Language and thinking are inextricably linked, no one doubts this. Language, as the most important sign system, is a necessary condition for the emergence of thinking, a form of its existence and a way of functioning. In the process of development of the human community and its culture, thinking and language are formed into a single speech-thinking complex, which is the basis of most cultural formations and communicative reality.

Language can be oral and written, it arises in the human community, performing the most important functions:

- expressions of thought or consciousness;

– storage and transmission of information;

means of communication or communication.

Language is a multifunctional phenomenon. All functions of language are manifested in communication. The following functions of the language are distinguished:

- communicative (or communication function) - the main function of the language, the use of language to convey information;

- constructive (or mental) - the formation of the thinking of the individual and society;

cognitive (or accumulative function) - the transfer of information and its storage;

- emotional-expressive - expression of feelings, emotions;

- voluntarily (or invocative-incentive function) - the function of influence;

- metalinguistic - explanations by means of the language of the language itself;

- phatic (or contact-setting);

- ideological function - the use of a particular language or type of writing to express ideological preferences. For example, the Irish language is used mainly not for communication, but as a symbol of Irish statehood. The use of traditional writing systems is often seen as cultural continuity, and the switch to the Latin alphabet as modernizing;

– omadative

- metalinguistic. In relation to all sign systems, language is an instrument of explanation and organization. The point is that the metalanguage of any code is formed in words;

- nominative - a person's faith in the name;

- denotative, representative - information transfer, representation;

– conative - orientation to the addressee;

- aesthetic - the sphere of creativity;

- axiological - value judgment (good / bad).

The communicative function of language is related to the fact that language is, first of all, a means of communication between people. It allows one individual - the speaker - to express his thoughts, and the other - the perceiver - to understand them, that is, to somehow react, take note, change his behavior or his mental attitudes accordingly. The act of communication would not be possible without language.

Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.
The communicative function of the language is carried out due to the fact that the language itself is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in another way. And the signs, in turn, are designed to transmit information from person to person.

- a message, that is, a statement of some thought or information;

- influence, that is, an attempt to change the behavior of the perceiving person with the help of verbal persuasion;

- communication, that is, the exchange of messages.

Message and influence are related to monologue speech, and communication - to dialogic speech. Strictly speaking, these are, indeed, functions of speech. If we talk about the functions of the language, then the message, and the impact, and communication are the implementation of the communicative function of the language. The communicative function of language is more comprehensive in relation to these functions of speech.

Linguistic scientists also single out sometimes, and not unreasonably, the emotional function of language. In other words, signs, sounds of language often serve people to convey emotions, feelings, states. As a matter of fact, it is with this function, most likely, that the human language began. Moreover, in many social or herd animals, it is the transmission of emotions or states (anxiety, fear, appeasement) that is the main way of signaling. With emotionally colored sounds, exclamations, animals notify their fellow tribesmen about the found food or the approaching danger. In this case, it is not information about food or danger that is transmitted, namely emotional condition animal corresponding to satisfaction or fear. And even we understand this emotional language of animals - we can quite understand the alarmed barking of a dog or the purring of a contented cat.

Of course, the emotional function human language much more complex, emotions are conveyed not so much by sounds as by the meaning of words and sentences. Nevertheless, this ancient function of language probably dates back to the pre-symbolic state of human language, when sounds did not symbolize, did not replace emotions, but were their direct manifestation.
However, any manifestation of feelings, direct or symbolic, also serves to communicate, transfer it to fellow tribesmen. In this sense, the emotional function of language is also one of the ways to implement the more comprehensive communicative function of language.

So, various types of implementation of the communicative function of the language are message, influence, communication, as well as the expression of feelings, emotions, states.

The cognitive, or cognitive, function of language (from the Latin cognition - knowledge, cognition) is connected with the fact that human consciousness is realized or fixed in the signs of the language. Language is a tool of consciousness, reflects the results of human mental activity.

Any images and concepts of our consciousness are realized by ourselves and those around us only when they are clothed in a linguistic form. Hence the idea of the inseparable connection between thinking and language.

The connection between language and thought has been established even with the help of physiometric evidence. The subject was asked to think over some difficult task, and while he was thinking, special sensors took data from the speech apparatus of a silent person (from the larynx, tongue) and detected the nervous activity of the speech apparatus. That is, the mental work of the subjects "out of habit" was reinforced by the activity of the speech apparatus.
Curious evidence is provided by observations of the mental activity of polyglots - people who can speak well in many languages. They admit that in each case they "think" in one language or another.

The cognitive function of language not only allows you to record the results of mental activity and use them, for example, in communication. It also helps to understand the world. A person's thinking develops in the categories of language: realizing new concepts, things and phenomena for himself, a person names them. And in doing so, he organizes his world. This function of the language is called nominative (naming objects, concepts, phenomena).

The nominative function of language follows directly from the cognitive one. Known must be called, given a name. The nominative function is associated with the ability of language signs to symbolically designate things.

The name allows you to fix what is already known. Without a name, any known fact of reality, any thing would remain in our minds as a one-time accident. By naming words, we create our own, understandable and convenient picture of the world. Language gives us canvas and paints.

It is worth noting, however, that not everything, even in the known world, has a name. The accumulative function of the language is associated with the most important purpose of the language - to collect and store information, evidence of human cultural activity. Language lives much longer than a person, and sometimes even longer than entire nations. The so-called dead languages that survived the peoples who spoke these languages. Nobody speaks these languages, except for specialists who study them.

The most famous "dead" language is Latin. Due to the fact that it has long been the language of science (and earlier - the language of great culture), Latin is well preserved and quite common - even a person with a secondary education knows a few Latin sayings.

Living or dead languages keep the memory of many generations of people, the evidence of centuries. Even when oral tradition is forgotten, archaeologists can discover ancient writings and use them to reconstruct the events of bygone days. Over the centuries and millennia of mankind, a huge amount of information has been accumulated, produced and recorded by man on different languages peace.
In recent centuries, this process has been accelerating - the amount of information produced by mankind today is enormous. Every year it increases by an average of 30%.

All gigantic volumes of information produced by mankind exist in linguistic form. In other words, any fragment of this information can in principle be spoken and perceived by both contemporaries and descendants. This is the accumulative function of language, with the help of which mankind accumulates and transmits information both in modern times and in a historical perspective - along the relay race of generations.

Various researchers highlight many more important functions of the language. For example, language plays an interesting role in establishing or maintaining contacts between people. Returning from work with a neighbor in the elevator, you can say to him: “Something was out of season today, huh, Arkady Petrovich?” In fact, both you and Arkady Petrovich have just been outside and are well aware of the state of the weather. Therefore, your question has absolutely no information content, it is informationally empty. n performs a completely different function - phatic, that is, contact-establishing. By this rhetorical question, are you really once again confirm to Arkady Petrovich the good neighborly status of your relations and your intention to maintain this status. If you write down all your lines for the day, then you will see that a large part of them are pronounced for this very purpose - not to convey information, but to confirm the nature of your relationship with the interlocutor. And what words are said at the same time - the second thing.
This is the most important function of the language - to certify the mutual status of the interlocutors, to maintain certain relations between them. For a person, a social being, the phatic function of language is very important - it not only stabilizes people's attitude towards the speaker, but also allows the speaker himself to feel in society "their own".

In Kipling, this function of language is very well expressed by the formula with which Mowgli learned to establish contact with any other inhabitants of the jungle: "We are of the same blood - you and I." A conversation with Arkady Petrovich in the elevator is the implementation of Mowgli's communicative formula in order to establish / verify contact.

The language also has other functions, their research does not stop and opens up new interesting horizons for researchers. But for general idea about the functions of the language, the judgment will be quite exhaustive, according to which the language has four main functions - communicative, cognitive, nominative, accumulative. All other functions, if you look closely at them, come down, in the end, to these four main ones.

And this has its own logic. The communicative function of language includes a person in the world of his kind, organizes society. The cognitive function of language organizes inner world a person and his connection with the external physical world, that is, the orientation of a person in the physical world. The nominative function names objects and phenomena and, in fact, allows all other functions to be realized. The accumulative function of language allows a person to accumulate information and transmit it not only at the moment of communication, but also at other times. For the implementation of the accumulative function, the time factor becomes important - it is implemented together with the passage of time. In other words, the accumulative function provides a person with a historical perspective - the past and the future.

Summing up this paragraph, we can derive such a formula for remembering the main functions of the language.

The communicative function provides social connections, life in society. The cognitive function provides thinking, cognition and orientation in the world.

The nominative function names objects and phenomena.
The accumulative function ensures the continuity of knowledge and the existence of man in history.

It is very interesting and revealing to analyze the implementation of the main functions of the language on the example of such a specific type of human activity as innovation.

Undoubtedly, innovative activity is impossible without the implementation of the communicative function of the language. Setting research tasks, working in a team, checking research results, setting implementation tasks and monitoring their implementation, simple communication in order to coordinate the actions of participants in the creative and work process - all these actions are unthinkable without the communicative function of the language. And it is in these actions that it is realized.

The cognitive function of language is of particular importance for innovation. Mental work, identification of key concepts, abstraction of technological principles, analysis of oppositions and contiguity phenomena, fixation and analysis of an experiment, translation of engineering tasks into a technological and implementation plane - all these intellectual actions are impossible without the participation of the language, without the implementation of its cognitive function.

And language solves special problems when we are talking about fundamentally new technologies that do not have a precedent, that is, they do not have, respectively, operational, conceptual names. In this case, the innovator acts as the Demiurge, the mythical creator of the Universe, who establishes connections between objects and comes up with completely new names for both objects and connections. This work implements nominative function language. And the further life of his innovations depends on how literate and skillful an innovator will be. Will his followers and implementers understand it or not? If new names and descriptions of new technologies do not take root, then the technologies themselves are likely not to take root either. “Whatever you call a ship, it will sail,” said Captain Vrungel.

No less important is the accumulative function of the language, which ensures the work of the innovator twice: firstly, it provides him with the knowledge and information accumulated by his predecessors, and secondly, it accumulates his own results in the form of knowledge, experience and information. Actually, in a global sense, the accumulative function of language ensures the scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind, since it is thanks to it that every new knowledge, every bit of information is firmly established on a wide foundation of knowledge obtained by its predecessors. And this grandiose process does not stop for a minute.

2. Define Functional Styles literary language

Word style comes from Greek stylus - wand. In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, they wrote with a rod made of metal, bone, wood. One end of the rod was pointed, they wrote (on damp clay tiles, on waxed boards, on birch bark); the other - in the form of a spatula, by turning the rod - “style”, they “erased” unsuccessfully written. The more often they turned the style, the more often they erased what was unsuccessfully written, that is, the more demanding the author was to his work, the better, more perfect it turned out. Hence - the expression "Frequently turn the style" (Horace), that is, correct, "finish the essay" (N. Koshansky).

"Functional style–a kind of literary language in which the language appears in one or another socially significant sphere of the public and business practice of people and the features of which are determined by the peculiarities of communication in this area” 1 .

Origin of the word style clarifies the essence of style. Namely: style is always associated with the problem of choice. One and the same thought can be expressed in this way, and in a different way, and in a third way ... And what is better? The search for the best, optimal way of expressing thoughts (in given specific conditions) is taught by stylistics - the science of styles.

Language as a social phenomenon performs various functions associated with a particular area of human activity. The most important social functions of the language are the following: 1) communication, 2) communication and 3) impact. To implement these functions, separate varieties of the language historically developed and took shape, characterized by the presence in each of them of special lexico-phraseological, partially and syntactic, means used exclusively or mainly in this variety of language. These varieties are called functional styles.

In accordance with the above functions of the language, the following styles are distinguished: colloquial (communication function), scientific and official business (message function), journalistic and literary and artistic (impact function).

Functional styles can be divided into two groups associated with specific types of speech.

The first group, which includes the styles of scientific, journalistic and official business (about the literary and artistic style in there will be said specifically) characterizes monologue speech; for the second group, formed by various types of conversational style, dialogic speech is a typical form.

The first group is book styles, the second is colloquial style.

scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language, which are characterized by a number of general conditions for functioning and linguistic features: preliminary consideration of the statement, its monologue character, strict selection of language means, attraction to normalized speech

In Russia scientific language and the style began to take shape in the first decades of the 18th century, when the authors of scientific books and translators began to create Russian scientific terminology. In the second half of this century, thanks to the work of M.V. Lomonosov and his students, the formation of the scientific style took a step forward, but it finally took shape in the second half of the 19th century. together with scientific activity leading scientists of the time.

The style of scientific works is determined by their content and goals scientific message- if possible, accurately and fully explain the facts of the reality around us, show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, identify patterns historical development etc. The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of connections between parts of the statement, the desire of the authors for accuracy, conciseness, unambiguity of expression while maintaining saturation of the content. A characteristic feature of the style of scientific works is their saturation with terms, in particular international ones. However, one should not overestimate the degree of this richness: on average, terminological vocabulary is usually 15-25 percent general vocabulary used in the work.

An important role in the style of scientific works is played by the use of abstract vocabulary in them, factor, development, creativity, self-awareness, comprehension, movement, expression, duration, intensity, course and others. The words are used in direct (nominative) meaning.

The scientific style has its own phraseology, where compound terms can be attributed (angina pectoris, solar plexus, thyroid gland, right angle, intersection point, inclined plane dot)

AT scientific papers often there is a use of the singular form of nouns in the meaning of the plural. For example: The wolf is a carnivorous animal from the genus of dogs(a whole class of objects is called with an indication of their characteristic features)

In scientific and technical literature, real and abstract nouns are often used in the plural form. For example: lubricating oils, stainless steels,

Adjectives are widely used in scientific works, clarifying the content of the concept by pointing to its various features and thereby performing a terminological function. For example, A. E. Fersman in the book "Entertaining Mineralogy" names a large number of varieties of green in which stones are painted: turquoise green, bottle green, golden green, emerald green, olive green, grass green, apple green; also pale green, bluish green, dirty green, dense green, grayish green, bluish green, bright green and many others. others

Of the syntactic features of the scientific style, a tendency to complex constructions should be noted.

In complex sentences used in scientific texts, compound subordinating conjunctions are often found, which are characteristic of book speech in general: thanks to; due to the fact that; due to the fact that; due to the fact that; due to the fact that; although; while; meanwhile; whereas and others, allowing more accurately than simple causal, concessive, temporary unions, to reveal the relationship between the parts of a complex sentence.

To link parts of the text, in particular paragraphs that have a close logical connection with each other and a clear construction, words and combinations are used that indicate this connection: therefore, at the same time, firstly, then, in conclusion, thus, therefore, therefore and etc.

Introductory words and combinations also serve as means of connecting parts of the text. firstly, secondly, finally, on the one hand, on the other hand etc., indicating the sequence of presentation.

Among book styles of language formal business style stands out for its relative stability and isolation. Over time, naturally, it undergoes some changes caused by the nature of the content itself, but many of its features, historically established genres, specific vocabulary, phraseology, and syntactic turns give it a generally conservative character.

« Formal business style –one of the functional styles of the literary language, serving the sphere of written official business relations. In accordance with their character, it is customary to distinguish three sub-styles: clerical and business, legal, diplomatic" 1

A characteristic feature of the official business style is the presence in it of numerous speech standards - clichés. If in other styles templated turns often act as a stylistic flaw, then in the official business style in most cases they are perceived as a completely natural belonging to it.

The main features of the official business style are associated with its three functions: arbitration, coordination and euphemism. The arbitration function is especially important for the clerical and business and legal sub-styles. The terms of these sub-styles "order", "sentence", "law" are precise business designations, each of which has a certain administrative and legal reality, and therefore can act as arbitrators in case of possible disputes. The coordinating function is also important for these sub-styles, primarily for office and business. With the help of this function, office work is coordinated, requiring the unification of expressions, the development of business language clichés. Euphemistic function - smoothing in speech sharp corners, the use of mutually acceptable forms of expression is especially important for diplomatic style.

The official business style is the style of documents: international treaties, state acts, legal laws, regulations, charters, instructions, official correspondence, business papers, etc. Despite the differences in content and variety of genres, the official business style is generally characterized beside common features. These include:

1) conciseness, compactness of presentation, economical use of language tools;

2) the standard arrangement of the material, the often obligatory form (identity card, various kinds of diplomas, birth and marriage certificates, money documents, etc.), the use of clichés inherent in this style;

3) the widespread use of terminology, nomenclature names (legal, diplomatic, military, administrative, etc.), the presence of a special stock of vocabulary and phraseology (official, clerical), the inclusion of complex abbreviated words and abbreviations in the text;

4) frequent use of verbal nouns, denominative prepositions (on the basis of, in relation to, in accordance with, in the case, in force, for the purposes of, at the expense of, through etc.), complex unions (due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that etc.), as well as various stable phrases that serve to connect parts of a complex sentence (in case ...; on the grounds that ...; on the grounds that …; with the condition that ...; so that …; the fact that ...; the fact that... etc.);

5) the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with enumeration;

6) direct word order in a sentence as the prevailing principle of its construction;

7) tendency to use complex sentences reflecting the logical subordination of some facts to others;

8) almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;

9) weak individualization of style.

The heterogeneity of the subject matter and the variety of genres make it possible to single out two varieties in the style under consideration: the official documentary style and the everyday business style.

In turn, in the first one, one can single out the language of legislative documents related to the activities government agencies, and language of diplomatic acts related to international relations. In everyday business style, official correspondence between institutions and organizations, on the one hand, and private business papers, on the other, differ in content, genres and the nature of the language means used.

In another variety of official business style - everyday business style, as already mentioned, official correspondence (business letter, commercial correspondence), official business papers (certificate, certificate, act, protocol), private business papers (statement, power of attorney, receipt, autobiography, invoice, etc.). All of them are characterized by a well-known standardization, which facilitates their compilation and use and is designed to save language resources, to eliminate unjustified information redundancy.

B journalistic style the function of the impact of agitation and propaganda is realized, with which the purely informative function (news reporting) is combined. Publicistic works touch upon issues of a very wide range - any topical issues of our time that are of interest to society: political, economic, moral, philosophical, issues of culture, education, everyday life. Publicistic style is used in socio-political literature, periodicals (newspapers, magazines), political speeches, speeches at meetings, etc.

Publicistic style is defined as “a historically developed variety of a literary language that serves a wide range of social relations: political, economic, cultural, sports, everyday life, etc. The journalistic style is used in socio-political literature, periodicals (newspapers, magazines), radio and television programs, documentary films , some types of oratory (for example, in political eloquence)" 1 .

The most striking feature of this style is appraisal. Such evaluative words as "cheap" (in the meaning of "low standard"), "noble", "cowardly", "handout", "buffoonery", "aspiration", etc., are not characteristic of either scientific or business style.

Another striking stylistic feature of the journalistic style is invocativeness, appeal to strong-willed and emotional spheres recipient. business style also involves the volitional sphere of a person. For example, an order or request involves certain real or verbal responses. But at the same time, he does not rely on the sphere of emotions. Art style addressed specifically to the sphere of emotions, but does not imply any action on the part of the reader.

Within the journalistic style wide use got it newspaper and magazine variety. The main features of the language of the newspaper include:

1) economy of language means, brevity of presentation with informative richness;

2) selection of language means with a focus on their intelligibility (newspaper is the most common type of mass media);

3) the presence of socio-political vocabulary and phraseology, rethinking the vocabulary of other styles (in particular, terminological vocabulary) for the purposes of journalism;

4) the use of speech stereotypes, clichés characteristic of this style;

5) genre diversity and the associated variety of stylistic use of language means: polysemy of the word,

6) the combination of features of a journalistic style with features of other styles (scientific, official business, literary and artistic, colloquial), due to a variety of topics and genres;

7) the use of figurative and expressive means of the language, in particular the means of stylistic syntax (rhetorical questions and exclamations, construction parallelism, repetitions, inversion, etc.

A significant part of the vocabulary of the newspaper style is made up of general literary words and various terms (science, military affairs, art, sports): both of them in the appropriate context can be rethought and acquire a journalistic coloring.

Many journalistic genres (essay, feuilleton, pamphlet, polemical article) are characterized by the free use of all the resources of the national language, including its figurative and expressive means (epithets, metaphors, comparisons, various stylistic figures).

language feature fiction are: 1) the unity of communicative and aesthetic functions, 2) multi-style, 3) the widespread use of visual and expressive means, 4) the manifestation of the creative individuality of the author. To this we add that the language of fiction has a great influence on the development of the literary language.

Being only a part of the general literary language, the language fiction at the same time, it goes beyond its limits: to create a “local color”, the speech characteristics of the characters, and also as a means of expression in fiction, dialect words, the social environment is characterized by jargon, professional, colloquial words used in the text, etc. For stylistic purposes, archaisms are also used - words that have fallen out of the asset of the language, replaced by modern synonyms. Their main purpose in fiction is to create the historical flavor of the era. They are also used for other purposes - they give speech a touch of solemnity, pathos, serve as a means of creating irony, satire, parody, color the statement in playful tones, but in these functions archaisms are used not only in fiction: they are also found in journalistic articles, newspaper feuilletons, in the epistolary genre, etc.

Conversational style opposed to book styles in general. He alone has the function of communication, he forms a system that has its own characteristics at all levels of the language structure: in phonetics (more precisely, in pronunciation and intonation), vocabulary, phraseology, word formation, morphology, syntax.

The term " colloquial style' is understood in two ways. On the one hand, it is used to indicate the degree of literary speech and is included in the series: high (bookish) style - medium (neutral) style - reduced (conversational) style. Such a subdivision is convenient for describing vocabulary and is used in the form of appropriate marks in dictionaries (words of a neutral style are given without a mark). On the other hand, the same term refers to one of the functional varieties of the literary language. To avoid the inconvenience associated with the ambiguity of the term, the term "colloquial speech" is often used in the second meaning. Colloquial speech is opposed to book speech as a whole, and not to its individual varieties, so if you use the term "conversational style", then you need to keep in mind that it is filled with a different content than the terms that call the traditionally distinguished functional styles (scientific, official business, journalistic). Colloquial speech is a special stylistically homogeneous, isolated functional system. It is characterized by special conditions of functioning, which include the lack of preliminary consideration of the statement and the associated lack of preliminary selection of linguistic material, immediacy speech communication between its participants, the ease of the speech act, associated with the lack of formality in relations between them and in the very nature of the utterance. An important role is played by the context of the situation (the environment of verbal communication) and the use of extralinguistic means (facial expressions, gestures, the reaction of the interlocutor). To purely linguistic features colloquial speech include the use of non-lexical means (intonation - phrasal and emphatic (emotional-expressive) stress, pauses, speech rate, rhythm, etc.), the widespread use of everyday vocabulary and phraseology, emotional-expressive vocabulary (including particles, interjections), different categories introductory words, originality of syntax (elliptic and incomplete sentences of various types, words-addresses, words-sentences, repetitions of words, breaking sentences with plug-in constructions, weakening and breaking the forms of syntactic connection between parts of the statement, connecting constructions, the predominance of dialogue, etc.).

Colloquial speech is characterized by expressiveness not only in lexical terms, but also in terms of syntactic. For example, a negative answer to the question “Will we succeed?” most often it is made out with such options: “Where we will have time there!”, “Where we will have time there!”, “What we will have time there!”, “Good job - we will have time!”, “So we will have time for you!”, “Directly - we have time!”, “We already did it!” etc., and the answer is very rarely heard: "No, we will not have time."

Spoken language, in addition to its direct function as a means of communication, also performs other functions: in fiction, it is used to create a verbal portrait, for a realistic depiction of the life of one or another social environment, in the author's narration serves as a means of stylization, when colliding with elements of book speech, it can create a comic effect. Let's take a closer look at individual parties colloquial speech.

3. Consider such figures of speech as antithesis, rhetorical appeal, rhetorical question

Antithesis (rarely antithesis; rhetorical opposition of the text; other Greek ἀντίθεσις - opposition) is a stylistic figure of contrast in artistic or oratory speech, consisting in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, images, states, interconnected by a common construction or internal meaning.

The figure of antithesis can serve as a principle of construction for entire poetic plays or separate parts. works of art in verse and prose. For example, Petrarch F. has a sonnet (translated by Verkhovsky Yu. N.), entirely built on the antithesis:

And there is no peace - and there are no enemies anywhere;

I fear - I hope, I freeze and burn;

I drag myself in the dust - and soar in the sky;

Alien to everyone in the world - and the world is ready to embrace.

She is in captivity of captivity, I do not know;

They do not want to own me, but the oppression is severe;

Cupid does not destroy and does not break the shackles;

And there is no end to life and torment - the edge.

I am sighted - without eyes; nem - I emit cries;

And the thirst for death - I pray to save;

I hate myself - and I love everyone else;

Suffering - alive; with laughter I sob;

Both death and life are sadly cursed;

And this is the fault, oh donna, - you!

Rhetorical appeal is a stylistic figure: an appeal that is conditional. In it, the main role is played not by the text, but by the intonation of the appeal. Rhetorical appeal is often found in monologues. The main task of a rhetorical appeal is the desire to express an attitude towards a particular person or object, to characterize it, to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical appeal never requires an answer and does not carry a question.

A rhetorical appeal, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and a rhetorical question, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness. hallmark of these turns is their convention, that is, the use of interrogative or exclamatory intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these turns are used acquires a particularly emphasized connotation that enhances its expressiveness.

An example of a rhetorical appeal:

And you, arrogant descendants

By the well-known meanness of the illustrious fathers,

Fifth slave corrected the wreckage

The game of happiness of offended slaves!

- "The Death of a Poet", M. Yu. Lermontov

A rhetorical question is a rhetorical figure, which is a question, the answer to which is known in advance, or a question to which the questioner himself answers. In essence, a rhetorical question is a question to which an answer is not required or expected due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a well-defined, well-known answer, so a rhetorical question is, in fact, a statement expressed in an interrogative form. For example, asking the question "How much longer will we tolerate this injustice?" does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that "We tolerate injustice, and for too long." and, as it were, hints that "It's time to stop tolerating her and do something about this."

A rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (highlight, underline) of a particular phrase. A characteristic feature of these turns is convention, that is, the use of the grammatical form and intonation of the question in cases that, in essence, do not require it.

A rhetorical question, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and a rhetorical appeal, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness, the so-called n. figures. A distinctive feature of these turns is their conventionality, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc. intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these turns are used acquires a particularly emphasized connotation that enhances its expressiveness. Thus, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement expressed only in an interrogative form, due to which the answer to such a question is already known in advance, for example:

Can I see in a new brilliance

Dreams of faded beauty?

Can I put on a cover again

Familiar life nudity?

Zhukovsky V. A.

It is obvious that the meaning of these phrases is the assertion of the impossibility of returning "the dreams of faded beauty", etc.; The question is a conditional rhetorical phrase. But due to the form of the question, the author's attitude to the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally colored.

Bibliography

Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and culture of speech. - M.: Phoenix, 2011.

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Language is not just a sign system that symbolically denotes objects and phenomena. Language is also a tool in which it performs a number of functions. The main functions of the language include communicative, cognitive, nominative and accumulative. There are also secondary functions (for example, the aesthetic function of language). In this article, we will consider the main functions that the language performs and their essence.

Basic functions of language: communicative function

This function is related to the fact that language is a means that allows one person to express his thoughts and convey them to another, and to another, in turn, to understand and respond to them. In fact, the language arose specifically for communication, that is, communication, the exchange of information. The communicative function is carried out due to the sign language.

Within the communicative function, one can single out an emotional function, explaining it by the fact that with the help of language one can convey feelings, desires, states. Animals that cannot utter words communicate precisely to convey emotions. The emotional function of our speech is naturally more complex than that of animals.

Thus, the communicative function implies the implementation of communication through communication, communication, exposure and expression of emotions, states and feelings.

The main functions of the language: cognitive function

The cognitive function is connected with the fact that human consciousness is present in linguistic signs. Language is a tool of consciousness, reflecting the result of human cognitive activity. The debate among linguists about which comes first, language or thought, never seems to stop. The only opinion that is infallible: language is inextricably linked with thinking, because we not only express our thoughts in words, but the thoughts themselves are presented in the form of words; man thinks in words.

Allows you to record the results of thinking and use them in communication. This function helps to cognize the world and verbalize it.

The main functions of the language: the nominative function

It is closely related to the cognitive, since everything known must have its own name. It is also connected with the ability of a linguistic sign to designate things. It was this ability that helped man to create a symbolic world. Nevertheless, there are many things in our world that do not have names. How, interestingly, to name a pin on In fact, despite the lack of a name, the nominative function is realized through a description.

Basic language functions: accumulative function

The accumulative function is associated with the collection and It is no secret that the language lives much longer than people, people. A striking example is dead languages that have outlived their speakers. Whatever the language, alive or dead, it keeps the memory of entire generations, the centuries-old history of mankind. Even if the oral tradition is lost, one can study the ancient writings and draw certain conclusions about the past of the nation.

Recently, the process of accumulating information has been accelerating, and the volume of information that a person produces today is increasing by 30% per year.

Many linguists distinguish other functions of the language. Among them, for example, contact-setting, aesthetic and others. If you look closely at the additional functions, we can conclude that they are all related in one way or another to the above. The study of the secondary functions of the language does not stop and provides very interesting data for further scientific research. It is safe to say that the language and its functions will always be relevant for a person.

The function of language as a scientific concept is a practical manifestation of the essence of language, the realization of its purpose in the system of social phenomena, the specific action of language, due to its very nature, something without which language cannot exist, just as matter does not exist without movement.

Communicative and cognitive functions are the main ones. They are almost always present in speech activity, therefore they are sometimes called language functions, in contrast to other, not so mandatory, speech functions.

The Austrian psychologist, philosopher and linguist Karl Buhler, describing in his book "Theory of Language" the various directions of the signs of the language, defines 3 main functions of the language:

) The function of expression, or expressive function, when the state of the speaker is expressed.

) The function of calling, addressing the listener, or appellative function. 3) The function of presentation, or representative, when one says or tells something to another.

Functions of the language according to the Reformed. There are other points of view on the functions performed by the language, for example, as Reformatsky A.A. understood them. 1) Nominative, that is, the words of the language can name things and phenomena of reality. 2) Communicative; proposals serve this purpose. 3) Expressive, thanks to it the emotional state of the speaker is expressed. Within the framework of the expressive function, one can also single out a deictic (pointing) function that combines some elements of the language with gestures.

Communicative function Language is connected with the fact that language is primarily a means of communication between people. It allows one individual - the speaker - to express his thoughts, and the other - the perceiver - to understand them, that is, to somehow react, take note, change his behavior or his mental attitudes accordingly. The act of communication would not be possible without language.

Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.

The communicative function of the language is carried out due to the fact that the language itself is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in another way. And the signs, in turn, are designed to transmit information from person to person.

Linguistic scholars, following the prominent researcher of the Russian language, Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov (1895-1969), sometimes define the main functions of the language in a slightly different way. They distinguish: - a message, that is, a presentation of some thought or information; - influence, that is, an attempt to change the behavior of the perceiving person with the help of verbal persuasion;

communication, that is, the exchange of messages.

Linguistic scientists also single out sometimes, and not unreasonably, the emotional function of language. In other words, signs, sounds of language often serve people to convey emotions, feelings, states. As a matter of fact, it is with this function, most likely, that the human language began. Moreover, in many social or herd animals, it is the transmission of emotions or states (anxiety, fear, appeasement) that is the main way of signaling. With emotionally colored sounds, exclamations, animals notify their fellow tribesmen about the found food or the approaching danger. In this case, it is not information about food or danger that is transmitted, but the emotional state of the animal, corresponding to satisfaction or fear. And even we understand this emotional language of animals - we can quite understand the alarmed barking of a dog or the purring of a contented cat.

Of course, the emotional function of human language is much more complex, emotions are conveyed not so much by sounds as by the meaning of words and sentences. Nevertheless, this ancient function of language probably dates back to the pre-symbolic state of human language, when sounds did not symbolize, did not replace emotions, but were their direct manifestation.

However, any manifestation of feelings, direct or symbolic, also serves to communicate, transfer it to fellow tribesmen. In this sense, the emotional function of language is also one of the ways to implement the more comprehensive communicative function of language. So, various types of implementation of the communicative function of the language are message, influence, communication, as well as the expression of feelings, emotions, states.

cognitive, or cognitive, The function of language (from the Latin cognition - knowledge, cognition) is connected with the fact that human consciousness is realized or fixed in the signs of the language. Language is a tool of consciousness, reflects the results of human mental activity.

Scientists have not yet come to an unambiguous conclusion about what is primary - language or thinking. Perhaps the question itself is wrong. After all, words not only express our thoughts, but the thoughts themselves exist in the form of words, verbal formulations, even before their oral pronunciation. At least, no one has yet been able to fix the pre-verbal, pre-linguistic form of consciousness. Any images and concepts of our consciousness are realized by ourselves and those around us only when they are clothed in a linguistic form. Hence the idea of the inseparable connection between thinking and language.

Curious evidence is provided by observations of the mental activity of polyglots - people who can speak well in many languages. They admit that in each case they "think" in one language or another. An illustrative example of the intelligence officer Stirlitz from the famous movie - after many years of work in Germany, he caught himself "thinking in German."

nominative the function of language follows directly from the cognitive one. Known must be called, given a name. The nominative function is associated with the ability of language signs to symbolically designate things. The ability of words to symbolically replace objects helps us create our second world - separate from the first, physical world. The physical world does not lend itself well to our manipulations. You don't move mountains with your hands. But the second, symbolic world - it is completely ours. We take it with us wherever we want and do whatever we want with it.

There is an important difference between the world of physical realities and our symbolic world, which reflects the physical world in the words of the language. The world, symbolically reflected in words, is a known, mastered world. The world is known and mastered only when it is named. The world without our names is alien, like a distant unknown planet, there is no man in it, human life is impossible in it.

The name allows you to fix what is already known. Without a name, any known fact of reality, any thing would remain in our minds as a one-time accident. Naming words, we create our own - understandable and convenient picture of the world. Language gives us canvas and paints. It is worth noting, however, that not everything, even in the known world, has a name. For example, our body - we "face" with it daily. Every part of our body has a name. And what is the name of the part of the face between the lip and nose, if there is no mustache? No way. There is no such name. What is the top of the pear called? What is the name of the pin on the belt buckle that fixes the length of the belt? Many objects or phenomena seem to be mastered by us, used by us, but do not have names. Why is the nominative function of the language not implemented in these cases?

This is the wrong question. The nominative function of the language is still implemented, just in a more sophisticated way - through description, not naming. With words, we can describe anything, even if there are no separate words for this. Well, those things or phenomena that do not have their own names simply “did not deserve” such names. This means that such things or phenomena are not so significant in the everyday life of the people that they were given their own name (like the same collet pencil). In order for an object to receive a name, it is necessary for it to enter into public use, to step over a certain “threshold of significance”. Until some time, it was still possible to get by with a random or descriptive name, but from now on it is no longer possible - a separate name is needed. The act of naming is of great importance in a person's life. When we encounter something, we first of all name it. Otherwise, we can neither comprehend what we meet ourselves, nor convey a message about it to other people. It was with the inventing of names that the biblical Adam began. Robinson Crusoe first of all called the rescued savage Friday. Travelers, botanists, zoologists of the times of great discoveries were looking for something new and gave this new name and description. Approximately the same is done by the type of activity and innovation manager. On the other hand, the name also determines the fate of the thing named.

accumulative the function of the language is connected with the most important purpose of the language - to collect and store information, evidence of human cultural activity. Language lives much longer than a person, and sometimes even longer than entire nations. The so-called dead languages are known, which survived the peoples who spoke these languages. Nobody speaks these languages, except for specialists who study them. The most famous "dead" language is Latin. Due to the fact that for a long time it was the language of science (and earlier - the language of a great culture), Latin is well preserved and widespread enough - even a person with a secondary education knows a few Latin sayings. Living or dead languages keep the memory of many generations of people, the evidence of centuries. Even when oral tradition is forgotten, archaeologists can discover ancient writings and use them to reconstruct the events of bygone days. Over the centuries and millennia of mankind, a huge amount of information has been accumulated, produced and recorded by man in different languages of the world.

Various researchers highlight many more important functions of the language. For example, language plays an interesting role in establishing or maintaining contacts between people. Returning from work with a neighbor in the elevator, you can say to him: “Something was out of season today, huh, Arkady Petrovich?” In fact, both you and Arkady Petrovich have just been outside and are well aware of the state of the weather. Therefore, your question has absolutely no information content, it is informationally empty. It performs a completely different function - phatic, that is, contact-establishing. With this rhetorical question, you are actually once again confirming to Arkady Petrovich the good neighborly status of your relations and your intention to maintain this status. If you write down all your remarks in a day, then you will see that a considerable part of them are pronounced for this very purpose - not to convey information, but to confirm the nature of your relationship with the interlocutor. And what words are said at the same time - the second thing. This is the most important function of the language - to certify the mutual status of the interlocutors, to maintain certain relations between them. For a person, a social being, the phatic function of language is very important - it not only stabilizes people's attitude towards the speaker, but also allows the speaker himself to feel "one of his own" in society. It is very interesting and revealing to analyze the implementation of the main functions of the language on the example of such a specific type of human activity as innovation.

Of course, innovation activity is impossible without the implementation of the communicative function of the language. Setting research tasks, working in a team, checking research results, setting implementation tasks and monitoring their implementation, simple communication in order to coordinate the actions of participants in the creative and work process - all these actions are unthinkable without the communicative function of the language. And it is in these actions that it is realized.

The cognitive function of language is of particular importance for innovation. Thinking work, highlighting key concepts, abstracting technological principles, analyzing oppositions and contiguity phenomena, fixing and analyzing an experiment, translating engineering tasks into a technological and implementation plane - all these intellectual actions are impossible without the participation of the language, without the implementation of its cognitive function.

And special tasks are solved by the language when it comes to fundamentally new technologies that have no precedent, that is, they do not have, respectively, operational, conceptual names. In this case, the innovator acts as the Demiurge, the mythical creator of the Universe, who establishes connections between objects and comes up with completely new names for both objects and connections. In this work, the nominative function of the language is realized. And the further life of his innovations depends on how literate and skillful an innovator will be. Will his followers and implementers understand it or not? If new names and descriptions of new technologies do not take root, then the technologies themselves are likely not to take root either. No less important is the accumulative function of the language, which ensures the work of the innovator twice: firstly, it provides him with the knowledge and information accumulated by his predecessors, and secondly, it accumulates his own results in the form of knowledge, experience and information. Actually, in a global sense, the accumulative function of language ensures the scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind, since it is thanks to it that every new knowledge, every bit of information is firmly established on a wide foundation of knowledge obtained by its predecessors. And this grandiose process does not stop for a minute.

language communication cognitive dialogic

The subject of phonetics. Aspects of the study of speech sounds and sound units of the language. Phonology. Phonetics (from other Greek phone sound, voice) is the science of the sound material of a language, the use of this material in meaningful units of language and speech, and history. changes in this material and in the methods of its use. Sounds and other sound units (syllables) and phenomena (stress, intonation) are studied by phonetics from different aspects: 1) with "." their physical (acoustic) features 2) with "." work, production by the person who uttered them. and auditory perception, i.e. in biological aspect 3) with "." their use. in the language, their role in ensuring the functioning of the language as a means of communication.

The last aspect, cat. can be called functional, stood out in a special region-t-phonology, cat. yavl. an inseparable part and organizing core of phonetics.
^ 10. Acoustic. aspect of the study of speech sounds.

Every sound in speech oscillating motion transmitted through elastic. environment (air) and perceive. hearing. This is fluctuation. movement is characterized by def. acoustic cv-you, review. cat. and is acoustic. aspect.

If the vibrations are uniform, periodic, then the sound is called a tone, if unequal, non-periodic, then noise. Vowel-tones, deaf. acc.-noises, in sonatas tone prevails over noise, in a call. noisy - noise over tone.

Sounds character. height, hovering on the frequency of oscillations (the more oscillations, the higher the sound), and the force depending on the amplitude of the oscillations. Naib. important for language yavl. timbre difference, i.e. their specific coloration. It is the timbre that distinguishes from a, etc. Spec. the timbre of each sound is created by the resonant characteristics. Spectrum - decomposition of sound into tones with selection of frequency concentration bands (formants)
^ 11. The biological aspect of the study of speech sounds. The device of the speech apparatus and the functions of its parts.

The biological aspect is subdivided into pronunciation and perceptual.

Pronunciation- to pronounce this or that sound it is necessary: 1) def. an impulse sent from the motor center of speech (Broca's area) head. brain, find. in the 3rd frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere 2) transmission of this impulse along the nerves to the organs, performed. this command 3) in large. cases-difficult work of the respiratory apparatus (lungs, bronchi and trachea) + diaphragm and the entire chest. cells 4) difficult. the work of the pronunciation organs in narrow. sense (ligaments, tongue, lips, palatine curtain, pharyngeal walls, movement of the lower jaw) - articulation.

^ Pronunciation functions. organs( divided into assets. and passive.)

2) supraglottic cavities (cavity of the pharynx, mouth, nose) perform functions. a movable resonator that creates resonator tones. When images. according to an obstacle (gap, bow).

3) language is able to take different positions. Changes the degree of lifting, is pulled back, compressed into a ball in the rear. parts, served with the whole mass forward, approaching decomp. passive organs (sky, alvioli), forming either a bow or a gap. The tongue creates the phenomenon of palatalization.

4) lips (especially the lower one) - protruding forward and rounding, lengthen the total. the volume of the cavity, change its shape, creating labialized sounds; when pronouncing labial consonants. create an obstacle (labio-labial occlusive and fissured, labio-tooth fissured).

5) palatine curtain - takes a raised position, closing the passage into the nasal cavity, or, conversely, falls, connecting the nasal resonator.

6) tongue - when pronouncing a burry consonant

7) the back wall of the pharynx - when pron. pharyngeal acc. (English h).
^ 12. Articulatory (anatomical and physiological) classification of speech sounds (vowels and consonants).

1. vowels and consonants. when pronouncing. ch. there are no obstacles for air, they have no def. places of education, typical common. muscle tension pron. apparatus and relation. weak air flow. acc.-an obstacle arises, def. place image., muscular tension in the place image. barriers and stronger air. jet.

2. vowels according to the work of the tongue - a series (front, back, mixed + more fractional divisions), the degree of elevation of the tongue (open and closed ch.) Vowels according to the work of the lips - ogubl. and indestructible According to the work of the palatine curtain - non-nasal, nasal

In longitude, long and short.

4.Accord. according to the method arr. noise, by the nature of the barrier, are stop (explosive (n, t), affricates (s), implosive (there is neither an explosion, nor a transition to a gap, the pronunciation ends with a bow (m, n))), slot, trembling.

5.Accord. by actively articulating org.-labial (both lips, only the lower one), anterior lingual (active separate sections of the anterior part of the tongue), middle language, back language, uvular, pharyngeal, guttural.

6.Dr. signs according to - palatalization, velarization, labilization.

Phonemes –these are the minimum units of the sound structure of a language that perform in given language a certain function: they serve to fold and distinguish between the material shells of significant units of the language - morphemes, words.
Some functions of phonemes are already named in the definition. In addition, scientists call several more functions. So to the main functions of the phoneme include the following:

1. constitutive (building) function;

2. distinctive (significative, distinctive) function;

3. perceptual function (identifying, that is, the function of perception);

4. delimitative function (delimiting, that is, capable of separating the beginnings and ends of morphemes and words).

As already mentioned, phonemes are one-sided units that have a plan of expression (exponent - according to Maslov), while they are not meaningful, although, according to L.V. Bondarko, phonemes are potentially associated with meaning: they refer to semantics. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that there are one-phonemic words or morphemes, for example, prepositions, endings, etc.
For the first time, the concept of a phoneme was introduced into linguistics by the Russian scientist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Using the term used by the French. linguist L. Ave in the meaning of "sound of speech", he connects the concept of a phoneme with its function in a morpheme. The doctrine of the phoneme was further developed in the works of N. V. Krushevsky, a student of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. A great contribution to the development of this issue was made by N. S. Trubetskoy, a St. Petersburg scientist, in the 20s of the twentieth century. emigrated abroad.

The language, like the document, is multifunctional. In the definition of functions (a function is a performed role), there is no unity language. In works on general linguistics, stylistics, culture of speech, the following functions are distinguished:

1) informational;

2) nominative (naming);

3) communicative;

4) contact (phatic, contact-setting);

5) thought-forming (thinking);

6) cumulative (accumulative);

7) cognitive (cognitive);

8) voluntarily (regulatory, imperative);

9) aesthetic;

10) emotional (emotive);

11) magical.

1) Message function, or informational, lies in the fact that language serves as a means of cognition, collection and registration of all the knowledge that people have accumulated in the process of their conscious activity. The transmission and storage of all this information, the study of this wealth is carried out through oral and predominantly written texts, i.e. through speech, speech activity.

The information function is performed by scientific and scientific-educational texts, it also manifests itself in official business documents: information letters, summaries, certificates, etc.

2) nominative, or denomination - one of the most important functions of language, which allows a person to navigate in space and time. The whole system of concepts that a person possesses is based on a system of names. Names are not only proper names, but also common nouns. The objects surrounding a person, necessary for him in his life and activity, necessarily receive names that are fixed in the language. In order for an object to receive a name, it is necessary for it to enter into public use, to become significant. Up to a point, you can get by with a descriptive name, but then it will need a separate name.

Over time, the name is inextricably linked with the subject itself, becoming its "deputy". In ancient times, many nations had a ban, a taboo, on the use of the names of close relatives, since it was believed that a name spoken aloud could harm a person. However, you can not put an equal sign between the name, the name, and the thing, the subject. It is a common misconception that many of our misfortunes stem from wrong names, and that as soon as the name is changed, everything will immediately change for the better. The desire for wholesale renaming is especially noticeable during periods of social upheaval. Renamed cities and streets, instead of one military ranks others are introduced, the militia becomes the police, technical schools and colleges become colleges and lyceums, institutes become academies and universities.

3) The main purpose of the language is to serve as the main means of information exchange, that is, a means of communication. Therefore, the most important function of language is communicative function, which lies in the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. Without communication, society could not exist, since it is communication that creates this society as a society.

The communicative function of language can act as a self-expression of a person. Many writers, poets create their creations for themselves, and their literary works- this is a self-disclosure of the spiritual world of the writer.

The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization. In addition, the language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.

This function is manifested most often in colloquial speech, in business conversations, negotiations, and is also characteristic of the written texts of some official documents: letters of inquiry, letters of response, etc.

4)Contact (phatic, contact-setting) the function provides a link between times and generations, the transfer of cultural values.

Ancient knowledge, culture, which have come down to us in the form of written texts (chronicles, chronicles, memoirs, official documents, etc.) record historical and cultural events, the life of individuals and peoples. In the forms of speech in different languages, contact is made with peoples whose culture, mentality and language itself are very far from ours. Today hypotheses of the language of interplanetary contacts are put forward and developed, the term space linguistics .

5) The function of forming and expressing thoughts - thought-forming (thinking)- can be recognized as the most important, since without its implementation informational, communicative, emotive, etc. can not be realized. A person's thought works almost continuously, with varying degrees of tension. These are memories, and reflections, and preparation for oral presentations, and the formation of a written text, and creative activity, etc.

6) The function of accumulating and saving information - cumulative (accumulative), it is realized primarily in written monuments - chronicles, memoirs, fiction, in works of oral folk art, in newspapers, documents, etc. The most valuable written sources from historical, scientific, practical and other points of view are kept in state archives; moreover, it is quite likely that some part of the storage materials will never be claimed by anyone; but all documents must be kept: protocols, correspondence, diaries, memoirs, etc.

7) Cognitive(or cognitive - from lat. sogpitio: "knowledge", epistemological) function is a form of reflection human environment reality and oneself, as well as a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality.

8) Impact function, or voluntarily (regulatory, imperative), manifested in the ability of the language to influence the recipient of information, induce him to action, to a response. A voluntarily function is a priority function for many official documents - administrative (order, resolution, decision, instruction, etc.), organizational (regulations, charter, regulations, rules, instructions, etc.).

The voluntative function of the language is manifested in speech by special lexical means, morphological forms ( special role inclination plays here), as well as intonation, word order, syntactic constructions. Voluntary function is aimed at creating, maintaining and regulating relations in human society.

A variation of the impact function is propaganda .

9) aesthetic function suggests that speech itself and its fragments can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, that is, as an aesthetic object. aesthetic function turns the text into a work of art: this is the sphere of creativity, fiction. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech, but not only for it - journalistic, scientific, and everyday colloquial speech can be aesthetically perfect.

10) Emotional (emotional-expressive, expressive), or emotive, a function is a function of expressing the internal state of a person, a means of expressing his feelings and emotions. It is realized in fiction, oratory, in a debatable speech - a dispute, polemic, friendly conversation, song, opera, dramatic art - in the theater.

In written official business speech, this function is typical only for electoral documents: for example, in the diplomatic style - in personal and verbal notes when referring to the addressee and in the complimentary part of the text, in Russian practice office work - in some letters (letter of gratitude, apology, invitation, etc.).

11) magical(or incantatory) the function is realized in special situations when the language is endowed with a kind of inhuman, "otherworldly" power. Examples are incantations, oaths, prayers, curses, and some other types of ritual texts.

All these functions are united by the fact that the language is intended and exists not for an individual, but for a certain society in which this language acts as a common code with which people are able to understand each other. In speech, all the functions of language are manifested.

Questions for self-examination:

What language features are characteristic of the texts of an official document?

How does the nominative function appear in official documents? Give examples.

What functions are not characteristic of the text of an official document? What is the reason for this?

What function of the language is a priority for the texts of official documents?

In what documents can an emotional function take place? Is it possible to express emotions in all official documents without exception?

What kind of function is the agitation function? What kind of documents does this feature apply to?

How is the communicative function manifested in oral and written business communication?

Language is usually defined in two aspects: the first is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical means that are a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, serving the most important means communication between people, i.e. language is a social phenomenon associated in its origin and development with the human collective; the second is a kind of speech characterized by certain stylistic features ( Kazakh language, colloquial).

Language as the main means of human communication is arranged in such a way as to adequately perform various functions to the intentions and desires of an individual linguistic personality and the tasks of the human community. In the very general view language functions are understood as the use of potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.

Language is not a natural phenomenon, and, therefore, does not obey biological laws. Language is not inherited, not passed on from older to younger. It originates in society. Arises spontaneously, gradually turns into a self-organizing system, which is designed to fulfill certain functions.

The first main function of language is cognitive(i.e. cognitive), meaning that language is the most important means of obtaining new knowledge about reality. The cognitive function relates language to mental activity person.

Without language, human communication is impossible, and without communication there can be no society, there cannot be a full-fledged personality (for example, Mowgli).

The second main function of language is communicative, which means that language is the most important means of human communication, i.e. communication, or the transmission from one person to another of a message for one purpose or another. Communicating with each other, people convey their thoughts, feelings, influence each other, achieve mutual understanding. The language gives them the opportunity to understand each other and to work together in all spheres of human activity.

The third main function is emotional and motivating. It is designed not only to express the attitude of the author of the speech to its content, but also to influence the listener, reader, interlocutor. It is realized in the means of evaluation, intonation, exclamation, interjections.

Other language features:

– thought-forming, since language not only conveys thought, but also forms it;

– accumulative is a function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality. In written monuments, oral folk art, the life of a people, nation, the history of native speakers is recorded;

– phatic (contact-setting) function-
tion - the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors (greeting formulas at a meeting and parting, exchange of remarks about the weather, etc.). The content and form of phatic communication depend on gender, age, social status, interlocutor relationships, but in general they are standard and minimally informative. Phatic communication helps to overcome lack of communication skills, disunity;

– conative function - the function of assimilation of information by the addressee, associated with empathy (the magical power of spells or curses in an archaic society or advertising texts in a modern one);

– appellative function - the function of an appeal, an inducement to certain actions (forms of the imperative mood, incentive sentences, etc.);

– aesthetic function - a function of aesthetic impact, manifested in the fact that the reader or listener begins to notice the text itself, its sound and verbal texture. A single word, turn, phrase begins to like or dislike. Speech can be perceived as something beautiful or ugly, i.e. as an aesthetic object;

– metalinguistic function (speech commentary) - the function of interpreting linguistic facts. The use of a language in a metalinguistic function is usually associated with difficulties in verbal communication, for example, when talking with a child, a foreigner, or another person who does not fully know the given language, style, or professional variety of the language. The metalinguistic function is realized in all oral and written statements about the language - in lessons and lectures, in dictionaries, educational and scientific literature about language.

LANGUAGE - social processed, historically changeable sign system serving as the main means of communication and representation different forms existence, each of which has at least one of the forms of implementation - oral or written.

SPEECH is one of the types communication activities person i.e. using language to communicate with others

Types of speech activity:

speaking

listening

The main functions of the language are:

communicative (function of communication);

thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);

expressive (function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);

aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).

Communicative function lies in the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of the participants in communication. Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.

From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function involves the installation of participants in speech communication on the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.

Thought-forming function lies in the fact that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of the language is organically connected with the categories of thinking. "The word, which alone is able to make a concept an independent unit in the world of thoughts, adds to it a lot of itself," wrote the founder of linguistics Wilhelm von Humboldt (Humboldt V. Selected Works on Linguistics. - M., 1984. P. 318).

This means that the word singles out and shapes the concept, and at the same time, a relationship is established between the units of thinking and the sign units of the language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that “language should accompany thought. Thought, not lagging behind language, should follow from one of its elements to another and find in language a designation for everything that makes it coherent” (Ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, “in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, must correspond with its structure to the internal organization of thinking” (Ibid.).

The speech of an educated person is distinguished by clarity of presentation own thought, accuracy of retelling other people's thoughts, consistency and informativeness.

Expressive the function allows the language to serve as a means of expressing the internal state of the speaker, not only to communicate some information, but also to express the speaker's attitude to the content of the message, to the interlocutor, to the situation of communication. Language expresses not only thoughts, but also emotions of a person. The expressive function involves the emotional brightness of speech within the framework of etiquette accepted in society.

Artificial languages do not have an expressive function.

aesthetic the function is to ensure that the message in its form, in unity with the content, satisfies the aesthetic sense of the addressee. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech (works of folklore, fiction), but not only for it - journalistic, scientific speech, and everyday colloquial speech can be aesthetically perfect.

The aesthetic function presupposes the richness and expressiveness of speech, its correspondence to the aesthetic tastes of the educated part of society.

language is system(from Greek. systema - something made up of parts). And if this is so, then all its constituent parts should not be a random set of elements, but some sort of ordered set of them.

What is the systemic nature of the language? First of all, the fact that the language has a hierarchical organization, in other words, it distinguishes various levels(from lowest to highest), each of which corresponds to a certain linguistic unit.

Usually there are the following levels of the language system: phonemic, morphemic, lexical and syntactic. Let us name and characterize the language units corresponding to them.

Phoneme- the simplest unit, indivisible and insignificant, serving to distinguish between minimal meaningful units (morphemes and words). For example: P ort - b ort, st about l - st at l.

Morpheme– minimum significant unit, not used independently (prefix, root, suffix, ending).

Word (lexeme)- a unit that serves to name objects, processes, phenomena, signs or points to them. This is the minimum nominative(named) unit language, consisting of morphemes.

The syntactic level corresponds to two language units: a phrase and a sentence.

phrase is a combination of two or more words between which there is a semantic and / or grammatical connection. A phrase, like a word, is a nominative unit.

Sentence- the main syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or a prompt. This unit is characterized by semantic formality and completeness. In contrast to the word - the nominative unit - it is communicative unit, as it serves to convey information in the process of communication.

Between the units of the language system, certain relations. Let's talk about them in more detail. The "mechanism" of the language is based on the fact that each language unit is included in two intersecting rows. One row, linear, horizontal, we directly observe in the text: this syntagmatic line, where units of the same level are combined (from the Greek. syntagma - something connected). At the same time, lower-level units serve building material for higher level units.

An example of syntagmatic relations is the compatibility of sounds: [high Moscow]; grammatical compatibility of words and morphemes: play football, play the violin; blue ball, blue notebook, under+windows+nickname; lexical compatibility: desk, work at the table, mahogany table -"piece of furniture" plentiful table, dietary table - food, food, passport office, information desk"department in the institution" and other types of relations of language units.

The second row is non-linear, vertical, not given in direct observation. it paradigmatic series, i.e. a given unit and other units of the same level associated with it by one or another association - formal, meaningful similarity, opposition and other relationships (from the Greek. paradeigma - example, sample).

The simplest example of paradigmatic relations is the paradigm (sample) of the declension or conjugation of a word: house, ~ a, ~ at ...; I'm coming, ~eat, ~et... Paradigms form interrelated meanings of the same polysemantic word ( table– 1. piece of furniture; 2. food, nutrition; 3. department in the institution); synonymous rows (cold-blooded, restrained, imperturbable, balanced, calm); antonymic pairs (wide - narrow, open - close); units of the same class (verbs of movement, kinship designations, tree names, etc.), etc.

It follows from the foregoing that linguistic units are stored in our linguistic consciousness not in isolation, but as interconnected elements of a kind of "blocks" - paradigms. The use of these units in speech is determined by their internal properties, by the place this or that unit occupies among other units of this class. Such storage of "linguistic material" is convenient and economical. AT Everyday life we usually don't notice any paradigms. Nevertheless, they are one of the foundations of knowledge of the language. After all, it is no coincidence that when a student makes a mistake, the teacher asks him to decline or conjugate this or that word, to form desired shape, clarify the meaning, choose the most appropriate word from the synonymic series, in other words, refer to the paradigm.

So, the consistency of the language is manifested in its level organization, the existence of various language units that are in certain relationships with each other.

Language functions: communicative, mental, cognitive, nominative. Cognitive function of language

2. Define Functional Styles literary language

3. Consider such figures of speech as antithesis, rhetorical appeal, rhetorical question

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