry.

Each of these historical forms of artistry goes through three main stages within itself, acquiring aesthetically defined qualities. First, the formation of ideas and forms; secondly, to find the most suitable figurative language, capable of unfolding the idea as fully as possible, its vitality; thirdly, the exhaustion of the possibilities for further development of the spirit in the artistic language of art due to the semantic exhaustion of the spirit itself. The general law of the historical life of art is artistically beautiful, which arises from spirituality, which has received sensual forms of its embodiment.

Let us dwell on some more specific manifestations of the dialectic of idea and image, characteristic of the Great styles. In symbolic art, of which Egyptian art is most vividly personified, almost every form is symbolic. Its vivid embodiment is the pyramids - huge crystals, inside of which is the "inner core" - the figure of the pharaoh (the pyramid protects it, highlighting it from naturalness as such). The symbolism of sculptural images is more developed. The Colossi of Memnon are massive sculptural images, the unruffled inner world of which is manifested not only in the static figures, but also in the absence of any spiritual movement in facial expressions. The symbolism of Egyptian art has a mysterious character, which is clearly expressed in the figure of the sphinx. Hegel notes that the image of the sphinx is "a symbol of symbolism itself". The human spirit here seeks to break out of the animal strength of the body, but does not reach the desired goal.

The classical style was formed on the basis of the idea of ​​the universality of public interests and the inner freedom of the individual in ancient Greek society. Compliance with the universal and the particular in spiritual experience was the basis for a harmonious worldview. The harmony of the worldview can be traced in all works where freedom is conscious and has acquired certainty in its essence. The ideal of classical art acts as the highest manifestation of beauty in the form of a plastic individuality, spiritually defined and rich. Greek people"I realized in the face of the gods in a sensual, contemplative, apparent form my spirit and roof to these gods with the help of the art of existence, quite commensurate with the true meaning," notes G. Hegel. This is a spirit that has received the true form of its being. There is no internal movement in the image, which means that there is no movement of artistic forms that have received complete content. That is why the Greek religion, according to G. Hegel, is "the religion of art itself."

The increased dominance of the idea over the image in romantic art predetermines the peculiarities of its stylistic development. Beauty in the Middle Ages is represented as a spiritual substance, the essence of which is not recognizable. In objectivity, it manifests itself only as a reflection of the highest divine beauty. In different types of art there is a concretization of the highest divine beauty. Accordingly, the deployment of its image has several levels. The first is the rooting of the spirit in the massive architectural forms of Gothic cathedrals (XII-XV centuries). In the stylistic features of architecture there is a direct form of creating an image of spiritual elevation: in the form of a gothic building directed to the vertical. In the richness of its decor, the richness of the nuances of feelings is reproduced. They are conditioned by the experiences of one's own sinfulness, imperfection, and are fully revealed to a person in front of the image of the absolute perfection of the God-man. The second level is the manifestation of spirituality in sensually given picturesque images (XIII-XVI centuries). It is in romantic art that the spirit appears in the image of the one God, the one spirit, as absolute subjectivity. If it did not receive a sensually perceived image, it would be accessible only to thinking. Thanks to the sensual embodiment of the absolute in the human image, the real individual subject with its inner vitality acquires value. In his inner world, eternal moments of absolute truth acquire life, which is true precisely as spirit. The idea of ​​spirituality, which is the basis of pictorial art, focuses it on revealing the richness of the human spiritual world. The face in the uniqueness of her image appears as the main subject of painting, unfolding with an inexhaustible wealth of manifestations of the vitality of the spirit. The art of the Renaissance is the period of the highest flowering of painting (fresco, easel), taking into account the grandeur, titanism of images (works by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Titian, Durer, etc.).

The third level is the manifestation of the spirit in the developed musical language (XVII-XIX centuries). Here he reigns more and more clearly over the "matter" of the image. Self-affirmation of the spirit as a harmonizing force of the world is carried out at this stage by means of rhythm, melody, harmony. Music as an art, not only in content, but also in form, is subjective as such. Sound as an objective way of existence of music is intended to reproduce not objectivity, like, say, painting, but the world of human feelings. Music is how the most intimate manifestations of the self-existence of the spirit unfold in its ideal self-organization in the subject. The peculiarity of music as a spiritual phenomenon lies in the fact that it is able to turn the element of feelings into harmonious feelings, thanks to a melodic, rhythmically organized language sounds. Music is the soul that sounds, inspiring sounds, putting them into a free coordinated unity, thanks to which they acquire spiritual fullness. Like architecture, music takes its forms not from the natural world, but from "spiritual fiction".

On the one hand, music is subject to the harmonious laws of sound, based on quantitative relationships, and on the other hand, thanks to their development and repetition of beat and rhythm, it forms regular and symmetrical forms. In general, however, music is characterized by a freer development of the spirit through the world of harmoniously organized musical sounds than, say, sculpture or painting allows. In this aspect, poetry is close to musical art, the material of which is also sounds.

The fourth level of romantic art is romantic poetry (fits into the same historical boundaries as romantic music). its material is the poetic word. Like music, unfolds the spirit of the symbolic forms of regularly organized sounds, forming the "soul of sounds", the language of poetry is purely symbolic. The subject of poetry is the inner life of the spirit turned to itself. In the field of inner life in the forms of imagination, contemplation, feelings, poetry creates a wide objective world in the unity of events, moods, reflections, and the like. The subject of poetry is spirituality as such, that is, the life of the spirit is valuable in itself. In poetry, spiritual forms, that is, internal representation and contemplation, form the material of artistic formation, while, say, in sculpture it is marble or bronze, in painting - colors, in music - sounds, etc. The universality of poetic language is determined by the possibilities of various types of poetry. in their genre, wealth.

So, in the Romantic art style, as in the earlier Great styles of art, there is an internal subordination of species. It reflects the general trend of artistic development in historical development, namely: ever deeper deployment of the spiritual principle given its meaningful depth and spirituality of the form.

National artistic style is a special kind of style creation. Large styles are to a certain extent associated with the national style. This concept comprehends and concretizes the originality of spiritual experience. individual peoples and cultures. The richness, diversity and originality of national styles creates diversity artistic culture humanity. The formation of national styles has begun - this is the period of the formation of ethnic cultures. peoples ancient world, in which the formation of statehood relied on religion and art, created a large style, coinciding with the concept of "national style" ( Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, China, etc.). In other nations, in which the process of artistic shaping was NOT superimposed on the strong foundations of statehood, the style did not receive clearly defined features, since it did not have the opportunity to unfold at several levels of spiritual experience and gain a foothold in the richness of artistic forms. Nevertheless, each ethno-national culture has its own individual and unique features of spiritual experience, fixed in the language of art, forming a national artistic style.

Ethno-national styles have at their origins the spiritual foundations of the practical life-creation of ethnic groups. They reflect the originality of the practical and spiritual experience of relations with nature, relations within communities, the originality of beliefs, rituals, traditions, etc. The ethno-national style is manifested in all types of shaping, and not only in artistic formation as such. Ethno-national style is a way and an opportunity to conclude all the practical and spiritual achievements of the people, "encoding" them with a symbolic artistic language in the system of images of archetypes. Their secret meaning is clear only to the bearers of this type of experience and serves as a manifestation of their spiritual relationship. For an individual, it is a significant factor in identifying oneself with the mental whole. Therefore, each nation enters the culture of mankind with its own unique image of the world. Ethno-national style is the initial (initial) form of individualization of the image of the world - at the level of an ethnos as a spiritually undifferentiated whole.

The next level of individualization is the work of artists with their unique artistic and figurative thinking, and, consequently, their individual artistic style. In their work there are also features of value representations of the national-mental image of the world. The uniqueness of the aesthetic image of the people, the nation is fixed in the work of brilliant artists who "collect" the mental experience into an aesthetically defined integrity and give it an artistically perfect way of translating it into the language of art. The concept of "national style" is not identical with the concept of "folk art". In modern aesthetic theory, the concept of "folk art" is used to refer to "residual" forms of artistry (folklore, arts and crafts), in contrast to the developed forms of professional art. National style is a concept that occupies all the richness of artistic phenomena, both folk and professional art. The basis of stylistic unity is folk art, folk forms of artistry.

Folk art is based on a mythopoetic worldview. it is characterized by the syncretism of forms and the repetition of motifs. Their objective certainty lies in the uniqueness of practical experience. Here is the basis of originality. For example, for the peoples of the northern latitudes, white is a symbol of light, purity, and heavenly powers. The symbol of evil forces is black. For the Egyptians, black, on the contrary, personifies the forces of goodness, because it is associated with the color of fertile silt from the Nile River, and therefore, prosperity and life.

Saturation of life with symbolic artistic-figurative language is a way to create mentally comfortable conditions for survival and deployment of relations with the outside world and ordering mental structures (organizing them) with the content of experience within the social whole. The internal kinship of the subjects of experience expresses itself in the language by the nature of sound formation, the mode-intonation structure in music, the plasticity of movements in dance, and the like. Ethno-national spiritual experience sets the rhythm of life processes for a person from the first days of birth. It determines the way to respond to the phenomena of the surrounding world.

So, the national style is an aesthetic category that reflects the spiritually-forming foundations folk life, enclosed in sensually perceived subject-figurative forms, acquire artistic perfection in the work of professional artists. Professional art and folk art correlate as special and general. In folk artistry (namely, artistry, and not only in folk art) in a folded form, the available spiritual sources of creativity of professional artists. In professional artistic activity ethnic artistry unfolds implicitly by the richness of forms of imagery present in it. In the constancy of the forms of folk art, a vital pattern is displayed: experimental knowledge and artistic skills are consolidated, defined as appropriate in terms of quality and perfect in form.

Personal art style. The stylistic richness of art and its individual originality are defined as the spiritual achievement of mankind, primarily European, since the era of modern times. Its formation is a long process, it declares itself already in the Renaissance. Neither the formation of the stylistic richness of art within specific historical eras was influenced by a number of factors. In particular, the interest in art of wealthy circles of society and their tastes in a certain way affected artistic creativity. On the other hand, and this was a decisive factor, a creative person, whose role in society is growing significantly, begins to realize the importance of his talent, and then, the value of his own creative skills. Brilliant artists overcome artistic canons, unfolding in creativity with a wealth of themes of ideas and artistic skill.

The creative search of an individual artist is recognized and encouraged by society. The subject of artistic creativity is also expanding. If in the Middle Ages art mainly serves the needs of a religious cult, then in the Renaissance it acquires a secular character. Even in the works, recognized as them for cult needs, secular motifs become dominant. For example, in the fresco painting of the outstanding Italian Giotto (beginning of the 14th century), the three-dimensional image of space, the presence of plastic color harmony becomes characteristic. His work destroys the medieval artistic canon and the Byzantine-Italian tradition. In his work, artistic tasks acquire an intrinsic value. A vivid example of such harmony is, in particular, the Padua cycle Lamentation of Christ.

In creativity outstanding artists The revival of religious and mythological themes becomes the subject of cultural transformation. This is the overcoming of medieval canonical painting with an individual artistic style (Italian, and then German, Spanish artists, etc.). From the second third of the XVI century. the unique spiritual world of the individual becomes the dominant sphere of creative interest, which leads to the flourishing of portrait art and causes the "modernization" of traditional mythological and religious subjects, in particular, about providing them with vitality.

In aesthetic theory, the problem of the individualization of artistic creativity has become relevant since the 19th century, due to the collapse of the Great Styles and the diversity of individual artistic styles and manners. Comprehending the foundations of the stylistic richness of creativity, researchers discover the following pattern: the essence of the depicted has to reveal not only the content of the work, but also the ways of artistic formation. That is, the logic of the inner life of images should fit into convenient forms and methods of vitality. This idea was well outlined by the famous French artist M.-K. Latour (XVIII century). Asserting the objective grounds for the individualization of the artistic style, he writes: "... How I would like the manner and pictorial techniques in the paintings to be as different as objects in nature itself are different: I would also like our poets to diversify their style in accordance with the characters: sublime, excited verse - for Hercules, grandiloquent - for heroes, majestic - for big people, awesome - for thieves, soft, smooth, light, gentle - according to the named female characters. "So, M.-K. Latour sets out a whole program of diversity in the stylistic manner of each artist and each artwork. To use the language of the subject of the image is a requirement of modern art. It is due to the interest in the objective qualities of phenomena and the increased interest of art, in particular painting, natural philosophy and the natural sciences.

On another aspect of this problem, Hegel emphasizes: he sees the true objectivity of art not in the objectivity of the world, but in the subjectivity of the artist, he is an intermediary between reality and the aesthetic revelation of the laws of the vitality of phenomena. These opinions do not contradict each other. Hegel showed that the uniqueness of the creative individuality of the artist is manifested in the ability to conclude the universal laws of the vitality of the phenomena of the world in the individual uniqueness of their embodiment in the figurative language of art.

Justification by artists of aesthetic programs for the purpose of artistic display, and then the foundations of style creation, has been updated since the second half of the 19th century. During this period, the discrepancy between the declared ideas of the artistry of art, artistic truth, expressiveness of artistic forms and depth of content of works, on the one hand, and real artistic practice, on the other, increases. For example, the French painter A. Derain, presenting his artistic program, emphasizes the importance of finding artistic means rendering products of internal expediency. His thoughts sound distinctly: “The only correct style is the one that makes you forget the techniques used, which is so appropriate that you don’t notice it ... A good style is that which is absorbed by expressiveness.” As a negative phenomenon in the style of creation, he considers "the disguise of banality under originality." At the same time, the constant change of artistic movements (pointillism, fauvism, cubism, etc.), in which A. Derain works, shows that he is not able to find an individual artistic style.

At the beginning of the XX century. another trend in art manifests itself: the denial of style, the rejection of the sensual givenness of images, that is, the denial of the figurativeness of artistic language. Such aesthetic principles are declared by cubism (founder Picasso, 1908). Criticizing the aesthetic positions and stylistic features of cubism, the famous French sculptor A. Maillol writes: "Cubists claim that they strive for art purified from sensuality ... What nonsense! Art is sensuality itself."

The type of artistic individualization is determined by the nature of the era, the content of its aesthetic ideal. Let's say, a kind of manifestation of the individual principle of goodness in the days of the Middle Ages. Analyzing the sculptures of the Reims Cathedral, M. Alpatov notes that, on the one hand, in their faces there is a pronounced depth of experience and individual uniqueness of fig. However, despite all the diversity of their states, all images are marked with "impersonal expressiveness". An in-depth soul life does not reveal their identity, does not include them in the real world. On the contrary, it draws them into the transcendent direction that permeates the entire cathedral. That is, the connection between the figures does not have a direct life meaning, but is "beyond the limits of directly sensory perceptions.

In the further development of history, the phenomenon of individualization manifests itself in the forms of subjectivation of spiritual experience. It tends to oppose the individual to the general, to the point of ignoring the spiritual acquired by mankind (moral, aesthetically artistic). Shakespeare's characters are already among the many random relationships and conditions within which one can do tai or otherwise. Therefore, the conflict caused by external conditions, essentially focuses on the character of the hero. Passionate individuals act according to their character, not taking into account the justification of his goals, and therefore, "they are what they are."

Objectivity in this context means the artist's ability to walk through the internal logic of the development of spiritual phenomena and provide them with expressive forms of vitality. That is, the artist does not put himself forward and asserts himself in the image, but speaks "in the language of the subject of indifference", providing him with convenient, organic forms of the phenomenon. At the same time, the individuality of the artist is not lost. On the contrary, the object reveals itself to its qualities precisely to him, to his indifferent attitude. So, in art, from the side of the subject of reflection, individualization is manifested in the uniqueness of the image of the deployment of its qualities. From the side of the artist - in the provision of form, it most clearly expresses the unique vitality of the subject as it was revealed to the artist. Individual style, as well as art as a whole, is characterized by the subordination of all elements of the work to the logic of the artistic whole. Style is a “certain law” that unites elements, provides the whole with its integrity, makes it necessary precisely such details of the style system. Therefore, it is correct to define style as "the embodiment of the unity and integrity of all components of the content form of the work" .

So, under the conditions of individualization of spiritual experience, perfection is possible not only as expressive manifestations of life, but also as a manifestation of the aesthetic ability of duties to "collect" reality into a holistic, expressive vitality and present it within the limits of an artistic whole - a concrete work of art. The formative power of talent is at the same time the source of the integrity of life and its artistic perfection. Therefore, art becomes a spiritual reality, focuses on the ideal and forms the consciousness of the public, not allowing the image of perfection to be lost. Each really great artist is characterized by a stylistic originality of creativity. Moreover, it can be traced even when the subject of the image requires "to speak its language." For example, a pronounced stylistic originality distinguishes the works of W. Shakespeare and Cervantes; I. Goethe and F. Schiller; O. Balzac and G. Flaubert; Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy; I. Franko and Lesya Ukrainian.

The complexity of the process of creating an image of integrity in artistic formation is manifested in the increased subjectivism of creativity, which is typical for the art of modernism, especially postmodernism. The latter testifies to itself by the deformation of the image, the loss of the artistry of the language, and then the loss of the spiritual essence of creativity. The destruction of the aesthetic expressiveness of natural forms, the loss of the spirituality of human relations is not only a manifestation of the artist's creative impotence. This is the reality of relations in which spiritual principles are lost, and their formalized manifestations arise as the only truth of life. The world has lost for artists the richness of the colors of its vitality and appears in modern times only as some formal construction, usually devoid of internal logic and random in relation to the forms of its existence as a whole. Subjectivism in the forms of profanation of artistry is a manifestation of the general spiritual crisis of modern humanity.

The concept of "art", types of art. Style and canon in art.

The concept of "art"

Art(lat. experimentum - experience, test) - one of the forms of social consciousness, an integral part of the spiritual culture of mankind, a specific kind of practical-spiritual development of the world.

Art -

1) Figurative comprehension of reality.

2) The process or result of expressing the inner or outer world of the creator in an artistic image.

3) Creative activity aimed at creating works of art.

4) Skill, ability, dexterity, dexterity, developed by knowledge of the matter.

Art and art history as an object of study.

History of arts - art studies that study the development of arts from the time of their inception to the present day.

Art history is a complex of sciences that study art and art. the culture of society as a whole, certain types of art and their relationship to reality, the totality of questions of the form and content of works of art. Art history includes theory and history of art, as well as art criticism.

The first attempts to create a theory of art were made in ancient times, for example, by Plato and Aristotle. Among the works of ancient scientists there are practical guides to art (Vitruvius), and descriptions of artistic monuments (Pausanias, Philostratus). An extensive treatise on ancient art was written by Pliny the Elder. A number of works in this direction appeared in the Renaissance. The most famous treatises and "Biographies of the most famous painters, sculptors and architects" by Giorgio Vasari.

A systematic study of works of art, which provides for an independent branch of science, appeared relatively recently. One of the first on this subject was the work of I. Winkelman "History of the Art of the Ancient World." A valuable contribution to the development of this science was made by Western European enlighteners of the 18th century. Denis Diderot, G. E. Lessing and others.

In the XIX-XX centuries. art history has been widely developed, a number of schools and trends have developed in science. Fundamental research in the field of art history was carried out by Wilhelm Lübke, Anton Springer, Karl Wermann (Germany), Eugene Viollet-le-Duc, Gaston Maspero (France), Jacob Burckhardt (Switzerland).

Theorists at all times have seen in art a phenomenon that has different, depending on the specific concept, functions and properties.

Functions of art: educational, aesthetic, relaxation, educational, communicative.

Concepts: art theory, art history, art criticism.

The theory of art is the language of science, which is called "art science".

History of art - art studies that study the development of arts from the time of their inception to the present day.

Art criticism is the interpretation and evaluation of predominantly contemporary works, new phenomena and trends in the visual arts.

Kinds of art

There are spatial arts (painting, graphics, sculpture, decorative arts, architecture), temporal (music, verbal art) and synthetic, spatio-temporal (theater, cinema, dance).

Different types of classification of the system of arts, unity and differences.

Each of these types forms "families" of art within which varieties or genera can be distinguished. In the spatial arts, three types are distinguished: easel (easel painting, easel graphics, etc.), monumental (monumental sculpture, wall painting, etc.) and applied (typical mass architecture, small plastic, miniature painting, industrial graphics,

poster, etc.). From the point of view of the theory of signs, in which it is embodied and through which it is communicated artistic image viewers and listeners, the arts are fine (painting, graphics, sculpture, etc.), expressive (music, dance, architecture, etc.) and verbal (literature), as well as mixed (theatre, cinema, etc.).

Types and types of art include various types of works based on common features, that is, genres. The principle of distinguishing genres is thematic: everyday, adventurous, historical, love, battle, still life, portrait, landscape, etc.. Another basis for division is the leading aesthetic and emotional dominant (tragedy, comedy, farce, melodrama, ode, etc.) , the type of composition (sonnet, rondo, triptych, etc.) or the volume and general structure of the work (novel, story, short story, miniature, epic, etc.). Genres historically form, develop, die off. In different eras and in different artistic directions, the boundaries between genres are more strict (for example, in classicism), in others they are less (romanticism) or even conditional (realism). In contemporary art, there is a tendency to deny the genre as a stable form of artistic creativity (postmodernism).

Style and canon in art

Canon (translated from Greek - Rule, sample) - the norms of composition and color, the system of proportions, the iconography of a given type of image or another normative sample. The canon sets a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a particular era. A work that serves as a normative model is called a canon.

The canons associated with religious prescriptions dominated the art of Ancient Egypt and the Middle Ages. The creative people of Antiquity and the Renaissance tried to find the ideal proportions of the human body and derive unchanging, mathematically based rules for constructing a human figure.

The concept of style in art

Style is a set of features that characterize the art of a certain time, direction or individual style of the creator.

Style is a set of spiritual principles for constructing a work, selecting and pairing language units, which determines the type of cultural integrity.

Patterns of style formation

The characteristic features of a certain time and place, manifested in the features of the functional, constructive and artistic sides, form the architectural style. The development of architectural styles depends on climatic, technical, religious and cultural factors. Styles do not always replace each other consistently, the simultaneous coexistence of styles as alternatives to each other is known (for example, baroque and classicism, modernity and eclecticism, functionalism, constructivism and art deco).

Basic concepts of art history.

Art- a specialized activity based on a person's ability to express their feelings in the thin. images.

Functions of art: educational, aesthetic, relaxation, educational, communicative.

Painting- type of image. art capable of reproducing diverse. phenomena of life by means of color and composition.

Graphic arts- the view of the iso associated with the image on the plane, usually represented. monochrome images, means: spot, line

Engraving- a kind of graphics, which is distinguished by the ability to obtain numerous prints, jav. Not a copy, but an original. Type of engraving: convex (high, engraving on wood), deep or recessed (on metal), flat engraving (lithography on stone).

Sculpture- a kind of art, the works of which have a physically material subject volume, a 3-dimensional form, placed in real space.

Classif. for development in space: round (the perception of which is from different angles), relief (3D image on a plane).

High relief – high relief, protrudes above the background plane by more than half of its real volume. bas-relief– low relief, pic. protrudes above the plane by no more than half of its actual size. counter-relief- in-depth relief, where the image is given using a cut-out contour.

Sculpture: monumental (free-standing monuments), monumental and decorative (decoration of buildings), easel sculpture (in a museum interior), small plastic (figurines).

Architecture is a type of spatial visual art, including buildings, other structures or entire complexes.

Dec. - Prik. I. - art is made. household items that have a utilitarian function at the same time possess. aesthetic qualities.

Classification of arts according to spatio-temporal relations.

Spatial(sight) - the arts, the works of which exist. in space, but not in time. Static art (Iso, sculpture, architecture, painting, graphics).

Temporary(hearing) - arts, the action of which develops in time. dynamic art. (lit-ra, music)

Spatio-temporal(sight and hearing) - synthetic arts, the works of which are a synthesis different types arts, noun. in space and possessing. duration in time. (Cinema, theater, circus)

Genre- a set of works united by a common range of topics and plots, the author's attitude to an object, person or phenomenon.

Style - this is the category of art. Style is a single system artistic techniques distinguishing different types of art. In the history of art, the word "style" means certain periods in the development of art when this system existed. Most clearly, the features of style are manifested in architecture and from there penetrate into painting, sculpture, literature, and music. The entire history of world art can be viewed as the history of artistic styles.

Define architectural style.

An architectural style is a stable form of architecture that has existed for a long time in the art of a particular era.

List known styles of architecture.

Egyptian style, antiquity, Romanesque style, Gothic, Renaissance (Renaissance), Baroque, Rococo, Classicism, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, Russian wooden architecture, temple architecture.

What is styling?

Stylization- decorative generalization of depicted objects (figures, objects) using a number of conventional techniques.

Define decorative composition.

Decorative composition - it is a composition that consists of stylized, abstract elements. The common features of any decorative composition are the simplicity of forms, their generalization and symbolism, geometrization, colorfulness, sensuality, etc.

What is a decorative still life?

Decorative still life- this is a stylized still life in which it is important to arrange all the elements of the image in uniform style. Stylization in a decorative still life can simplify objects to symbols and silhouettes, or it can complicate forms and saturate them with decorative details.

List the rules and laws of decorative composition that you know.

To composition techniques can be attributed: the transfer of rhythm, symmetry and asymmetry, the balance of parts of the composition and the allocation of the plot-compositional center.

Describe "architectural still life".

An architectural still life is a type of decorative still life. It combines stylization and decorative approach with architectural details, volumes, materials and forms. In architectural still life, objects are stylized by bringing their forms and content closer to the architectural style.

Architecture test theoretical part 2nd grade 2nd semester

What is a geometric modular grid?

Geometric Modular Grid- a system of straight and diagonal squares. The modular grid facilitates and simplifies the construction of complex objects, taking into account their proportional relationships. It is used for the construction and design of architectural structures in the frontal composition, for the construction of ornaments, paving slabs, fences.

What is a module in architecture?

A module is a repeating element in a composition. Due to the combination and repetition of identical, multiply increasing or decreasing squares - modules - harmony is created in the architectural composition. The main requirements for the module: simplicity, integrity, expressiveness, the ability to combine different versions of the work.

Describe the volume-spatial composition.

Volumetric-spatial composition- a composition of forms located in space, designed for the unity and integrity of its perception by the viewer. Volumetric compositions include works of art that have three dimensions (length, width and height).

List and describe the types of three-dimensional composition.

Frontal composition- a composition, all elements of which are located in relation to the viewer mainly in two directions: width and height. Volumetric composition- a composition, the elements of which are developed in all three directions, designed for perception from all points of view. Deep Space Composition- composition, the main features of which are the presence of space, extended in width and depth, the predominance of the deep direction.

What is a layout?

Layout- a three-dimensional image of a projected or existing object, structure, interior, made on a reduced scale.

Enumerate known techniques for working with paper.

1. paper fold

3. incision - notches

4. twisting and...

6. gluing end-to-end (on edge).

7. gluing one form to another with the help of lapels on the edges of the paper

Name the basic safety rules for working with scissors and a mock knife.

Stitching and cutting tools: a breadboard knife, compasses, scissors with sharp tips, should be stored in protective boxes, cases or cases. You can not unnecessarily get tools, wave them, which is a danger to others. To work with a breadboard knife and scissors, you need to protect the surface of the desks from cuts.

What materials and tools can be used to make a layout?

The main materials for layouts are easy-to-use Whatman paper and thin cardboard. Both tinted and white surfaces can be used for layouts. To work with paper and cardboard, the following tools are required: a well-sharpened mock-up knife or cutter, with a retractable blade, scissors with straight ends, glue (PVA glue is the most convenient for gluing paper and cardboard, because it is white and does not leave marks on the sheet), a special board made of plywood, plastic or hardboard, preferably metal rulers, because they do not spoiled by a breadboard knife, colored paper.

Architecture control work on the theoretical part Grade 3 2 semester

What is graphic design?

Graphic design- the field of design activity, covering the art of designing a book, advertising and information brochure, booklet, poster, packaging, label, trademarks, brand names, font sets, advertising products on billboards and facades in the city.

In what areas is graphic design applied?

The field of graphic design - these are industrial graphics, design, visual and type works, graphic advertising of products, preparation of the graphic style of the institution, etc. In graphic design, book design should be singled out separately. This is a complex development of the design and structure of the book.

Define the term "logo".

Logo- a trademark expressed in a word (sometimes in combination with an image). The logo is a graphic image, maximally and universally simplified to a symbol. This is a designation placed on a product (or packaging) by industrial and commercial enterprises to designate the product and its manufacturer.

What is a trademark?

Trademark- a registered original designed designation, necessary for recognizing the goods or services of the enterprise, as well as for their advertising, and designed to identify the product or company in the mind of the buyer.

What are the features of the compositional development of a logo?

In designing a trademark, the designer needs to select one of the characteristics of the product or service produced by the organization, and graphically beat this property to create the necessary association in perception. Requirements that a trademark must meet: professionalism, memorability, originality, associativity, versatility when changing size, versatility of color solutions.

What are the components of the logo structure?

1) Corporate font, word mark- a word mark, company name, made in a specially designed font or by adapting an existing font for this particular customer company.

2) Brand name, graphic symbol- a symbol specially selected and designed for a given customer company in order to achieve uniqueness, recognizability, attractiveness, and memorability.

3) Signature block, combination- a set of corporate font and brand name.

What is style?

Style - it is a unified system of artistic techniques that distinguish various types of art. This is a system of means of artistic expression, creative techniques, united by the unity of the ideological content.

What is corporate identity?

Form style - this is the unity of artistic and textual elements in all advertising developments and means: a set of color, graphic and verbal features to identify the company's goods or services. The main style-forming elements are a trademark, company inscription (logo), symbols of product groups or services, type of font, corporate color or range of colors, a modular layout system for printed materials.

STYLE in fine arts(Latin stylus from Greek stylos - stick for
letters) - the unity of morphological features that distinguishes the creative manner
individual master, national or ethnic artistic tradition,
art of the era, civilization, etc. Style as a historical and cultural phenomenon.
Ideas about art and artistic practice, from which
most of the detailed definitions and theories of style are in the past.
Blurring of the boundaries of modern art space, fundamental
concept changes visual activity, hypotheses of its occurrence and
data on its evolution invalidate previous definitions of style,
based on classical art history because they leave behind
in brackets primitive and modern art.

Early art forms give
undistorted, objective and accurate representation of the original structural
the basics of the visual process: its most important parameter is style, showing
that it is style that makes art art, distinguishes the artistic image from
mirror reflection.

Today, in order to preserve the classical ideas about art, one would have to
along with the primitive, leave aside the art of the second half of the 20th century,
whose origins are Malevich's Black Square. Legitimization of such
phenomena reveals the collapse of the classical pictorial system. In history
art, they mark the highest point, which reaches the cult of the creative personality,
the existence of which the builders of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals did not suspect.

Until the 15th century "word art" (Latin ars) in European languages ​​means
activities of a technical nature - a type of manual labor. The requirement to put
signature of the author on works of painting and sculpture, coming from the architect
and sculptor A. Filaret (1400–1469), brings a creative personality to the fore.

In the emerging world of science and commerce, one of the most important indicators of things
becomes its commodity value. The work of the famous master is great
material value, its authenticity is confirmed by the signature and individual
artist's manner. This practical point also plays a role in
development of the meanings of the concept of "style", which is concretized simultaneously with
other concepts of the Enlightenment.

The stylistic norms of mannerism, baroque, rococo are no longer so tightly connected
religious prescriptions. Baroque and Rococo are usually spoken of as the latter
styles of European art. “Together with baroque and late forms of rococo with
scenes human history descended the last style of Western European art"
(Gadamer H.-G. The relevance of the beautiful. M., 1991. P. 269). On the other hand,
the concept of "style in art" is based on the idea of ​​some first "significant"
styles. “The first significant styles take shape in ancient civilizations (Egypt,
Babylon)…” (Style in Art. Aesthetics. M., 1989. P. 333).

But since the history of art is not limited to the chronological framework of the "first"
and "recent" styles, and the epithet "significant" is meaningless, similar
definitions of style must be considered unsatisfactory.

The notion that style is not a universal property is an aspect of morphology, but
some dignity is reflected in famous work J. Huizinga. "Proud
the history of the magnificent West appears before us as an alternation of styles; this is,
according to school terminology, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque -
all this is primarily the name of a certain form of expression of plastic
art abilities. But words do not express the full meaning of these concepts: we
we want to mean by them also activity, thoughts, in general, the whole structure
epoch data. Thus, each age or period has its own
aesthetic sign, its meaningful name. The 18th century seems to our
viewed by the latter as a still homogeneous and harmonious embodiment of one's own
holistic style in any area; with all the richness and diversity of these areas,
it is a single expression of life ”(Husinga J. Homo Ludens. In the shadow of tomorrow.
M.: Progress, 1992. S. 346, 347).

Idea of ​​Style with capital letter, transformed into the idea of
style as such, refers to the synthesis of architecture and arts that existed -
and still existing - where the power, which has a sacred character, creates
centralized state structures regardless of time and place: be
then Ancient Egypt, the state of the Aztecs, fascist Germany or socialist
Korea. From the Primitiveness and Great Civilizations of the Ancient World to the Age of Enlightenment
art and architecture embody mythological, religious, ideological
representation. In the clearly hierarchized space of myth, religion, absolutism,
totalitarianism, fine arts are subject to the relevant canons, its
aesthetics is normative.

The various meanings that were given to the concept of "style" at different stages reflected
various real aspects of this phenomenon, at each stage corresponded
the existing concept of art, creativity, creative personality and, of course,
do not exhaust its contents today.

Production of graphic, sculptural, pictorial images, symbols, signs -
specific type of human activity. From the Upper Paleolithic image
remains a universal means of communication, providing broadcast
cultural codes between individuals, ethnic groups, generations. Morphological
features - the style of the image is initially among its significant parameters.

The consolidating beginning of culture, society - the myth lives in the space of its style.
In the sense in which a myth is a project, integral styles give an idea of
its paradigm, while local ones provide information about the features of its particular
models.

The concept of "integral style" implies clearly verbalized structural
signs common to the art of a certain era, civilization, society.
Integral style (for example, Mesolithic or Gothic) suggests
the existence of local styles representing isolated geographic,
ethnic, national, historical and cultural, etc. traditions in general
space of integral style.

Paleolithic style, emphasizing certain features in the images of an animal and a woman,
looks like a projection of lust; Neolithic art, expressive forms
traditional African, Oceanic ritual sculptures embody fear and
obedience to the cruel spirits of the outside world, which begins beyond the clearing,
separating the village from the surrounding forest. Assyrian art style, scenes
war and royal hunting - an expression of the all-destroying force - the imperative of power. Connection
myth with the styles of classical art history is more indirect, however,
idealizing the naturalism of Greco-Roman art, giving them to the gods
human form, and the whole range of styles of the Middle Ages can be read
as a reflection of the relevant ethical and aesthetic norms - a projection of that
imperative that consolidated spirituality that creates cultures, societies
and civilization. Myth is the focus of the meaning of a given culture. Story
indicates that each of the existing myths had its own period
decay, the products of which eventually became part of new myths.

The energy of myth that maintains stability in all prehistoric and historical
societies, had as its source an artistic image. For the first time this image
objectified in the image - drawing, painting, sculpture.

Over 25-30 millennia - from the Paleolithic to the present (traditional
art of Africa, Australia, Oceania, America) - rock paintings,
sculpture in one way or another reproduces the same subjects: animal and
person.

Prehistory (primitiveness) - the era of colossal changes that are taking place
at first slowly, then with increasing acceleration. These changes (eg.
transition from a consuming to a producing economy) reflect the same
varied images of animals and humans.

Style and story. Today, when visual activity includes all levels
up to the primary wide use received a special type of graffiti - tag.
The tradition of covering the walls with images originated around 1970 in New York among
young people from the urban lower classes, often organized into criminal communities.
A specific emblem, drawing or a specially stylized autograph
assert the authority of the tagger - his presence, the right of his group to this
territory.

In the once fertile Sahara, Mesolithic hunters, exploring new territory,
asserted their presence by the image of the totemic animal, which they
carved on a sacred rock - often on top of another that belonged to neighbors.

In the Sahara, the oldest petroglyphs are deeply carved figures of large wild
animals: buffaloes, elephants, hippos, rhinos, giraffes (less often - ostriches, wild
donkeys, crocodiles). Sometimes such images, such as the ancient buffalo,
reach several meters: they differ from later ones in careful technique
execution, accuracy of proportions and details. Petroglyphs of this type, scattered
on a vast territory from the Saharan Atlas (mountains Xur) to the Libyan desert (Fezzan),
stylistically, they can look like the works of one master.
Such stylistic uniformity of the monuments created by more than one
millennium and thousands of kilometers apart, could put in
a dead end if a similar phenomenon did not exist in cave painting and sculpture
European Paleolithic.

The integral style of petroglyphs of the first hunting period of the Sahara
literally reproduces the scheme of the earliest silhouette European Paleolithic
images.

The next in time, more advanced style of petroglyphs is more
detail, technical perfection, and also - which is significant - for the first time
reveals morphological differences in the interpretation of some details. These
stylistic features are associated in this case with certain plots.

For the early phase of the European paleolithic art just as typical
generalized, conditional forms. The figures are single, static, not detailed.
Characteristic is the absence of compositions - a readable connection between the figures. Later (Madeleine)
details are drawn, a tendency to convey movement is outlined. Dominated
single animal figures, but now they are depicted in motion. grazing
deer, jumping cows, trotting or galloping horses are accurate in anatomy,
transfer of proportions; the emphasis is not on one or another part of the figure, but on
the ratio of parts - on their interaction. Increasingly frequent - especially in
mobile art - paired compositions are becoming.

The morphology of the primitive image is a commonality of monuments created on
over eight millennia in painting, drawing and sculpture - gives a mean,
but objective indications of how, from what elements the specificity is formed
style.

In the period from the 27th to the 19th millennium, from the Pyrenees to the Urals, women's
figurines. figurines have common features: static front composition,
generalized forms, hypertrophied middle part of the figure (chest, hips, abdomen,
buttocks), cumulatively interpreted limbs folded on the stomach or on the chest
hands devoid of feet, missing facial features. These qualities
extending to all figurines without exception, can be expressed moderately
(Kostenki) or brought to the grotesque (Willendorf).

The peculiarity of the style is an unusual combination of almost naturalistic modeling
individual hypertrophied parts of the figure and an extremely generalized interpretation of others.
Legs, especially their lower part, in female figurines and early images
animals, as a rule, are reduced to an extremely simplified cone-shaped form. At
In this case, in both cases, the figures are depicted as a kind of massive receptacle. AT
the focus is on the belly. The head and limbs are perceived as something
secondary - they are reduced and poorly modeled. This shows that
the semantics of images is revealed not so much by the plot (images of a woman and an animal
pass through the entire history of art), how much style, which, being
mediator between the structure of the depicted and the function of the image, forms and
formulates the concept (the plot, defining the structure, only names it). Here
confirmation that the transformation of style means a change in concept.

Since any figurative image has as its prototype a natural
form, accurate - naturalistic - its reproduction is neutral in
stylistic point of view. Hence stylistic analysis is the determination of quantity and
deformation quality. Determination of the amount of deformation (degree of conditionality)
involves comparison pictorial forms with initial, definition
specific features of styles (quality of deformation) - comparing them with each other
with a friend.

In the history of art, imitative naturalistic forms (concrete details,
display of particular features), as a rule, are associated with the initial stage
artistic tradition, with the advent of new subjects. Arrow stylistic
evolution of the primitive cycle of art history is directed from naturalistic (mimetic)
images (paleolithic) to conventional (neolithic and traditional art).
The primitive image-myth has great inertia and evolutionary potency:
processes of deepening, unfolding the form, its detailing, concretization and,
finally, the individualizations stretch over almost 30 millennia. At certain stages,
within the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, tribal
culture, the existing potential is realized partially. Repeatedly comes
the moment when the image ceases to be corrected in kind, the process begins
stylization, there is a kind of folding of the form, its erosion. Then on the new
level, there is a return to the mimetic image, and the process is repeated (i.e.
in macrohistorical terms, stylistic evolution has a sinusoidal character).
At the same time, one can notice that the transition to schematism is slow, then
how the transition to naturalism seems to have the character of a mutation.

Rock art that existed in the Sahara for almost 10 millennia
periodically evolved from naturalism to schematism. Ratio
naturalistic and schematic representations of an animal of one species (bull,
camel, horse) shows that the growth of convention is a process that
can be represented as a minimization of visual means, a decrease in the number
image quanta; (accordingly, their increase means a tendency to
naturalism).

A specific indicator of style - the quality of deformation - the nature of stylization,
schematization of rock art is determined by the preference given to that
or another type of stylization (geometrization): curvilinear (bend) or
rectilinear (kink). Morphological features of style, expressed more or less
less softly in the early stages of the artistic tradition, appear clearly in its
final phase. This is shown by the corresponding periods of rock
art.

From the Paleolithic to the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance, pictorial
tradition follows the same rules as ritual, its process organizes
repetition, rhythm, regularity, ensuring continuity,
orderliness, stability.

Style and ethnicity. To the extent that the amalgam of style is susceptible to splitting, one can
to see that style in primitive art is a product of a stage, social,
ethnic factors and, to a minimal extent, individual. Analysis distinguishes
morphological features representing various levels as in plan
diachrony (stadial features), and in terms of synchrony (local features).

Comparison with Paleolithic sculpture shows that traditional plastic (Africa,
Oceania, etc.), with a significant difference, retains the features of the primitive
culture (monumentality, symmetry of composition, hieraticity, etc.).
Comparing individual complexes of traditional sculpture with each other and all
together - with Paleolithic sculpture, it is possible to identify morphological indicators
the final phase of the primitive cycle, i.e. structural features that distinguish
actual traditional sculpture. (Most common feature traditional styles -
geometrization, Paleolithic sculpture - exaggerated naturalism.)

Of course, the listed stage-determined morphological
indicators are manifested to one degree or another both in general (regional tribal
style), and in the singular: a specific figurine, for example, of the Dogon. Considering
the same figurine in synchronic terms, in its style one can detect features that
distinguishing African art in general from the traditional art of others
areas, such as Oceania (in the mass, African sculpture gravitates towards the forms
monolithic, oceanic - to fractional, etc.). The same figurine reflects
features that distinguish the styles of Western Sudan (flatness, dryness, "cubism")
from the styles of the Guinean coast and other regions of Africa. Especially
representatively, such a figurine represents the features of ethnic style. Finally,
comparing it with other Dogon figurines reveals that
distinguishes the handwriting of this master - a single (individual substyle).

In the examples given, the amount of deformation represents a universal aspect
style - associated with diachrony, a stage factor; deformation quality
associated with synchrony, with ethnic (regional) factors and - to a small extent
measure - individual. That is, the style is formed at the intersection point
stage, ethnic, individual.

Comparative stylistic analysis - comparison of various ethnic styles
- finds a number of similar elements in them. Grouping the sculpture of a given region
on the basis of stylistic commonality, it can be seen that in most cases
stylistic zones form a similarity spectral lines encircling so
called "nuclear style", in which the features characteristic of a given zone are
most pronounced. Such zones can, in turn, be combined according to
stylistic features. This aspect of traditional art, defined as
synchronous stylistic evolution, indicates that the artistic process
is not limited to the cells of individual ethnic groups, that artistic culture
functions not only at the level of local styles, but also as a system whose
integrity is due to a certain cultural and historical community.

With all their originality, individual styles act as elements of a complex
unity. In morphological terms, their interdependence is revealed through
analysis of particular aspects of each individual tribal style. At the nearest
on examination, it turns out that the specific features of styles, sometimes
paradoxically - in the way of inversion, they connect two neighboring
artistic cultures. Thus, the system connections of traditional styles
expressed both in mutual influence and in mutual repulsion.

There is a common substrate on the basis and within which
separate art centers. Each of them has a special stylistic
constant. An analysis of traditional art indicates that the number
deformation, or the degree of conditionality, is in a certain dependence on
stage level, the phase of development of a given artistic tradition. Quality
deformation, or the nature of stylization - the preference given to one or another
method of generalization - creates local specifics. Thus, quantitative
deformation acts as a function of time, and qualitative deformation acts as a function of ethnos (in
certain sense of space).

In the presence of common integral features, local styles differ from each other.
friend as clearly as the characters of the same alphabet. Specific features of ethnic
styles are especially pronounced in expressive ritual masks. Way
images of the muzzle of an animal, a human face, or, most often,
zooanthropomorphic image is always special, inherent only in a given ethnic
group styling type. The value of the ethnodifferentiating function is emphasized
zoomorphic elements corresponding to certain totem animals.

Style here acts as a direct projection of ethnic characteristics, as
substance, which, as it were, is generated by the ethnos itself. Intentions that form
integral structure of traditional tribal styles, in comparison with
historical styles look like a law of nature, and its local manifestations
as a genetic code that makes this structure unique in each specific
case.

This specific situation is reminiscent of the fact that ethnically "pure" education
is a tribe. In other cases, ethnos is a “virtual” element of that amalgam
which is called a nation. Structural features of society today are determined
to a greater (and ever greater) extent by belonging to one or another type of civilization,
rather than genetic traits. Therefore, the appeal to the "roots", "ascent to
origins" really means a reference to the past.

Style as the language of myth. As can be seen from the analysis of primitive and traditional
art, at the origins of the fine tradition in its initial phase of style
selectively accentuates the morphological features of nature itself; early
stages - in the Paleolithic - images reproduce, as a rule, images of reality.

The direct relationship between style and plot is also preserved in the Mesolithic, with the difference that
here the style is derived not so much from static morphological as
dynamic functional features of the plot-nature. Warp is used
for visualization of movement, action - for a story about an event ("blurred"
silhouettes and elongated proportions of archers shooting on the run, the arrangement of figures
rows on top of each other to convey successive phases of the event, etc.).

In the final stage of the primitive cycle, the style that takes over the symbolic
function, is no longer focused on the directly perceived appearance of things,
but - on their plastic structural basis. Synthesizing images of ritual
masks reproduce previously created patterns. In tribal space
culture, local styles generate opposing cells of individual
monoethnic cultures. Designing fantastic, as a rule
zooanthropomorphic, imagery, a wide variety of deformation methods, unique
for each style (ethnos) a set and combination of plots, ways of their plastic
transformations, an ideoplastic structure unique for each style,
recognizable in all types of sculpture - be it statues, masks, household decor
objects, a detail of an architectural structure, etc., - testify, firstly,
about the ethno-cultural origins of the specifics of local styles and, secondly, about the historical and cultural
the origin of the universals of a common artistic space that unites these
unique styles, - spaces that unify the plastic structure,
making recognizable the integral features of traditional art,
ideoplastic features of the fine arts of the written
prestate period.

In a historical retrospective, pictorial activity that loses its connection with
in kind, - stylistics, asserting its canons, as a rule, is associated with
periods of stagnation, the final turning points of the artistic tradition
(cf. the convergence of the European avant-garde and "primitive" art, features
Morphology of Traditional Styles and Form-Making of the Final Phase
classical period). The same trends marked the styles of the final era.
the ancient world (Hellenism), the final stage in the art of the Renaissance (mannerism),
the last in a series of Great styles (baroque - rococo). These are a special kind
stylistic changes at first glance have nothing to do with the subject
reality, and yet the plot and ethnos are so closely connected with the artistic
process that the shifts taking place here cannot but have an indirect
influence on the process of style formation.

New subjects update the style of Mesolithic art; similarly
pathos of technological progress, images of a new reality (new plot-models)
form the style of futurism, constructivism, suprematism. Presence
ethnic component, the constancy of this factor of style formation is also
require reservations. For example, spontaneous artistic activity,
aimed at creating pseudo-national styles (in Russia - from the end of the 19th century),
associated with the growing acceleration of civilizational processes, leveling
national specifics.

At the same time, the style of futurism and suprematism, as well as the style of various movements
primitivism, using certain sets of plots, does not correlate
directly with the images of reality. The meaning-forming beginning is the plot-eidos (here
in the first case, this is technical progress, the future is civilization, in the second -
natural, historical - culture) is looking for adequate specific forms of expression in
mythologization of the corresponding plot-models. In other words, the plane and the samovar
become objects of the image as a result of the fact that their
correspondence to the signified - self-asserting system of ideas (rationalistic,
cosmopolitan or patriarchal-patriotic). In each case the style
organically, consistently and fully expresses this program - its not lying on
surface, often not quite conscious signified, as well as unconscious (irrational
the core of the signified).

Noteworthy are the stylistic transformations of the image of science, progress,
industrialization from A. Menzel and K. Meunier to constructivism and socialist
realism; image of nature, the relationship of natural and cultural from Constable and
Millet to Van Gogh, the Nabis and Cezanne; from realism early XIX in.,
affirming harmony, the harmonious interaction of man and nature, to
style of expressionism, reflecting the drama of the contradiction of cultural and
natural. The last, most sharply and deeply expressed in the literature by S. Kierkegaard,
F. Dostoevsky, F. Nietzsche, no less sharply reflects the style of E. Munch in art,
J. Ensor, E.-L. Kirchner, P. Filonov. In these cases, is it about harmony?
or disharmony - the style-forming beginning turns out to be a plot-idea, the voice of which
covers both the voice of the model and the irremovable national accent. In this context
what we see in art as alien (“wrong”), without canceling our own,
enriches our worldview with new facets of meaning.

It is customary to think that the stylistic originality of those geographically remote from us
cultures - such as Japan, China - is closed, as a foreign language is closed, moreover
- hermetic, because, like epicanthus, it has a natural origin. it
only partly true. The style of the ancient, ultra-modern and
foreign art is closed largely for the wrong reason that speaks
unknown language, but because it reveals, shows meanings unknown to us
famous things.

Unlike verbal pictorial language is universal. His elementary
vocabulary - objects of the surrounding world. The noun here is a plot that calls (shows)
an object; all other functions are performed by the style. The plot says "mountain", the style - "majestic",
"terrible", "gloomy", "magnificent". The plot-model coincides in a certain
sense with an eidos plot, when this mountain is Fujiyama, Ararat or Olympus.

Behind the peculiarities of local style at a deeper level is always
a certain universal essence is discovered, its mythological (metaphysical)
base. Behind the real local peculiarities of perception and the originality of nature
- for example, the Japanese landscape, for the influence of both on the style of Japanese
19th century graphics it is impossible not to see that this graphics (for all its national
color) embodies the idea of ​​the same essence that is being explored
landscapes of Constable, Levitan, Turner, Corot, Cezanne. Nature for these artists
- one of the incarnations of meaning, a phenomenon that contains the beginning of beginnings.
Despite the dissimilarity of models and national peculiarities of perception, nature with
its "natural order of things" acts as the last resort, removing
irreconcilability of being and non-being, good and evil.

The subject-nature of landscapes by the Japanese artist Hiroshige Ando (1797–1858) and landscapes
Levitan are as different as Russian and Japanese artistic traditions. Image
eternity and peace in the engravings of the Japanese artist and in the famous painting by Levitan -
property not of the plot, but of style. The style itself here is a pictorial projection.
plot-eidos - rational-pantheistic perception of nature. General in
19th century art is that nature ceases to be a backstage, decorative
background or "natural environment" and becomes a spiritualized phenomenon.

In the Japanese landscape, eternity is immersed in itself, indifferent to man; peace
here - the immutability of existence, the motionless line of mountains, the rhythmic pattern of rocks and
trees, the even tone of the sky and water. Russian version of this topic, its features
stylistics are also determined not by the peculiarities of the Russian landscape or
national pictorial tradition, but the semantic beginning. Eternity
Levitanovsky Above eternal rest is the eternal mystery of death, and peace here is its
metaphor.

For D. Constable, judging by his statements, nature is primarily an object
research. “... Painting is a science,” he says, “and it should be done in such a way
just like studying the laws of nature. Landscape painting in this case becomes
part of natural philosophy, and paintings are experiments. However, no matter what you think about it yourself
artist, his landscapes look like hymns to the mighty forces of nature. Constable style
unmistakably recognizable due to its unique specific deformation
(which painting-study hardly suggests). Constable's style states
about yourself even when the picture is just a fragment
sky with clouds (Clouds, 1822). In his landscapes with clumps of trees, horses,
grazing cows, slowly floating, sunlit clouds nature
looks like a source of strength, goodness, well-being, like a workshop in which
the presence of its zealous owner is felt.

No less expressive realistic manner of T. Rousseau, J. Daubigny, K. Corot draws
mysterious, luxurious, enticing image of untouched nature, in which a person
may be present only in the form of staffage. Romantic image of nature
elements of twilight, unpredictable, disturbing vividly reproduces unexpected for
W. Turner's style of his time. In the paintings of German and Austrian artists
nature is the embodiment of some ideal essence, which appears in the form
closed on itself, clear, cold scheme (G. Waldmuller), dutifully lays down to
human feet (W. von Kobbel), becomes a metaphor for eternity (J.A. Koch, K.D. Friedrich,
F. Olivier). G. Courbet's style recreates nature as a solid foundation of being. This
the image is contrasting with that which arises among the Impressionists - with their picturesque
technique that dissolves the materiality, weight and texture of objects in shimmering
reflexes and refractions of the light-air medium.

The innovations that impressionism brings to the art of the end of the century are not
stylistic, but structural and technical. Series of sketches by C. Monet,
which look like a realization of Constable's idea, in reality
testify to the changed attitude towards both painting and nature. signified
now it's getting bigger and bigger inner world human, the life of the soul, its
unique experiences. Nature here becomes a mirror of the soul.

The Neo-Impressionists go even further. Pointillists' attention is focused on
nature insofar as they find in it an object for experimental
creativity. In particular, they are attracted to natural light. new attitude towards
object of the image is inspired by the desire for accuracy of visual perception
colors - in search of a "new equivalent of fidelity" - accurate fixation
states of nature. The key concept here is not "nature", but "accuracy". Despite
to the fact that we are talking about painting, artistic reproduction of the image, accuracy
here does not mean an exact "hit in the image", but a claim to some kind of scientific
accuracy of the method, knowledge of the laws of color decomposition. J. Seurat, P. Signac, C. Pizarro and
other divisionists (pointillists) called themselves scientific impressionists - in
difference from their "romantic" predecessors - and referred to the scientific
the theory of complementary colors by E. Shevreil.

In this case, the mythologization of science is primary, and not its practical application.
The style-forming moment in art is not technique and formulas - they are only
means, i.e. secondary in relation to the myth - its dominant image. At the end of the century
it is no longer a man, but a science, with which all hopes are now connected (in particular,
"scientifically organized society" - an image that has captured the collective imagination).

The divisionist style follows directly from the corresponding method, but
the method and fact of extracting it from research in the field of organic chemistry -
evidence of the indisputable authority of science. This style is a brief flash in
history of art - marks the apotheosis of science to a greater extent than the achievement
painting. In the paintings of Seurat and Signac, a mosaic of evenly superimposed strokes
objectively indifferently reproduces the shape and color of frozen objects - only their
directly visible texture. Divisionist painting is equally indifferent and
accurately captures the position of objects, the degree and nature of lighting, avoiding
any manifestation of feeling, mood, aesthetic preference.

As before, so in the 20th century. styles are closely connected with the meanings of the era, with its myth.
If it were not obvious that the place of myth in modern times is occupied by science, it would be
would be easy to deduce from the style of the avant-garde.

On the mainstream of the avant-garde, after divisionism, the largest phenomenon is
cubism; Futurism, Suprematism, Constructivism inherit it. Intellectual
product of the myth of Science - the image of a scientifically organized Society of universal
well-being. This image gives rise to the ideas of total space exploration,
the expulsion of nature, the creation of a "single system of world architecture" (Malevich). Ideas
collectivism - cosmopolitanism, universal values, common comfort
- express themselves in the simplest geometric forms that imitate the conventional
concise language of science. The same thing that is at the origins of the analytical and
synthetic cubism, inspired by the neo-plasticism of Mondrian, Van Doesburg and
other currents of geometric abstraction, the common stylistic features of which are
elementary geometric form, clear structure, expressiveness of function,
liberation from applied aesthetics, which is not a property of the structure of the
subject.

Universalist theory and the international style of constructivism, its
utopian projects that embody the fantasy of a “bright future” receive
greatest development in the revolutionary period in Russia and disappear, or
transformed in the 30s. in the process of forming the ideology of the real
Soviet society, when the inconsistency of the utopian communist project
reality becomes clear. functionally sound
stylistics of constructivism, in a concrete incarnation adequately reflecting
possibilities of science and technology, comes into open contradiction with vital
realities. The utopian project of a "bright future" is supplanted by the ideology of a "happy
present." This new plot requires different signifiers.

Initially rationalistic progressive, scientific-industrial-urban
the international project, both in life and in art, is opposed by the tendency
expressing disbelief in the beneficial nature of science and technology.

At the origins of European primitivism - Gauguin, Matisse, Derain, German
expressionists (E.-L. Kirchner, E. Nolde, E. Heckel, K. Schmidt-Rottluff and others), K. Karra,
A. Modigliani and many others, sublimating the lessons of the primitive (folk,
traditional) art, which also opens the way for the opposite -
rationalist direction: cubism, suprematism, constructivism.

Thus, the primitivism of the turn of the century is at the origins of two polar,
opposing trends in the art of the 20th century, in which from all over
the dichotomy of the Unique and the Universal is clearly expressed. From point of view
morphology, the key point is the reduction of the form, which in the first case looks like
as its simplification (ethical), in the second - as simplification (aesthetic). Both
tendencies mature in European culture throughout the 19th century.

In the turn towards primitivism in Russia, as in other countries, initially
two opposing approaches are distinguished: one that has as its basis
the idea of ​​the “natural order of things” (nature, culture), the other is the minimization
form, the improvement of its ideoplastic function, the idea of ​​constructing new
entities (civilization).

An example of this oppositely directed movement from a point primitive gives
creative evolution of Goncharova and Malevich. In the works of Malevich at the exhibition "Bubnovy
jack" in 1910, the influence of Goncharova's work of this time is obvious. Stylistic
parallels are manifested in the specific plasticity of the human figure (Walking,
Malevich, 1910). At the same time, the further evolution of Goncharova and Malevich shows that
that the similarity of their early work is an embryonic similarity. Here from the same
points begin to move diametrically opposite trends. The one to which
belongs to the work of Goncharova, will be based on folk art,
national traditions, mythological images, the other is inspired by the idea of ​​scientific and technical
progress, universal values ​​of collectivism - cosmopolitan civilization.

Only a superficial approach allows one to arrive at a "final" solution in
similar questions. Upon closer examination, it turns out that the conflict between "natural"
and "cultural" in man and society lies at the basis of almost all
irresolvable conflicts and contradictions. Ultimately, this fundamental
dilemma means having to choose between the life of a unique concrete
mortal and immortality of the universal universal abstract.

In art, the rational and the intuitive are not always marked as clearly as they are in art.
case of Goncharova and Malevich, whose work has a common starting point.
However, in ideology and politics at the level of "life practices" this choice, in
ultimately, it turns out to be a choice between the fantasy of the Future (communism,
conquering nature, scientific organization economy, etc.) and the phantom of the Past (myth,
history, "voice of blood", national roots, etc.).

"Socialist realism" and "Führer principles" are a system
prohibitions and prescriptions - sets of recommended plots with a strict focus on
their naturalistic interpretation. Similarities between Soviet and fascist art
explained by the fact that both ideologies use art as a tool of magic and
appeal to the masses.

Art at all times reflected not the world, but an ideal idea of ​​the world.
Distinctive feature Soviet art that the ideal should
perceived as reality, reality must obey the ideal. That is
it's about sympathetic magic. Hence the pseudo-naturalistic style.

Examples of classical art show that style in all cases, from
Ancient Egypt before the Age of Enlightenment, there is a pictorial projection of the spiritual (myth),
genetic and material (objective world) realities and aspirations of society.
Installation on the imitation of life, objective reality (in the Paleolithic, this is also
the spell of a particular depicted object) explains the stylistic
infantilism of totalitarian art. Similarities between Soviet and Paleolithic
the artist in that their ideal is concrete, material; ideal means of it
achievements.

It is significant that at the moment of the absolute dominance of ideology, the presence of style (deformation)
becomes minimal. It is also significant that at the first opportunity
fine art returns to the mainstream of its style - in that place
(early 30s), where it was stopped.

The specificity of style, its uniqueness is perceived instantly, directly. Before
after we determined the purpose of the object, the nature of the character, with what or with whom
from the numerous images of this or that pantheon we are dealing - we already know
that it is Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Assyria, etc. Similar
cave images are stylistically marked by their belonging to the Paleolithic,
one or another ethnic culture, region - objects of traditional art,
neolithic cultures. No less obvious belonging to European culture
works of classical art of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Here in each case (France,
England, Germany, Russia, etc.) you can identify the signs of a European style
art of the Enlightenment.

The current lack of style is the absence of a Grand style, but not of a morphological
specifics in each case.

Style and contemporary art. The new that appears in art in the 60-70s.
XX century., is the decay products, elements of the deconstruction of the classical
visual system, acquiring an autonomous character and used for
creation of various visual forms of game activity. Others did not initially
related to the visual arts: happening, performance, have their own
own genealogy, different from pictorial activity, go back to
ritual, ceremonial activities. Magic, sorcery, dance, etc. have the same
deep roots, as the production of graphic, pictorial, sculptural images and
signs, but at the same time they are divorced at the origins.

The deconstruction of a classic work of art releases the elements
capable of becoming the core of gaming, experimental and artistic activities.
Splitting can occur at an ever deeper level. Readymade not
contain nothing reminiscent of the classical pictorial system. But still
their life in a new aesthetic situation provides a component of the classical
art complex - exposure that provides aesthetic
phenomenon labeling.

Non-stylistic changes in European painting are introduced by impressionism,
disturbing the balance of painting and drawing - in favor of painting. Happening here
already structural changes. And yet we are still within the classical
artistic space, from which none of its constituent
components. The difference is that one of them, becoming a hypercomponent,
violates the systemic balance, claiming to be self-sufficient, suppressing or
displacing other elements of the visual system.

If in impressionist painting color is used to create
light-air environment, relegating to the background the drawing, design, then
the hypercomponent of cubism is plasticity, statics, composition (minor:
color, plot); futurism - dynamics. Suprematism brings deconstruction
figurative image to its logical conclusion. plot, picture,
spatial perspective (in their traditional sense) is absent, due to
what a concise set - a geometric shape, an open color - allows
create extremely clear, abstract compositions. Constructivism - in those
manifestations that still remain on the basis of the pictorial
creativity - goes even further: Tatlin's counter-reliefs are examples of pure
architectonics realized in natural materials.

Subject contemporary art- an individual, independent person.
The modern artistic process does not represent a single stream, here
styles, techniques, types and forms of art from different eras coexist. Decisive
moment is not so much the fact of the presence of one or another specificity as
intensity.

The fateful events for art in the 50s take place in America, where at the beginning
war emigrated leading European artists. The most striking phenomenon here
abstract painting.

Abstract art is the most accessible way to capture personal being, and
in the most adequate form - like a facsimile print.

Art has always been in one way or another a means of self-expression. personality,
indirectly imprinting itself in the normative structures of the Grand Styles,
now she creates such structures for herself. If you look at the art
process from the point of view of the transformations of the stylistic component - the tendency to
geometrizations, which are minimally expressed in the initial - naturalistic and
maximally - in the final phase of the artistic tradition, it can be seen that
as a style-forming beginning, previously subordinated to a mimetic form, locked in
it, with access to abstraction, gains freedom: line, color, texture become
author's facsimile print. Ideally, nothing now interferes with the imprint
personalities in plastic, graphic, pictorial projections, in which how and what
merge together (“My drawing is the direct and purest embodiment of my
emotions,” says Matisse).

As a style-forming factor, abstraction infinitely expands the possibilities
incarnations of two opposite essences - the Unique and the Universal.
The activity through which a person captures his being - texts,
art products of all times testify that the author in one way or another
to some extent he always spoke about himself, but still never so consciously in detail and
frankly, as in the 20th century; life at the level of concrete, real being is
embodiment of the unique.

The formation of visual activity, art is associated with the formation
society. At the same time, it is very likely that the pictorial action arises as
act of communication. But even when the artistic act is turned outward,
The personality of the author, to one degree or another, always speaks for himself. Style in art -
it is always an amalgam of the social, the stadial and the individual.

Stylistic homogeneity, elementality and universality of primitive art
- the result of a minimal gap between the individual and the social. Sophistication
and solidity of the Grand Styles is the product of powerful external pressure, reducing
personal start. Nevertheless, individual stylistic features appear
already in traditional (ethnic) art.

The style of primitive art (paleolithic) - individuality is indistinguishable.

Renaissance styles - polyphony of solo voices within a regional mosaic.

The styles of the New Age are a clearly distinguishable individuality within the national
culture and classical aesthetic paradigm.

Styles of the late XIX - first half of the XX century. (postclassic period) - bright
pronounced individuality in line with international trends.

Vil Mirimanov

LITERATURE:
Vlasov V.G. Styles in art. Dictionary. T. 1. M., 1998
Mirimanov V.B. Image and style. M., 1998
Mirimanov V.B. Origins of style. M., 1999

This entry was posted on Tuesday, October 14th, 2008 at 21:19 and is filed under . You can follow any responses to this entry through the feed. Both comments and pings are currently closed.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

ESSAY

The concept of style in art

Each era is characterized by a certain “picture of the world”, which consists of philosophical, religious, political ideas, scientific ideas, psychological characteristics of the worldview, ethical and moral norms, aesthetic criteria of life, according to which they distinguish one era from another. These are the Primitive Age, the era of the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Age.

Styles in art do not have clear boundaries, they smoothly pass one into another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. Within the framework of one historical artistic style, a new one is always born, and that, in turn, passes into the next. Many styles coexist at the same time and therefore there are no “pure styles” at all.

Several styles can coexist in the same historical era.

It should be distinguished: artistic styles, trends, trends, schools and features of the individual styles of individual masters. Within one style, there can be several artistic directions. Art direction It is made up of both typical signs for a given era and peculiar ways of artistic thinking.

Romanesque style (from lat. romanus - Roman) - the artistic style that dominated in Western Europe(as well as affecting some countries of Eastern Europe) in the XI-XII centuries (in a number of places - in the XIII century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art. Most fully expressed in architecture.

Fig.1 Pisa Cathedral, Italy

Fig.2 Bamberg Cathedral, Germany

Fig.3 Church of Our Lady, Denmark

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to severe fortress architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and concise exterior decoration - the building has always blended harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked particularly solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-in-depth portals. Such walls carried a defensive purpose.

The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Fig. 4 Carved ornament from the abbey of Maria Laach

Romanesque sculpture entered its heyday from 1100, obeying, like Romanesque painting, architectural motifs. It was mainly used in the external decoration of cathedrals. The reliefs were most often located on the western facade, where they were located around the portals or placed on the surface of the facade, on archivolts and capitals.

Fig.5 Catalan fresco

Existing examples of Romanesque painting include decorations architectural monuments, such as columns with abstract ornaments, as well as wall decorations with images of hanging fabrics. Picturesque compositions, in particular narrative scenes by biblical stories and from the life of saints, were also depicted on the wide surfaces of the walls. Mosaic, just like painting, was mainly a Byzantine technique and was widely used in the architectural design of Italian Romanesque churches.

In the art of miniature, book miniatures were mainly represented during this period. In miniatures, multi-figure compositions and a new elongated type of human figure with an intense gaze appear.

Gothic is an artistic style that was formed in the countries of Western and Central Europe in the XII-XV centuries. Gothic originated in the middle of the 12th century in northern France, in the 13th century it spread to the territory of modern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Spain, and England. It covered all kinds of art - architecture, sculpture, painting, stained glass, book design, arts and crafts. The basis of the Gothic style was architecture, which is characterized by pointed arches, narrow and high towers and columns, an ornate façade with carved details, and multicolored stained-glass lancet windows. All style elements emphasize the vertical. The era of the late Middle Ages is characterized by the flourishing of urban culture, the development of trade and crafts. From the middle of the 13th century, the construction of secular buildings began - city halls, markets, workshop houses, as well as luxurious castles of the nobility. All elements of the exterior and interior of buildings were subject to the Gothic architectural form.

Fig.6 Notre Dame Cathedral

Fig.7 Reims Cathedral

Fig. 8 Chartres Cathedral

AT gothic architecture distinguish 3 stages of development: early, mature ( high gothic) and late.

Sculpture played a huge role in creating the image of the Gothic cathedral. In France, she designed mainly its outer walls.

The Gothic direction in painting developed several decades after the appearance of elements of style in architecture and sculpture. In England and France, the transition from the Romanesque style to the Gothic took place around 1200, in Germany - in the 1220s, and in Italy the latest - around 1300. Stained glass became one of the main trends in Gothic painting, which gradually replaced fresco painting.

The period of Gothic was the heyday of book miniatures. With the advent of secular literature (knightly novels, etc.), the circle of illustrated manuscripts expanded, and richly illustrated books of hours and psalters for home use were also created. Artists began to strive for a more reliable and detailed reproduction of nature.

Fig. 9 Sculptures in the Cathedral of Saints Mauritius and Catherine in Magdeburg, Germany

Fig. 10 Unknown artist "John the Good" (1359)

Fig.11 Fragment of a stained-glass window

The portrait genre is developing - instead of a conditionally abstract image of a model, the artist creates an image endowed with individual features inherent in a particular person.

The Renaissance, or Renaissance (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento; from "ri" - "again" or "reborn") is an era in the history of European culture, which replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. Approximate chronological framework of the era: the beginning of the XIV - the last quarter of the XVI centuries and in some cases - the first decades of the XVII century (for example, in England and, especially, in Spain). A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in a person and his activities). There is an interest in ancient culture, there is, as it were, its “revival”.

The revival is divided into 4 stages: proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the XIII century - XIV century); early renaissance(the beginning of the XV century - the end of the XV century); the high Renaissance (the end of the 15th - the first 20 years of the 16th century); later Renaissance(mid-16th - 90s of the 16th century).

The painters of the Renaissance created a whole concept of the world with internal unity, filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. The realistic depiction of man became the main goal of Renaissance artists. The invention of a way to convey perspective contributed to a more truthful display of reality.

Among the outstanding representatives of this era are Leonardo da Vinci, Brunelleschi, Alberti, Botticelli, Titian, Michelangelo, Raphael.

Leonardo da Vinci

Fig.12 Self-portrait

Fig.13 Mona Lisa (1503-1505/1506)

Fig.14 Fresco The Last Supper

Fillipo Brunelleschi

Fig.15 Fillipo Brunelleschi

Fig.16 Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence

gothic baroque revival modern

Leon Battista Alberti

Fig. 17 Statue of Alberti in the courtyard of the Uffizi

Fig.18 Santa Maria Novella

Sandro Botticelli

Fig.19 Sandro Botticelli

Fig. 20 Adoration of the Magi, circa 1475

Rice. 21 Spring, 1482

Titian Vecellio

Fig. 22 Self-portrait

Fig. 23 Equestrian portrait of Emperor Charles V (1548)

Michelangelo Buonarroti

Fig. 24 Michelangelo, portrait by Marcello Venusti, 1535

Fig. 25 Last Judgment

Fig. 26 Persian Sibyl

Fig. 27 Libyan Sibyl

Rafael Santi

Fig. 28 Self-portrait

Fig. 29 School of Athens

Fig. 30 Sistine Madonna

Fig. 31 Good news (1644), art. Philippe de Champaigne

Baromkko (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “prone to excesses”, port. perola barroca - “pearl of irregular shape” (literally “pearl with vice”); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - a characteristic of European culture of the XVII-XVIII centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in the XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization". Baroque opposed classicism and rationalism.

The Baroque style in painting (M. Merisi, P.P. Rubens) is characterized by the dynamism of compositions, the “flatness” and pomp of forms, the aristocracy and originality of subjects. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are flashy flamboyance and dynamism.

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades are often found, as well as an abundance of sculptures on the facades and in the interiors. Domes acquire complex shapes, they are often multilayered.

Fig.32 Carlo Maderna Church of St. Susanna, Rome

Fig.33 Milotice Castle, Czech Republic

Fig. 34 Church of Souls in Purgatory, Ragusa

Rice. 35 Bernini Piazza San Pietro, Rome

Fig.36 Pope Innocent XII, St. Petra in Rome

Classicism - an artistic style in Western European art XVII - early. XIX century and in Russian XVIII - early. XIX, referring to the ancient heritage as an ideal to follow. It manifested itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts. Classicist artists considered antiquity to be the highest achievement and made it their standard in art, which they sought to imitate.

Representatives of classicism are Nicolas Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Jacques-Louis David, Antonio Canova, Bertel Thorvaldsen, Andrea Palladio, Robert Adam, etc.

Fig.37 Jacques-Louis David. "Oath of the Horatii" (1784)

Fig. 38 Bertel Thorvaldsen. "Ganymede Feeding Zebes' Eagle" (1817)

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration.

Fig. 39 Leo von Klenze Walhalla

Fig. 40 The Great Theater in Warsaw

Fig. 41 Palladio Villa Rotunda

Art Nouveau - style in European and American art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Art Nouveau rethought and stylized the features of the art of different epochs, and developed its own artistic techniques based on the principles of asymmetry, ornamentality and decorativeness. Natural forms also become the object of stylization of modernity. Этим oбъяcняeтcя нe тoлькo интepec к pacтитeльным opнaмeнтaм в пpoизвeдeнияx мoдepнa, нo и caмa иx кoмпoзициoннaя и плacтичecкaя cтpyктypa - oбилиe кpивoлинeйныx oчepтaний, oплывaющиx, нepoвныx кoнтypoв, нaпoминaющиx pacтитeльныe фopмы.

Art Nouveau architecture is distinguished by the rejection of straight lines and angles in favor of more natural, "natural" lines, the use of new technologies (metal, glass). Art Nouveau architecture is also distinguished by the desire to create both aesthetically beautiful and functional buildings. Much attention was paid not only appearance buildings, but also the interior, which was carefully designed. All structural elements: stairs, doors, pillars, balconies - were artistically processed.

Fig. 42 House of Mila Gaudí, Barcelona

Fig.43 Casa Batlló (1906, architect Antoni Gaudí)

One of the first architects to work in the Art Nouveau style was the Belgian Victor Horta. In France, the ideas of Art Nouveau were developed by Hector Guimamre. Antoni Gaudim went even further from the classical ideas about architecture.

Modernist artists: Gerda Wegener, Stanislav Wyspiansky, Maurice Denis, Edmond-Francois Aman-Jean, Elisabeth Sonrel, M. A. Vrubel; sculptors: František Bilet, Auguste Rodin, Camille Claudel, Aristide Mayol, Georges Minnet.

Fig.45 Mask on the building (Moscow)

Fig. 44 Vase from the workshop of the Dom brothers, ca. 1900

Rice. 46 Lev Bakst. Dinner. 1902

Glossary

Ancient art - (from the Latin antiquus - ancient) the name of ancient Greek and Roman art from 1000 BC. e. before 500 AD e.

Arch - (from the Latin arcus - arc, bend) a curvilinear overlap of an opening in a wall or space between two supports.

Archivolt - (from the Latin arcus volutus - framing arc) an architectural detail that makes up the frame of an arched opening, distinguishes the arc of the arch from the plane of the wall, sometimes becoming the main motive for its processing.

Stained-glass window - (from the Latin vitrum - glass) an ornament, a plot decorative composition or a picture on glass, made of colored glass or other material that transmits light.

Decorative and applied art - a section of decorative art, covers a number of branches of creativity that are devoted to the creation of art products, intended mainly for everyday life.

Donjon - (from the French donjon) the main, detached tower of a medieval castle, set in the most inaccessible place and serving as a refuge during an enemy attack.

Painting is a type of fine art, the works of which are created using paints applied to any solid surface (canvas, wood, paper, cardboard, stone, glass, metal, etc., usually covered with primer).

Interior - (from the French interieur - internal) the interior of a building or any room.

Capital - (from Late Latin capitellum - head) plastically distinguished crowning part of a vertical support (pillar or column).

Column - (from the Latin columna - pillar) architecturally processed, round in cross section, vertical support, the core element of the building, the supporting structure of the building and architectural orders.

Miniature - (from the Latin minium - cinnabar, red lead) a work of fine art, characterized by small size and subtlety of artistic techniques. book miniature- hand-drawn drawings, multi-color illustrations with gouache, glue, watercolor and other paints in handwritten books, as well as visual and decorative design elements of these books - initials, headpieces, etc.

Mosaic - (from the Latin musivum, literally - dedicated to the muses) an image or pattern made of particles of the same or different material (stone, smalt, ceramic tiles, etc.), one of the main types of monumental art.

Ornament - (from the Latin ornamentum - decoration) a pattern consisting of rhythmically ordered elements, designed to decorate objects (utensils, tools and weapons, textiles, furniture, books, etc.), architectural structures, works plastic arts, bodies.

Perspective - (from the Latin perspicio - I see clearly) a system for depicting three-dimensional bodies on a plane, conveying their own spatial structure and location in space, including distance from the observer.

Portal - (from the Latin porta - entrance, gate) architecturally designed entrance to the building.

Portrait - (from the French portrait, from the obsolete portraire - to depict) an image (image) of a person or group of people that exists or existed in reality.

Relief - (from the Latin relevo - I raise) a sculptural image on a plane.

Sculpture - (from the Latin sculpo - I carve, cut out) sculpture, plastic, a type of fine art based on the principle of a three-dimensional, physically 3-dimensional image.

Style is a set of features that characterize the art of a certain time, direction or individual style of the artist.

Facade - (from the Italian faccia - face) the outer side of a building or structure.

Fresco - (from the Italian fresco - fresh) the technique of painting with paints (on pure or lime water) on fresh, damp plaster, which, when dried, forms the thinnest transparent film of calcium carbonate, which fixes the paints and makes the fresco durable; a fresco is also called a work made in this technique.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

Similar Documents

Architecture or architecture, as the art of creating buildings and structures in accordance with the laws of beauty. Features of development and distinctive features various European architectural styles: gothic, romanesque, baroque, rococo, classicism, modern.

presentation, added 02/19/2012


Continuous development, mixing and opposition of styles and trends in the visual arts. Analysis of the features of various schools of representation of forms in painting and sculpture. Classicism as an aesthetic trend in European literature and art.

abstract, added 08/10/2016


The concept and distinctive features of baroque as a style in art, the history of its development. Spheres of manifestation of the baroque in Russian art, its time frame: Naryshinsky, Peter the Great, church, palace, Elizabethan, folk. Interior design.

test, added 11/17/2013


An overview of the features of the Baroque, one of the dominant styles in the architecture and art of Europe and Latin America at the end of the 16th - the middle of the 18th centuries. The ideal of a man and a woman, the fashion of the Baroque era. The manifestation of this style in painting, architecture and literature.

presentation, added 04/10/2013


Styles in architecture and decorative arts: empire, classicism, baroque, rococo, gothic, modern, minimalism, high-tech. Ethnic styles: English, Scandinavian (Swedish), Mediterranean, Japanese and African. Color range and distribution.

lecture, added 06/25/2009


The origin of the term baroque. Baroque style in Russian art, architecture, literature and music, its historical combination of styles. The process of individualization of the author's style in music. Characteristics and features of partes concerts in Russia.

abstract, added 01/08/2010


Study of the process of origin, formation and distribution of the artistic style of the Baroque. Analysis of the contribution of this style to the history of world culture. Descriptions of the Baroque style in literature, music, architecture and art. The worldview of the Baroque era.

term paper, added 05/23/2013


Characteristics of the epochal Baroque style: prerequisites for the emergence; historical events that influenced the course of development. The specifics of the development of different types of art in European countries in the baroque era. Characteristics of the styles of Michelangelo and Bernini.

test, added 07/28/2010


The study of the concept and features of modernity - the artistic style in European and American art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. A generalization of the main features of Art Nouveau in architecture - asymmetry, artistic ornaments, curvilinearity and uneven contours.

presentation, added 02/13/2012


Prerequisites for the emergence and spread of the Baroque style in Europe as a result of the influence of the Reformation and the Renaissance. Catchy flamboyance and dynamism of baroque in painting, spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of curvilinear forms - in architecture.