Subject: "Russian language"

On the topic: "Language as the most important means of human communication"

INTRODUCTION

AT Ancient Greece and Rome was already developing a culture of the native word. Ancient world brought up wonderful poets, writers, playwrights - masters of artistic speech. This world gave the stories of outstanding speakers who set and decided important questions speech skill. In society, the understanding of the usefulness and necessity of good speech grew, respect for those who knew how to appreciate and successfully use their native language was strengthened. Techniques for exemplary use of language were studied in special schools.

Later, in various countries, including Russia, advanced social circles jealously protected their native language from damage and distortion. The consciousness of the fact that speech is a powerful force, if a person is willing and able to use it, grew stronger. This consciousness became the clearer and more definite, the more successful and wider the development of artistic, scientific and journalistic literature.

In Russia, the struggle for speech culture has received a comprehensive development in the works of M. V. Lomonosov and A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol and I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov and A. P., Chekhov, A. I. Kuprin and M. Gorky - in the work of those whom we call the classics of Russian artistic word; political and judicial figures, orators, scientists contributed to the formation of exemplary Russian speech.

In their practical activities and theoretical statements, an understanding of the multilateral role of language in the development of fiction, science, journalism. The originality, richness and beauty of the Russian language, the participation of the people in its development were increasingly appreciated. The activities of the revolutionary democrats - V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. A. Nekrasov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin - made it possible to understand even more deeply the national significance of the language and participation of literature in its improvement.

Marxist philosophical doctrine played an important role in the development of correct views on language. K. Marx and F. Engels in "The German Ideology" (1845-1846) formulated the famous philosophical definition of language. It expresses thoughts about language as a means of communication and cognition of reality, about the unity of language and thinking, about the initial connection of language with the life of society.

The Marxist understanding of the role of language in people's lives is briefly and clearly conveyed by the well-known words of V. I. Lenin - "language is the most important means of human communication." The need for communication was the main reason for the emergence of language in the distant past. The same need is the main external reason for the development of the language throughout the life of society.

Communication of people with the help of language consists in the "exchange" of thoughts, feelings, experiences, moods.

Words, combinations of words and sentences express certain results mental activity people (concepts, judgments, conclusions). For example, the word tree expresses the concept of one of the plant species. And in the sentence the green tree expresses the idea of ​​the presence of a certain feature (green) in a certain object (tree). Thus, the sentence expresses a qualitatively different result of a person's cognitive work - in comparison with the result that is expressed in a single word.

But words, their combinations and whole statements not only express concepts and thoughts: they participate in the very process of thinking, with their help thoughts arise, form, and therefore become a fact of a person’s inner life. IP Pavlov substantiated the materialistic position that human thoughts cannot exist and develop outside of speech. The "second signaling system" (language) is involved in the formation of thought. That is why psychologists talk about the perfection of thought in the word.

LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION.

The world is full of wonders. Isn't it a miracle that we can talk to people who are in another city, and at the same time see them? Or observe from the Earth what is happening in spaceship? Or watch sports games in the other hemisphere? Is it just this? But among the various miracles, we somehow do not pay attention to one of the most amazing - our native language.

Human language is an amazing, unique miracle. Well, what would we, people, cost without language? It is simply impossible to imagine us as speechless. After all, it was language that helped us stand out from the animals. Scientists have known this for a long time. “The scattered peoples gather in hostels, build cities, build temples and ships, take up arms against the enemy and other necessary, allied forces that require work to do, as if it were possible if they had no way to communicate their thoughts to each other.” This was written by M.V. Lomonosov in mid-seventeenth century in his "Concise Guide to Eloquence". Two of the most important features of the language, more precisely, two of its functions, were indicated here by Lomonosov: the function of communication between people and the function of shaping thoughts.

Language is defined as a means of human communication. This is one of possible definitions language is the main thing, because it characterizes the language not from the point of view of its organization, structure, etc., but from the point of view of what it is intended for. But why is it important? Are there other means of communication? Yes, there are. An engineer can communicate with a colleague without knowing his native language, but they will understand each other if they use blueprints. Drawing is usually defined as the international language of engineering. The musician conveys his feelings with the help of a melody, and the listeners understand him. The artist thinks in images and expresses it with lines and colors. And all these are “languages”, so often they say “the language of the poster”, “the language of music”. But this is another meaning of the word language.

Let's take a look at the modern four-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language. It gives 8 meanings of the word language, among them:

1. Organ in the oral cavity.

2. This human organ, involved in the formation of speech sounds and thus in the verbal reproduction of thoughts; organ of speech.

3. A system of verbal expression of thoughts, which has a certain sound and grammatical structure and serves as a means of communication between people.

4. A type of speech that has certain characteristic features; style, style.

5. A means of wordless communication.

6. Outdated. People.

The fifth meaning refers to the language of music, the language of flowers, etc.

And the sixth, obsolete, means the people. As you can see, the most important ethnographic feature is taken to define the people - its language. Remember, Pushkin:

The rumor about me will spread throughout the great Russia,

And every language that is in it will call me,

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild

Tungus, and a Kalmyk friend of the steppes.

But all these "languages" do not replace the main thing - the verbal language of a person. And Lomonosov wrote about this at one time: “True, besides our word, it would be possible to depict thoughts through different movements of the eyes, face, hands and other parts of the body, somehow pantomimes are presented in theaters, but in this way it would be impossible to speak without light , and other human exercises, especially the work of our hands, were a great insanity for such a conversation.

Indeed, we have now become convinced that with the help of the "movement of body parts" it is possible, for example, to tell "Anna Karenina" by L. N. Tolstoy. We enjoy watching a ballet on this topic, but only those who have read the novel understand it. It is impossible to reveal the rich content of Tolstoy's work in the ballet. The language of words cannot be replaced by any other.

Thus, language is the most important means of communication. What qualities must he possess to become just that?

First of all, everyone who speaks the language must know the language. There is, as it were, some general agreement that we will call the table the word table, and the run - the word run. It is impossible to decide now how it happened, because the paths are very different. For example, the word satellite in our time has acquired a new meaning - "a device launched with the help of rocket devices." The date of birth of this value can be indicated absolutely exactly - October 4, 1957, when the radio announced the launch of the first artificial satellite Earth. "This word immediately became known in this sense and entered into the everyday life of all the peoples of the world.

Here is the "agreement" for you. Everything is simple here, although such a meaning itself was already prepared by the Russian language: in the XI-XIII centuries it had the meaning of “comrade on the road” and “accompanying in life”, then - “satellite of the planets”. And from here it is not far to a new meaning - "a device accompanying the Earth."

But often not all words are known to speakers of given language. And then normal communication is disrupted. Most of all, this is connected with foreign words. But misunderstanding can also be associated with original Russian words known only in a certain territory, or with words that are rarely used, outdated.

But if there are a lot of similar words, it makes it difficult to read the text. Therefore, critics oppose such a heap of dialectisms. This is what the satirists laugh at.

Difficult communication and professional words, known only to people of this profession. However, professional vocabulary is a very important part of the vocabulary of the language. It contributes to a more accurate and fruitful communication of people of a certain profession, which is extremely necessary. The larger and more accurate the dictionary, the more detailed it allows you to talk about the processes, the higher the quality of the work.

The intelligibility of language ensures its role in the organization of people. Born as a product of collective labor, the language is still called upon to unite people in labor activity, in the field of culture, etc.

The second quality on which depends communication, language should cover everything that surrounds a person, including his inner world. This, however, does not mean at all that the language should exactly repeat the structure of the world. We really have "words for every essence," as A. Tvardovsky said. But even that which does not have a one-word name can be successfully expressed by combinations of words.

It is much more important that the same concept in the language can have, and very often has, several names. Moreover, it is believed that the richer such rows of words - synonyms, the richer the language is recognized. This shows an important point; language reflects the external world, but is not absolutely adequate to it.

Here, for example, is the color spectrum. There are several primary colors of the spectrum. It now relies on precise physical indicators. As you know, the light of the waves various lengths excites different color sensations. It is difficult to separate exactly “by eye”, for example, red and purple, which is why we usually combine them into one color - red. And how many words exist for designating this color: red, scarlet, crimson, bloody, rye, red, ruby, pomegranate, pure, and one could also add - cherry, raspberry, etc.! Try to distinguish between these words according to the length of light waves. It will fail, because they are filled with their own special shades of significance.

The fact that the language does not blindly copy the surrounding reality, but somehow in its own way, highlighting something more, attaching less importance to something, is one of the amazing and far from fully explored mysteries.

The two most important functions of the language that we have considered do not exhaust all its advantages and features. Some will be discussed next. And now let's think about how, on what grounds we can evaluate a person. Of course, you will say, there are many reasons for this: his appearance, attitude towards other people, towards work, etc. All this, of course, is true. But language also helps us to characterize a person.

They say: they meet by clothes, see off by mind. How do you know about the mind? Of course, from the speech of a person, from how and what he says. His dictionary characterizes a person, that is, how many words he knows - little or a lot. So, the writers I. Ilf and E. Petrov, having decided to create the image of a primitive bourgeois Ellochka Shchukina, first of all, spoke about her dictionary: “William Shakespeare's dictionary, according to researchers, is twelve thousand words. The vocabulary of a negro from the cannibalistic tribe of Mumbo Yumbo is three hundred words. Ellochka Shchukina easily and freely managed thirty ... ”The image of Ellochka the Cannibal became a symbol of an extremely primitive person and one sign contributed to this - her language.

How many words does the average person know? Scholars believe that vocabulary ordinary person, i.e. who does not specialize in the language (not a writer, linguist, literary critic, journalist, etc.) is about five thousand. And against this background, the quantitative indicator of the genius of outstanding people looks very expressive. The Dictionary of Pushkin's Language, compiled by scientists on the basis of Pushkin's texts, contains 21,290 words.

Thus, language can be defined as a means of knowing the human person, as well as a means of knowing the people as a whole.

Here it is - the miracle of the language! But that's not all. Each National language there is also a pantry of the people who speak it, and its memory.

LANGUAGE IS THE TREASURY OF THE PEOPLE, ITS MEMORY.

When a historian seeks to restore and describe the events of the distant past, he turns to various sources available to him, which are objects of that time, eyewitness accounts (if they are recorded), oral folk art. But among these sources there is one most reliable - the language. The well-known historian of the last century, Professor L. K-Kotlyarevsky noted: "Language is the surest, and sometimes the only witness to the past life of the people."

The words and their meanings reflect and have survived to this day the echoes of very distant times, the facts of the life of our distant ancestors, the conditions of their work and relationships, the struggle for freedom and independence, etc.

Let's take a specific example. Before us is a series of words, as if unremarkable, but connected by a common meaning: share, fate, destiny, happiness, luck. Academician B. A. Rybakov analyzes them in his work “Paganism of the Ancient Slavs”: “This group of words can even go back to the hunting era, to the division of prey between hunters who divided the prey, gave each a corresponding share, part, giving something to women and children - “happiness” was the right to participate in this division and receive their share (part). Here everything is quite concrete, "weighty, rude, visible."

These words could retain exactly the same meaning in an agricultural society with a primitive collective economy: share and part meant that share of the total harvest that fell on a given family. But in the conditions of agriculture, the old words could acquire a new dual-opposite meaning: when the highway of the primitive zadrugi distributed work among the plowmen and divided the arable land into plots, then one could get a good "lot", and the other - a bad one. Under these conditions, the words required a qualitative definition: "good lot" (plot), "bad lot". It was here that the birth of abstract concepts took place ... "

This is what the historian saw in our modern words. It turns out that they contain the deepest memory of the past. And one more similar example.

In one of his works, N. G. Chernyshevsky noted: “The composition of the lexicon corresponds to the knowledge of the people, testifies ... about its everyday activities and lifestyle, and partly about its relations with other peoples.”

Indeed, the language of each era contains the knowledge of the people in this era. Follow the meaning of the word atom in different dictionaries of different times, and you will see the process of comprehending the structure of the atom: first - "further indivisible", then - "split". At the same time, the dictionaries of past years serve as reference books for us about the life of those times, about the attitude of people to the world and the environment. No wonder " Dictionary of the living Great Russian language” V. I. Dahl is considered “an encyclopedia of Russian life”. In this amazing dictionary we find information about beliefs and superstitions, about the life of people.

And this is not an accident. If you try to reveal the content of the word, then you will inevitably have to touch on the phenomena of life that words designate. Thus, we have come to the second sign, called by N. G. Chernyshevsky "everyday activities and way of life." The everyday activities of the Russian people are reflected in numerous words, directly calling these activities, for example: beekeeping - extracting honey from wild bees, tar farming - forcing tar out of wood, carting - winter transportation of goods by peasants when there was no work on agriculture, etc. The words kvass, cabbage soup (shti), pancakes, porridge and many others reflect Russian folk cuisine; the monetary units of the long-standing monetary systems are reflected in the words grosh, altyn, dime. It should be noted that metric, monetary and some other systems, as a rule, have different peoples expressed in their own words, and this is exactly what makes up the national features of the vocabulary of the national language.

Relations between people, moral commandments, as well as customs and rituals were reflected in the stable combinations of the Russian language. M. A. Sholokhov in the preface to the collection of V. I. Dahl “Proverbs of the Russian people” wrote: “The variety of human relations, which are imprinted in chased folk sayings and aphorisms, is boundless. From the abyss of time, in these clumps of reason and knowledge of life, human joy and suffering, laughter and tears, love and anger, faith and unbelief, truth and falsehood, honesty and deceit, diligence and laziness, the beauty of truths and the ugliness of prejudices have come down to us.

The third provision, noted by N. G. Chernyshevsky, is also important - “relationships with other peoples”. These relationships were not always good. Here and the invasion of enemy hordes, and peaceful trade relations. As a rule, the Russian language borrowed from other languages ​​only what was good in them. The statement of A. S. Pushkin is curious in this regard: “... An alien language was spread not by a saber and fires, but by its own abundance and superiority. What new concepts that required new words could be brought to us by a nomadic tribe of barbarians who had neither literature, nor trade, nor legislation? Their invasion left no traces in the language of the educated Chinese, and our ancestors, groaning under the Tatar yoke for two centuries, prayed to the Russian god in their native language, cursed the formidable rulers and passed on their lamentations to each other. Be that as it may, hardly fifty Tatar words passed into the Russian language.

Indeed, the language as the basis of the nation was preserved very carefully. An excellent example of how people value their language can serve as the Cossacks - Nekrasov. The descendants of the participants in the Bulavin uprising, who suffered religious persecution in Russia, left for Turkey. They lived there for two or three centuries, but kept the language, customs and rituals pure. Only concepts new to them were borrowed in the form of words from the Turkish language. The original language has been completely preserved.

The formation of the Russian language took place in difficult conditions: there was a secular language - Old Russian, and Church Slavonic, in which services were conducted in churches, spiritual literature was printed. A. S. Pushkin wrote; “Have we become convinced that the Slavic language is not the Russian language, and that we cannot mix them willfully, that if many words, many phrases can be happily borrowed from church books, then it does not follow from this that we can write and lobzhet kiss me instead of kissing me."

And yet, the role of borrowing as a result of communication between peoples cannot be discounted. Borrowings were the result of important events. One of these events was the baptism in Russia in the X-XI centuries and the adoption of Christianity of the Byzantine model. Of course, this should have been reflected in the language. I. was reflected. Let's start with the fact that books were needed that would set forth church canons. Such books appeared, they were translated from Greek. But in the church the service went on Old Church Slavonic(aka Church Slavonic). Therefore, translations were made into Old Church Slavonic.

And the people in Russia spoke secular - Old Russian. It was used both for chronicles and for other literature. The existence of two languages ​​in parallel could not but affect the influence of Old Church Slavonic on Old Russian. That is why we have preserved many Old Slavonic words in modern Russian.

And the further history of our country can be traced by outbreaks of foreign borrowings. Peter I began to carry out his reforms, build a fleet - Dutch, German words appeared in the language. The Russian aristocracy showed interest in France - French borrowings invaded. They did not come from the war with the French, but from cultural ties.

It is curious that all the best was borrowed from each nation. What, for example, did we borrow from French? These are words related to cuisine (famous French cuisine), fashion, clothing, theater, ballet. The Germans borrowed technical and military words, the Italians borrowed musical and kitchen words.

However, the Russian language has not lost its national specificity. The poet Y. Smelyakov said very well about this:

You, our great-grandfathers, are in short supply,

Having powdered the face with flour,

grinded at the Russian mill

visiting Tatar language.

You took a little German

even though they could do more

so that they don't get it alone

the scientific importance of the earth.

You, who smelled of rotten sheepskin

and grandfather's sharp kvass,

written with a black torch,

And a white swan feather.

You are above prices and rates -

in the forty-first year, then,

wrote in a German dungeon

on weak lime with a nail.

Lords and those disappeared,

instantly and surely

when accidentally encroached

to the Russian essence of the language.

And it is also worth recalling here the words of Academician V.V. Vinogradov: “The power and greatness of the Russian language are indisputable evidence of the great vitality of the Russian people, its original and high national culture and its great and glorious historical destiny.”

HOW LANGUAGE IS BUILT.

A language can successfully fulfill its main purpose (i.e., serve as a means of communication) because it is "composed" of a huge number of different units, bound friend with other language laws. This fact is what they mean when they say that the language has a special structure (structure). Learning the structure of language helps people improve their speech.

In order for the most in general terms to imagine the linguistic structure, let's think about the content and construction of a single phrase, for example, this: For the shores of your homeland, you left a foreign land (Pushkin). This phrase (statement) expresses a certain, more or less independent meaning and is perceived by the speaker and the listener (reader) as an integral unit of speech. But does this mean that it is not divided into smaller segments, parts? No, of course it doesn't. Such segments, parts of a whole statement, we can detect very easily. However, not all of them are the same in their characteristics. To see this, let's try to isolate, to begin with, the smallest sound segments of our utterance. To do this, we will divide it into parts until there is nothing more to divide. What will happen? Get vowels and consonants:

D-l-a b-i-r-e-g-o-f a-t-h-i-z-n-s d-a-l-n-o-th T-s p-a-k -i-d-a-l-a k-r-a-y h-u-zh-o-d.

This is what our statement looks like if it is divided into separate sounds (the literal representation of these sounds is not very accurate here, because the sound of speech cannot be accurately conveyed by ordinary means of writing). Thus, we can say that the sound of speech is one of those linguistic units that in their totality form the language, its structure. But, of course, this is not the only unit of the language.

Let us ask ourselves: what are speech sounds used in language for? The answer to this question is not immediately found. But still, apparently, one can notice that the sound shells of words are built from the sounds of speech: after all, there is not a single word that would not be composed of sounds. Further, it turns out that the sounds of speech have the ability to distinguish the meanings of words, that is, they reveal some, albeit very fragile, connection with the meaning. Let's take a series of words: house - ladies - gave - small - ball - was - howl - ox. How does each subsequent word in this series differ from its predecessor? Just a change in sound. But this is enough for us to perceive the words of our series as different from each other and in meaning. Therefore, in linguistics it is customary to say that speech sounds are used to distinguish between the meanings of words and their grammatical modifications (forms). If two different words are pronounced the same way, that is, their sound shells are composed of the same sounds, then such words do not differ from us, and in order for us to perceive their semantic differences, these words must be connected with other words, t i.e. substitute in the statement. These are the words scythe "tool" and scythe (maiden), key "spring" and key (key), start (clock) and start (puppy). These and similar words are called homonyms.

The sounds of speech are used to distinguish between the meanings of words, but in themselves they are insignificant: neither the sound a, nor the sound y, nor the sound same, nor any other separate sound is connected in the language with any specific meaning. As part of a word, sounds jointly express its meaning, but not directly, but through other units of the language, called morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest semantic parts of a language used to form words and to change them (these are prefixes, suffixes, endings, roots). Our statement is divided into morphemes as follows:

For the shores of the otch-izn-s far-n-oh You are a kid-a-l-a foreign land.

Sound, speech is not connected, as we have seen, with any definite meaning. The morpheme is significant: with each root, suffix, ending, with each prefix, this or that meaning is associated in the language. Therefore, we must call the morpheme the smallest structural and semantic unit of the language. How to justify such a complex term? This can be done: the morpheme is indeed the smallest semantic unit of the language, it participates in the construction of words, is a particle of the structure of the language.

Having recognized the morpheme as the semantic unit of the language, we must not, however, lose sight of the fact that this unit of the language is devoid of independence: outside the word, it has no specific meaning, it is impossible to build an utterance from morphemes. Only by comparing a number of words that are similar in meaning and sound, we find that the morpheme turns out to be the bearer of a certain meaning. For example, the suffix -nickname in the words hunter-nick, season-nick, carpenter-nick, balalaika, eysot-nick, defender-nick, worker-nick has the same meaning - informs about the figure, acting person; the prefix po- in the words ran, no-played, sat, no-read, sighed, no-thought informs about the shortness and limitation of the action.

So, the sounds of speech only distinguish the meaning, while morphemes express it: each individual sound of speech is not associated in the language with any specific meaning, each individual morpheme is connected, although this connection is found only in the composition of a whole word (or a series of words), which and forces us to recognize the morpheme as a dependent semantic and structural unit of the language.

Let's return to the saying For the shores of the homeland, you left the land of a stranger. We have already identified two kinds of linguistic units in it: the shortest sound units, or speech sounds, and the shortest structural-semantic units, or morphemes. Does it have units larger than morphemes? Of course there is. These are well-known (at least in their name) words. If a morpheme, as a rule, is built from a combination of sounds, then a word, as a rule, is formed from a combination of morphemes. Does this mean that the difference between a word and a morpheme is purely quantitative? Far from it. After all, there are such words that contain a single morpheme: you, cinema, only what, how, where. Then - and this is the main thing! - the word has a definite and independent meaning, while the morpheme, as already mentioned, is not independent in its meaning. The main difference between a word and a morpheme is created not by the amount of "sounding matter", but by the quality, ability or inability of a linguistic unit to independently express a certain content. The word, due to its independence, is directly involved in the construction of sentences, which are divided into words. The word is the shortest independent structural and semantic unit of the language.

The role of words in speech is very great: our thoughts, experiences, feelings are expressed by words, combined statements. The semantic independence of words is explained by the fact that each of them denotes a certain “object”, a phenomenon of life and expresses a certain concept. Tree, city, cloud, blue, lively, honest, sing, think, believe - behind each of these sounds are objects, their properties, actions and phenomena, each of these words expresses a concept, a "piece" of thought. However, the meaning of the word is not reducible to the concept. The meaning reflects not only the objects themselves, things, qualities, properties, actions and states, but also our attitude towards them. In addition, the meaning of a word usually reflects various semantic connections of this word with other words. Having heard the word native, we will perceive not only the concept, but also the feeling coloring it; in our minds there will arise, albeit very weakened, ideas about other meanings historically associated in Russian with this word. These ideas will be different for different people, and the very word native will cause some differences in its understanding and evaluation. One, having heard this word, will think of his relatives, the other - of his beloved, the third - of friends, the fourth - of the Motherland ...

This means that both sound units (speech sounds) and semantic units, but not independent ones (morphemes), are needed, after all, in order for words to arise - these are the shortest independent carriers of a certain meaning, these smallest parts of statements.

All words of a particular language are called its vocabulary (from the Greek lexis "word") or vocabulary. The development of language unites words and separates them. On the basis of their historical association, various vocabulary groups are formed. These groups cannot be “lined up” in one row for the reason that they are distinguished in the language on the basis of not one, but several different features. So, in the language there are vocabulary groups formed as a result of the interaction of languages. For example, in the vocabulary of modern Russian literary language there are many words of foreign origin - French, German, Italian, ancient Greek, Latin, ancient Bulgarian and others.

By the way, there is a very good manual for mastering foreign vocabulary - “Dictionary foreign words».

There are vocabulary groups of a completely different nature in the language, for example, active and passive words, synonyms and antonyms, local and general literary words, terms and non-terms.

It is curious that among the most active words in our language are the unions and, a; prepositions in, on; pronouns he, I, you; nouns year, day, eye, hand, time; adjectives big, different, new, good, young; verbs to be, to be able, to speak, to know, to go; adverbs very, now, now, it is possible, good, etc. Such words are the most common in speech, that is, they are most often needed by speakers and writers.

Now we will be interested in a new, important question in the study of the structure of language: it turns out that by themselves, individual words, no matter how active they are in our speech, cannot express coherent thoughts - judgments and conclusions. But people need such a means of communication that could express coherent thoughts. This means that the language must have some kind of “device”, with the help of which words could be combined to build statements that can convey a person’s thought.

Let's return to the sentence For the shores of the homeland, you left the land of a stranger. Let us take a closer look at what happens to words when they are included in the composition of an utterance. We can relatively easily notice that one and the same word can change not only its appearance, but also its grammatical form, and hence its grammatical features and characteristics. So, the word coast is put in our sentence in the form of the genitive plural; the word fatherland - in the form of the genitive case of the singular; the word distant is also in the form of the genitive case of the singular; the word you appeared in its "initial" form; the word leave “adapted” to the word you and the expressed meaning and received signs of the past tense, singular, feminine; the word edge has signs of the accusative case of the singular; the word alien is endowed with the same signs of case and number and received the masculine form, since the word edge “requires” from the adjective precisely this generic form.

Thus, by observing the "behavior" of words in various utterances, we can establish some schemes (or rules) according to which words naturally change their form and are associated with each other to build utterances. These schemes of the regular alternation of grammatical forms of the word in the construction of statements are studied at school: the declension of nouns, adjectives, conjugation of verbs, etc.

But we know that declension, conjugation, and various rules for linking words into sentences and constructing sentences are no longer vocabulary, but something else, what is called the grammatical structure of the language, or its grammar. It is not necessary to think that grammar is some set of information about the language compiled by scientists. No, grammar is, first of all, the schemes inherent in the language itself, the rules (regularities) to which the change in the grammatical form of words and the construction of sentences are subject.

However, the concept of "grammar" cannot be clearly explained if the question of the duality of the very nature of the word is not, at least schematically, incompletely considered: for example, the word spring is an element of the vocabulary of the language and it is also an element of the grammar of the language. What does it mean?

This means that each word, in addition to individual features inherent only to it, also has common features that are the same for large groups of words. The words window, sky and tree, for example, are different words, and each of them has its own special sound and meaning. However, they all have features that are common to them: they all designate an object in the broadest sense of this term, they all belong to the so-called neuter gender, they can all change in cases and numbers and will receive the same endings. And now, with its individual features, each word is included in the vocabulary, and with its general features, the same word is included in the grammatical structure of the language.

All the words of the language, coinciding in their common features, form one large group, called the part of speech. Each part of speech has its own grammatical properties. For example, the verb differs from the name of the numeral both in meaning (the verb denotes an action, the numeral denotes a quantity), and in formal signs (the verb changes according to moods, tenses, persons, numbers, genders - in the past tense and the subjunctive mood; all verb forms have a voice and specific characteristics; and the numeral changes according to cases, genera - only three numerals have forms of the genus: two, one and a half, both). Parts of speech refer to the morphology of the language, which, in turn, is an integral part of its grammatical structure. In morphology, the word enters, as already mentioned, with its common features, namely: 1) its general meanings, which are called grammatical; 2) their common formal signs - endings, less often - suffixes, prefixes, etc.; 3) general patterns (rules) of its change.

Let's take a look at these words. Do the words have common, grammatical meanings? Of course: to walk, to think, to speak, to write, to meet, to love - these are words with a general meaning of action; walked, thought, spoke, wrote, met, loved - here the same words reveal two more common meanings: they indicate that actions were performed in the past, and that they were performed by one person "male"; below, in the distance, in front, above - these words have the general meaning of a sign of certain actions. It is enough to look at the verbs just given to make sure that the words also have common formal signs: in the indefinite form, the verbs of the Russian language usually end with the suffix -т, in the past tense they have the suffix -l, when they change in the present tense, they get the same endings, etc. Adverbs also have a peculiar common formal sign: they do not change.

It is also easy to see that words have general patterns (rules) for their change. The forms I read - I read - I will read do not differ, if you keep in mind general rules changes in words, from forms I play - I played - I will play, I meet - I met - I will meet, I know - I knew - I will know. At the same time, it is important that the grammatical changes of a word affect not only its “shell”, its external form, but also its general meaning: I read, I play, I meet, I know, they denote an action carried out by one person at 1 moment of speech; read, played, met, knew indicate an action carried out by one person in the past; but I will read, I will play, I will meet, I will know express concepts about actions that will be carried out by one person after the moment of speech, that is, in the future. If the word does not change, then this sign - immutability - turns out to be common to many words, that is, grammatical (recall adverbs).

Finally, the morphological "nature" of a word is revealed in its ability to enter into relations of domination or subordination with other words in a sentence, to require the attachment of a dependent word in the required case form, or to take on one or another case form itself. So, nouns easily obey verbs and just as easily obey adjectives: read (what?) A book, book (what?) New. Adjectives, being subordinate to nouns, can hardly enter into connection with verbs, comparatively rarely subordinate nouns and adverbs to themselves. Words belonging to different parts of speech are involved in the construction of a phrase in different ways, that is, a combination of two significant words related by the method of subordination. But, speaking of word combinations, we move from the area of ​​morphology to the area of ​​syntax, to the area of ​​sentence construction. So, what have we been able to establish by looking at how the language works? Its structure includes the shortest sound units - the sounds of speech, as well as the shortest non-independent structural and semantic units - morphemes. A particularly prominent place in the structure of the language is occupied by words - the shortest independent semantic units that can participate in the construction of a sentence. Words reveal the duality (and even trinity) of their linguistic nature: they are the most important units of the vocabulary of the language, they are the components of a special mechanism that creates new words, word formation, they are also units of the grammatical structure, in particular morphology, language. The morphology of a language is a set of parts of speech in which common grammatical meanings of words are revealed, common formal signs of these meanings, general properties compatibility and general patterns (rules) of change.

But morphology is one of two constituent parts grammatical structure of the language. The second part is called the syntax of the language. Having met this term, we begin to remember what it is. In our minds, not very clear ideas about simple and complex sentences, about composition and subordination, about coordination, management and adjunction. Let's try to make these representations more distinct.

Once again, we call on our proposal for help. For the shores of the distant homeland, you left a foreign land, In its composition, phrases are easily distinguished: oh th?) stranger. In each of the four marked phrases there are two words - one main, dominant, the other - subordinate, dependent. But none of the phrases individually, nor all of them together, could express a coherent thought if there were not a special pair of words in the sentence that constitutes the grammatical center of the utterance. This couple: you left. This is the subject and predicate known to us. Combining them with each other gives a new, most important from the point of view of expressing thought, a unit of language - a sentence. The word in the composition of the sentence acquires temporarily new signs for it: it can become completely independent, dominating is the subject; a word can express such a sign that will tell us about the existence of an object indicated by the subject - this is a predicate. A word in a sentence can act as an addition, in which case it will denote an object and will be in a position dependent on another word. Etc.

The members of a sentence are the same words and their combinations, but included in the statement and expressing different relationships to each other based on its content. In different sentences, we will find the same members of the sentence, because parts of statements that are different in meaning can be connected by the same relations. The sun illuminated the earth and the Boy read the book - these are very far from each other statements, if we keep in mind their specific meaning. But at the same time, these are the same statements, if we keep in mind their general, grammatical features, semantic and formal. The sun and the boy alike designate an independent object, illuminated and read alike indicate such signs that tell us about the existence of an object; the earth and the book equally express the concept of the subject to which the action is directed and extended.

The sentence, by its specific meaning, is not included in the syntax of the language. The specific meaning of the sentence is included in various areas human knowledge about the world, therefore it is interested in science, journalism, literature, it interests people in the process of work and life, but linguistics is cold to it. Why? Simply because the concrete content is, after all, those very thoughts, feelings, experiences, for the expression of which both the language as a whole and its most important unit, the sentence, exist.

The sentence enters the syntax with its general meaning, general, grammatical features: the meanings of narrative interrogation, motivation, etc., general formal signs (intonation, word order, conjunctions and allied words, etc.), general patterns (rules) of its construction.

The whole infinite set of already created and newly created statements on grammatical grounds can be reduced to relatively few types of sentences. They differ depending on the purpose of the statement (narrative, interrogative and incentive) and on the structure (simple and complex - compound and complex). Sentences of one type (say, narrative) differ from sentences of another type (say, incentives) both in their grammatical meanings, and in their formal signs (means), for example, intonation, and, of course, in the laws of their construction.

Therefore, we can say that the syntax of a language is a collection of different types of sentences, each having its own common grammatical meanings, common formal signs, general patterns (rules) of its construction, necessary to express a specific meaning.

Thus, what in science is called the structure of a language turns out to be a very complex “mechanism”, consisting of many different component “parts”, connected into a single whole according to certain rules and jointly performing a large and important work for people. The success or failure of this "work" in each case depends not on the linguistic "mechanism", but on the people who use it, on their ability or inability, willingness or unwillingness to use its powerful force.

ROLE OF LANGUAGE.

Language was created and is developing because the need for communication constantly accompanies the work and life of people, and its satisfaction is necessary. Therefore, language, being a means of communication, has been and remains a constant ally and helper of a person in his work, in his life.

The labor activity of people, no matter how complex or simple it may be, is carried out with the obligatory participation of the language. Even in automated factories run by a few workers and where the need for language seems to be small, it is still needed. Indeed, in order to establish and maintain the smooth operation of such an enterprise, it is necessary to build perfect mechanisms and train people capable of managing them. But for this you need to acquire knowledge, technical experience, you need a deep and intense work of thought. And it is clear that neither the mastery of work experience, nor the work of thought is possible without the use of a language that allows you to read, books, listen to lectures, talk, exchange advice, etc.

The role of language in the development of science, fiction, educational activities of society is even more obvious, more accessible for understanding. It is impossible to develop science without relying on what it has already achieved, without expressing and consolidating the work of thought in words. The bad language of essays in which certain scientific results, greatly complicates the mastery of science. It is no less obvious that serious shortcomings in speech, through which the achievements of science are popularized, can erect a “Chinese wall” between the author of a scientific work and its readers.

The development of fiction is inextricably linked with language, which, according to M. Gorky, serves as the "primary element" of literature. The fuller and deeper the writer reflects life in his works, the more perfect their language should be. Writers often forget this simple truth. M. Gorky was able to convincingly remind her in time: “The main material of literature is the word, which forms all our impressions, feelings, thoughts. Literature is the art of plastic representation through the word. The classics teach us that the more simply, clearly, clearly the semantic and figurative content of the word, the more firmly, truthfully and steadily the image of the landscape and its influence on a person, the image of a person’s character and his relationship to people.

The role of language in agitation and propaganda work is also very noticeable. To improve the language of our newspapers, radio broadcasts, television programs, our lectures and conversations on political and scientific topics is a very important task. Indeed, back in 1906, V. I. Lenin wrote that we should “be able to speak simply and clearly, in a language accessible to the masses, decisively throwing away the heavy artillery of tricky terms, foreign words, memorized, ready, but still incomprehensible to the masses, unfamiliar her slogans, definitions, conclusions. Now the tasks of propaganda and agitation have become more complex. The political and cultural level of our readers and listeners has risen, therefore the content and form of our propaganda and agitation must be deeper, more varied and more effective.

It is difficult even approximately to imagine how unique and significant the role of language in the work of the school. The teacher will not be able to give a good lesson, communicate knowledge to children, interest them, discipline their will and mind, if he speaks inaccurately, inconsistently, dryly and stereotyped. But language is not only a means of transferring knowledge from teacher to student: it is also a tool for acquiring knowledge, which the student constantly uses. K. D. Ushinsky said that the native word is the basis of any mental development and the treasury of all knowledge. The student needs a good command of the language in order to acquire knowledge, quickly and correctly understand the word of the teacher, the book. The level of speech culture of a student directly affects his academic performance.

Native speech, skillfully applied, is an excellent tool for educating the younger generation. Language connects a person with his native people, strengthens and develops a sense of the Motherland. According to Ushinsky, “the language spiritualizes the whole nation and its entire homeland”, it “reflects not only the nature of the native country, but the whole history of the spiritual life of the people ... Language is the most lively, most abundant and strong bond connecting the obsolete, living and future generations of the people into one great, historical living whole. It not only expresses the vitality of the people, but is precisely this very life.

TREASURE LANGUAGES.

Writers are always on the lookout. They are looking for new, fresh words: it seems to them that ordinary words can no longer evoke in the reader right feelings. But where to look? Of course, first of all, in the speech of the common people. The classics were aimed at this.

N. V. Gogol: “... Our extraordinary language is still a mystery ... it is boundless and can, living like life, enrich itself every minute, drawing, on the one hand, lofty words from the language of the Church-Biblical, and on the other hand, choosing apt names to choose from from countless of their dialects, scattered throughout our provinces.

The appeal of writers to colloquial folk speech, to dialects - this is a reliable way to develop vocabulary. How happy the writer is when he finds a well-aimed, figurative word, as if rediscovered for himself!

A. N. Tolstoy once remarked: “The language of the people is unusually rich, much richer than ours. True, there is not a whole series of words, phrases, but the manner of expression, the richness of shades is greater than ours. The writer compares the literary Russian language (“we have”) and the “folk language”. But we agreed that there are two varieties of this "folk language". However, here's the thing. Actually, dialect vocabulary does not allow people to communicate only with its help: it serves as an addition to the main vocabulary fund, to well-known words. It's like a local "seasoning" to the well-known vocabulary.

However, folk dialects as a source of replenishment of the language are being questioned today. Young people living in different areas, under the influence of the media - radio, television - forget local words, are embarrassed to use them in speech. Is it good or bad?

This question is of interest not only to us Russian people. The concern about this is expressed by the American writer John Steinbeck in his book Traveling with Charlie in Search of America: “The language of radio and television takes on standard forms, and we probably never speak so cleanly and correctly. Our speech will soon become the same everywhere, like our bread... Following the local accent, the local rates of speech will also die. Idioms and figurativeness will disappear from the language, which enrich it so much and, testifying to the time and place of their origin, give it such poetry. And in return we will get a national language, packaged and packaged, standard and tasteless.

Sad prediction, isn't it? However, we must remember that scientists are not asleep. A collection of dialect material was carried out in various localities, and regional dictionaries of local dialects were created. And now work is underway to publish issues of the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects, more than 20 books of which have already gone out of print. This is a wonderful pantry that both writers and scientists will look into, a pantry that can be used in the future. This dictionary summarizes the work of all regional dictionaries, the existence of each word with its individual meanings will be indicated.

Our classical writers dreamed of such a dictionary of the “folk language”. “And really, it would not be bad to take up the lexicon, or at least criticize the lexicon!” - exclaimed A. S. Pushkin.

N.V. Gogol even began work on "Materials for a Dictionary of the Russian Language", moreover, on a dictionary of the "folk language", because dictionaries of the literary language were already being created by the Russian Academy. Gogol wrote: “For many years, studying the Russian language, marveling more and more at the accuracy and intelligence of his words, I became more and more convinced of the essential need for such an explanatory dictionary, which would put, so to speak, face Russian word in its direct meaning, would have illuminated it, would have shown more tangibly its dignity, so often unnoticed, and would have revealed in part its very origin.

To a certain extent, the Dictionary of V. I. Dahl solved this problem, but it did not satisfy the needs of writers either.

LANGUAGE IN ACTION - SPEECH.

Usually they say not “language culture”, but “speech culture”. In special linguistic works, the terms "language" and "speech" are in great use. What is meant when the words "language" and "speech" are consciously distinguished by scientists?

In the science of language, the term “speech” refers to language in action, i.e., language used to express specific thoughts, feelings, moods and experiences.

Language is the property of all. He has the means necessary and sufficient to express any specific content - from the naive thoughts of a child to the most complex philosophical generalizations and artistic images. The norms of the language are national. However, the use of language is very individual. Each person, expressing his thoughts and feelings, chooses from the entire supply language tools only those that he can find and that are needed in each individual case of communication. Each person must combine the means selected from the language into a coherent whole - into a statement, a text.

The possibilities that various means of language have are realized, carried out in speech. The introduction of the term "speech" recognizes the obvious fact that the general (language) and the particular (speech) in the system of means of communication are one and at the same time different. We are accustomed to call the means of communication, taken in abstraction from any specific content, language, and the same means of communication in connection with a specific content - speech. The general (language) is expressed and implemented in the particular (in speech). Private (speech) is one of many specific forms of the general (language).

It is clear that language and speech cannot be opposed to each other, but we must not forget about their difference. When we speak or write, we perform certain physiological work: the “second signaling system” is operating, therefore, certain physiological processes are carried out in the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, new and new neuro-brain connections are established, the speech apparatus works, etc. What is the product of this activity? Just those same statements, texts that have an inner side, i.e. meaning, and an external side, i.e. speech.

The role of an individual in the formation of speech is very significant, although far from unlimited. Since speech is built from the units of the language, and the language is nationwide. The role of an individual in the development of a language, as a rule, is negligible: the language changes in the process of speech communication of the people.

Such definitions as “correct”, “incorrect”, “accurate”, “inaccurate”, “simple”, “heavy”, “light”, etc. are inapplicable to the language of the people. But these same definitions are quite applicable to speech. In speech, more or less compliance with the norms of the national language of a certain era is manifested. In speech, deviations from these norms and even distortions and violations of them may be allowed. Therefore, it is impossible to talk about the culture of the language in the usual sense of these words, but it is possible and necessary to talk about the culture of speech.

Language in grammars, dictionaries, scientific literature described, as a rule, in abstraction from the specific content. Speech is studied in its relation to one or another specific content. And one of the most important problems of speech culture is the most appropriate selection of language means in accordance with the expressed content, goals and conditions of communication.

Distinguishing the terms "language" and "speech", we will have to establish differences between the terms "language style" and "speech style". In comparison with the styles of the language (they were discussed above), the styles of speech are its typical varieties, depending on the style of the language used, and on the conditions and goals of communication, and on the genre of the work, and on the attitude of the author of the statement to the language; styles of speech differ from each other in the peculiarities of the use of linguistic material in certain specific verbal works.

But what does it mean - attitude to the language? This means that not all people equally know their native language, its styles. This means, furthermore, that not all people evaluate the meaning of words in the same way, that not everyone approaches words with the same aesthetic and moral requirements. This means, finally, that not all people are equally “sensitive” to those subtle semantic nuances that words and their combinations reveal in specific utterances. Due to all these reasons different people the selection of linguistic material is made in different ways and this material is organized differently within the limits of a speech work. In addition, speech styles also reflect differences in people's attitudes to the world and man, their tastes, habits and inclinations, their thinking skills and other circumstances that do not relate to the facts and phenomena studied by the science of language.

CONCLUSION.

The struggle for a culture of speech, for a correct, accessible and vivid language is an urgent social task, which is realized especially clearly in the light of the Marxist understanding of language. After all, the language, working, constantly participates in the activity of consciousness, expresses this activity, actively influences it. Hence - the colossal power of the influence of the word on thoughts, feelings, moods, desires, people's behavior ...

We need constant protection of the word from corruption and distortion, it is necessary to declare war on the distortion of the Russian language, the war that V. I. Lenin spoke about. We still too often hear sloppy (and sometimes simply illiterate), “something” speech. There are people who do not know well and do not appreciate our public wealth - the Russian language. So there is from whom and from what to protect this property. We badly need everyday, smart, demanding defense of Russian speech - its correctness, accessibility, purity, expressiveness, effectiveness. You need a clear understanding that "a word can kill a person and bring him back to life." It is unacceptable to look at the word as something of a minor importance in people's lives: it is one of human affairs.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE:

1. Leontiev A.A. What is language. Moscow: Pedagogy - 1976.

2. Grekov V.F. and other Handbook for classes in the Russian language. M., Education, 1968.

3. Oganesyan S.S. Culture of speech communication / Russian language at school. No. 5 - 1998.

4. Skvortsov L.I. Language, communication and culture / Russian language at school. No. 1 - 1994.

5. Formanovskaya N.I. The culture of communication and speech etiquette/ Russian language at school. No. 5 - 1993.

6. Golovin B.N. How to speak correctly / Notes on the culture of Russian speech. M.: graduate School – 1988.

7. Gvozdarev Yu.A. Language is the confession of the people ... M .: Education - 1993.

Peace. This picture of the world, localized in the mind, constantly replenished and corrected, regulates human behavior. This term paper is the consideration of language as a system of signs of a special kind expressing ideas; as a system subject to its own order. 1. Language is the most important means of human communication. We speak and write in order to convey to others ...

Subject of research: pedagogical conditions for organizing educational cooperation in Russian language lessons elementary school. Research hypothesis: the organization of educational cooperation in the process of teaching Russian to younger students will contribute to the effective assimilation of ZUN in the subject, if the teacher: · Creates conditions for emotional and content support for each student; ...

A. N. Tolstoy rightly believed that “to deal with the language somehow means to think somehow: inaccurately, approximately, incorrectly.” And I. S. Turgenev urged: “take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language, this treasure, this property, passed on to us by our predecessors ...” Nowadays, the Russian language is truly becoming international. And this commands us to hold high the banner of the Russian language. ...

Another idea of ​​post-positivism comes from this idea - about the identity of the “mental” and “physical”, this idea is promoted by “elinative materialists”. They believe that the "mental terms" of the theory of language and thought should be eliminated as unscientific and replaced by terms of neurophysiology. To solve this problem, it is necessary, first of all, as they believe, to reject the “myth of the given”, i.e. statement...

One of the greatest treasures of mankind and the greatest pleasures of man is the opportunity to communicate with his own kind. The happiness of communication is estimated by everyone who, for one reason or another, had to lose it, to remain alone for a long time. Human society is inconceivable without communication between members of society, without communication. Communication- this is, first of all, the exchange of information, communication (from lat. communication- ‘to make common’). This is an exchange of thoughts, information, ideas, etc., this is an exchange of information, information interaction.

One of the first information needs of a person is to receive information from another person or transfer information to him, i.e. information exchange. The very formation of information often occurs in the process of information exchange between people. Information flows permeate all types of human activity - social, scientific, cognitive, etc.

Two layers of information accumulate in the mind of every person: scientific and everyday. There are also such two types of information as information that is part of the public consciousness and information that has uniqueness, originality, belonging only to this individual.

The concept of information is applicable when there is a system and some interaction during which certain information is transmitted. Without taking into account the consumer, even an imaginary, potential one, it is impossible to talk about information. Information is sometimes understood as a message. However, it is impossible to talk about information without regard to the process of perception of the message. Only by connecting with the consumer does the message "highlight" the information. By itself, it does not contain informational substance. The same message to one consumer can give a lot of information, but little to another.

Information has a producer and a consumer, a subject and an object. In the twentieth century the information model of communication has become widespread. Automatic (cybernetic) systems using (de)coding devices began to be used

Thanks to communication, the input information is reproduced at the other end of the chain. Information is converted into code signals, which are broadcast through a communication channel.

Human communication involves a sender (the speaker) and a receiver (the listener). The speaker and listener own a language (de)coding device and mental processors. This is a simplified understanding of human communication.

Information communication of a person with the outside world is two-way: a person receives the necessary information and, in turn, produces it. The person himself as a social individual develops due to the interaction of two information flows, genetic information and information that continuously comes to a person throughout his life from the environment.

Consciousness is not inherited. It is formed in the process of communicating with other people, learning their experience, as well as the experience accumulated by many generations. A person receives both live, momentary information, and information accumulated, stored in the form of books, paintings, sculptures and other cultural values. The acquisition of such information makes a person a social being. The information that is inherited in this way is called social information.

Linguists consider verbal information, information extracted from speech messages.

A natural (though not the only) way of exchanging information is verbal communication. Speech materializes consciousness, making it the property of not one person, but also other members of the collective, turns individual consciousness into a part of the social, individual information into public, and also reveals the information of the whole society for its individual members.

Among linguists, the speech communication scheme described by R. Jacobson is widespread. A communicative act, according to R. Jacobson, includes the following components: 1) message, 2) addresser (sender), 3) addressee (recipient). Both partners use 4) a code, "totally or at least partially shared." Behind the message is the context perceived by the addressee 5) (or referent, denotation). Finally, 6) contact is needed, understood as “a physical channel and a psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, which determines the possibility of “establishing and maintaining communication”.

According to R. Jacobson, each of the identified communication factors corresponds to a special function of the language.

Sharing information means spreading it. By acquiring information, we do not deprive this information of its former owner.

The fixation of information in material carriers has a dual function: to remind the primary owner of the content of information and to serve as a means of transmitting information.

Speech is the materialization of information. However, speech is fleeting and short-range. At present, means of transmitting information over distances, means of fixing information have been invented.

A radical revolution in the development of means of fixing and transmitting information was the transition to the transfer by written means of the plan of expression of linguistic signs.

Communication of people is a symbolic interaction of communicants. In the process of communication, contact is established between people, an exchange of ideas, interests, assessments is carried out, the assimilation of socio-historical experience, and the socialization of the individual take place.

Communication is defined as the process of interrelation and interaction of individuals and their groups, in which there is an exchange of activities, information, experience, abilities, skills, as well as the results of activities. Communication is “one of the necessary and universal conditions for the formation and development of society and the individual” (Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1983). Communication includes mental contact that occurs between individuals and is realized in the process of their mutual perception of each other, as well as the exchange of information through verbal or non-verbal communication and interaction and mutual influence on each other.

Communication- this is a process that flows through many channels: sound, visual, taste, olfactory, tactile (smile, handshake, kiss, smell of perfume, food, etc.). War, duel is anti-communication. The exchange of activity here is aimed at mutual destruction, at the termination of interaction, at the destruction of contact. These types of interaction can be called communication with a minus sign.

For a speech act, the situation is not typical when both the transmission and reception of a message is carried out by one person (for example, in the case of memorization, rehearsals, etc.). Sometimes it is possible for the same person to communicate with himself on the time axis. Sometimes people can, in search of an interlocutor, turn to someone who exists in the mind of the speaker, or to an object, an animal. In this case, it is important for the speaker to express his thoughts in a specific address.

A typical case of communication is the communication of two people. However, tuples (ordered limited sets) communicating are quite frequent and larger than two people. In conditions of free regulated communication, a cortege of two to four people is optimal. In the case of regulated communication (when there is a coordinator, for example, a chairperson, toastmaster, etc.), large tuples of communicating people are also possible (see Suprun 1996)

Biocommunication

Human communication is qualitatively different from animal communication ( biocommunications). Animal communication is based on innate responses to certain stimuli. Animal communication takes place only with a present stimulus, it is instinctive. The ability to communicate is inherited by animals and does not change. Animals have a signaling system by which individuals of the same species or different types can communicate. Animals do not go beyond the first signaling system. They react to the sound signal as a physical stimulus.

The sounds made by animals have no content, no meaning. They don't report anything outside world. They only give instructions on which one options behavior must be chosen this moment, to survive.

No matter how complex the sound combination emitted by one or another animal (for example, the speech of a parrot), it always corresponds in its psychophysiological organization to speech learned by heart. The parrot pronounces the words like a tape recorder, not like a person. The cries emitted by the animal only join the behavior that already exists and without sound.

Do animals understand human speech? For example, a dog seems to understand a person. However, it turns out that the dog does not understand the word in the human sense at all. She does not hear in the word all the sounds that make it up, but reacts to the general sound appearance of the word, to the place of stress and, most importantly, to the intonation with which we speak.

American psychologists the Gardners tried to train the chimpanzee Washoe human language. They taught Washoe sign language deaf and dumb. She learned to use 132 signs, and used these signs in situations less and less similar: water, liquid, drink, rain. Washoe learned to use combinations of signs. For example, to get a treat from the refrigerator, she reproduced three signs: “open - key - food”.

The sign communication activity of monkeys developed mainly against the mimic-gestural background, because the larynx of monkeys is poorly adapted to pronouncing sounds. This can be confirmed by the experiments of the Gardner spouses, who taught chimpanzees the language of the deaf and dumb. The chimpanzee Washoe studied 90 figures as signs of objects, actions and events. The deaf-mute acquaintances of the Gardners could accurately recognize up to 70% of her gestures.

The German scientist Keller described his observations of the behavior of chimpanzees. He notes that the intelligence of a chimpanzee is a practical intelligence, it manifests itself only in direct activity. A person plans his activities. His intellect, although connected with practical activity, is not directly woven into it, does not coincide with it. In an adult, practical thinking is combined with theoretical.

By studying the behavior of elephants, researchers using highly sensitive equipment found that animals communicate using "infrasonic language". It turned out that when “talking”, elephants, in addition to ordinary sounds, also use signals at a frequency of 14 hertz, which the human ear does not perceive. With the help of such a language, elephants can communicate at such distances at which even the most powerful roar is powerless. This immediately explains two old mysteries: how males detect a silent female who is out of sight, and how a herd can, without an explicit “audible” command, disciplinedly make a “turn all of a sudden”, take off, stop, leave the area of ​​​​the alleged danger.

Ants have a wide range of innate postures and signals that allow them to transmit information. With the help of postures, ants can “tell” about hunger, food, demand help, subjugate someone, etc. Ants learn quite well and are able to capture logical connections.

K. Firsch's observations of the so-called dances of bees proved that with the help of such dances, bees transmit information about the direction and distance to the food source. Bees can recognize classes of figures regardless of their size and mutual rotation, i.e. generalize figures on the basis of form.

The domestic cat has many vocal cues to express its feelings. Short jerky sounds express a willingness to communicate or a desire to get to know each other. Strangled sounds indicate resentment. High tones, screams speak of aggressiveness, readiness for a fight. Gentle, affectionate intonations are emitted by cat mothers in communication with kittens.

An interesting and very diverse form of sign communication is the ritual communication of animals, which has reached a very wide variety in birds. Courtship postures are very complex and varied, including decorating the nest, “gifting” and so on. Various postures used in ritual communication are informational signals that characterize the emotional mood and intentions of the partners. When studying the “language of birds”, computers come to the aid of the imperfect human ear, allowing ornithologists to instantly identify the song of a bird and decipher the meaning of its message. At present, it was possible to understand many bird musical phrases. For example, the language of thrushes became clear, consisting of 26 basic phrases, which in various combinations make up various musical themes. Scientists have found that birds also have their own dialects. The finch from Luxembourg, for example, does not understand well its counterpart from Central Europe.

The number of signals that animals use is limited; each animal signal conveys a complete message; the signal is inarticulate. The linguistic communication of people is based on the assimilation (spontaneous or conscious) of a particular language, not on innate, but on acquired knowledge. Human language consists of a finite set of language units of different levels that can be combined. Thanks to this, a person can produce an almost unlimited number of statements. A person can talk about the same thing in different ways. The speech of a person is creative. It is conscious in nature and is not only a direct reaction to an immediate stimulus. A person can talk about the past and the future, generalize, imagine. Human speech is not just a communication of any facts, but also an exchange of thoughts about these facts.

24 .Paralinguistics

Human communication can be verbal, i.e. communication using sound or graphic linguistic signs, and non-verbal, carried out in the form of laughter, crying, body movements, facial expressions, gestures, some changes in the sound signal - tempo, timbre, etc. A person uses means of non-verbal communication from the first days of life. In a person who has mastered the art of verbal communication, non-verbal communication accompanies verbal communication.

Means of non-verbal communication do not provide an opportunity to exchange thoughts, abstract concepts, compose texts, etc. All non-linguistic factors only accompany speech, play an auxiliary role in communication.

Non-linguistic factors that accompany human communication and participate in the transmission of information are studied by paralinguistics. The field of paralinguistics is non-verbal (non-verbal) human communication.

One of the sections of paralinguistics is kinesics, which studies gestures, pantomimes, i.e. expressive body movements involved in the communication process.

The attraction of paralinguistic means to participation in communication is dictated not by the inferiority of the language system, but only by external circumstances related to the nature of communication.

The use of paralinguistic means is characteristic of a particular speech activity, but paralinguisms can be studied as typified extralinguistic means used in communication.

Phonation is a paralinguistic phenomenon. Voice timbre, manner of speaking, intonation can tell a lot about a person. The voice is warm and soft, rough and gloomy, frightened and timid, jubilant and confident, malicious and insinuating, firm, triumphant, etc. There are hundreds of shades of voice that express a wide variety of feelings and moods of a person. The area of ​​expressive phonation is not included in the structure of the language, it is superstructure. In each language community, a certain stereotype of prosodic signs of communication is formed, associated with the expression of such aspects of communication as rudeness, delicacy, confidence, doubt, etc. Such stereotypical phonations are the subject of consideration in paralinguistics.

Another branch of paralinguistics is kinesics, body language. Oral communication makes extensive use of the physical manifestations of the speaking subject, aimed at orienting the listener to unambiguously perceive the statement. These means primarily include gestures (body movements) and facial expressions (facial expression of the speaker). Gestures can be international and national in nature. For example, a gesture of solidarity is a raising of a hand clenched into a fist, a gesture of agreement / disagreement is a nod of the head. Gestures include body movements such as shrugging the shoulders, shaking the head, spreading the arms, snapping fingers, waving the hand, etc.

The paralinguistic component of communication can acquire an independent meaning, and can be used without text. Such, for example, are gestures that replace words: bowing, raising the hat, nodding the head, shaking the head, pointing the direction with the hand, etc. Each society (public, social collective) develops its own system of paralinguistic means. They are used in conjunction with actual speech acts. The set of independently functioning paralinguistic signs mainly concerns the following conceptual and communicative circles: greetings and farewells, direction indications, calls to move and indications to stop, expressions of consent-disagreement, prohibition, approval, and some others.

The letter also uses specific paralinguistic signs, such as underscores, brackets, quotation marks, arrows.

25. Speech activity

Speech activity for the most part is an activity for the transfer of information. The essence of speech activity is that it serves the communication of people, the transfer of information. Speech activity has its own specifics in relation to other types of activity. The process of speech comes down to the fact that a certain thought of one person materializes in the form of phrases spoken or written by this person, which are perceived by another person, who extracts from the material shell the ideal content embedded in it by the first participant in communication.

In the process of speech activity, images-meanings are transmitted. Meaning is always the personal attitude of a particular individual to the content to which his activity is currently directed (Tarasov 1977). Meanings are units of the content of the language, and meanings are the units of the content of speech (text). In speech activity, there is a transfer of meanings, not meanings, or rather, the embodiment of meaning in meanings.

The content of speech is not reduced to the combinatorics of linguistic meanings, but is a system of images loaded with a certain meaning. These images are not fixed reflections of objective reality, attached to some linguistic meanings that exist in the form of frozen linguistic forms (signs). These images act as reflections of some specific fragments of reality; each time they add up to a special dynamic system, correlating with different linguistic meanings. But there must be some universal characteristics, otherwise linguistic communication would be impossible.

Speech activity suggests that the subject of activity must have a motive for activity and be aware of the purpose of the activity. The purpose of speech activity is to convey to someone (more precisely, to arouse in the mind of someone) a thought, some kind of image loaded with meaning. This idea is embodied in the word, in linguistic meanings. It is necessary to compare the result with the goal, i.e. see if the result matches the intended goal, i.e. whether the speech action is effective (effective). If the subject feels that the intended goal has not been achieved or has not been fully achieved, he can correct the action. The subject can judge the effectiveness of an action by the reaction to it from the addressee.

So speech action involves:

Goal setting (albeit subordinate to the overall goal of the activity);

Planning (drawing up an internal program);

Implementation of the plan;

Comparison of purpose and result.

Speech activity can occur in parallel with other activities or autonomously.

Like most other actions, speech activity is learned, although the ability to learn it is inherent in a person.

Speech activity is not directed at itself: we speak, as a rule, not just to speak, but in order to convey some information to others. And we usually listen to someone else's speech not just for the pleasure of listening, but in order to get information.

Speech activity can proceed in conjunction with other activities that do not require reflection, concentration. This is usually a mechanical, standard activity, familiar and familiar to the speaker, not distracting him from the conversation, i.e. a process that includes not only the actual speech act as such, but also its mental basis.

Two speech activities are not compatible. It is difficult to read one text and listen to another or speak and listen at the same time, participate in two dialogues at the same time. Mental activity is possible together with speech, when both of these activities proceed with very little stress.

Speech activity often occurs in conjunction with the movements of the hands, eyes, and various body movements, which is the paralinguistic component of speech activity.

Speech Component communication is its most important component. But this should not negate or belittle the importance of other components of communication. extremely important video sequence. We really miss the visual channel, for example, when talking on the phone.

The more complete the contact, the more open to each other those who communicate, the more emotional and rational prerequisites for communication they have, the more complete and exciting is the “luxury of human communication” (in the words of Antoine de Saint-Exupery). In the polyphonic orchestra of communication, speech communication plays the part of the first violin (Suprun 1996). It occupies such an indisputably leading role that sometimes communication is understood as its speech manifestation. When communication occurs in an ensemble of various means, including the speech form, it is on it that the most significant part of intersubjective interaction falls. The speech component of communication is considered to be the most important.

Speech activity is an object of study of the theory of speech activity, or psycholinguistics.

The minimum implementation of verbal communication (communication) is speech act. The totality of speech acts constitutes speech activity. In the process of a speech act, a speech (verbal) message is transmitted from one or more participants in communication to another or other participants in communication.

The communicative nature of the speech act suggests its two-way nature. A speech act has two sides: the production and reception of a speech message. Accordingly, we can talk about two participants in a speech act: a speaker and a listener, a writer and a reader, an addresser and an addressee. The addressee (speaker, writer) produces a speech message and transmits it to the addressee (listener, reader), who receives (perceives) it and understands it. The first encodes, encrypts, and the second decodes, decrypts the message; the first turns the idea of ​​the message into a speech chain, and the second extracts meaning from it.

In a speech act, the roles of the speaker and listener (addresser and addressee) are usually inconsistent. The addresser becomes the addressee and the addressee becomes the addressee. In some cases, one of the speakers is dominated by the role of the speaker, while the other is the listener. The more democratic the relations in a given society, in a given collective, between given participants in a speech act, the more natural is the change of roles and the more often it occurs (see Suprun 1996).

Speech acts are studied within the framework of the theory of speech acts developed by J. Austin, J. Searle and P. Strawson. The theory of speech acts proceeds from the fact that the main unit of communication is not a sentence or any other expression, but the performance of a certain kind of activity: statements, requests, thanks, apologies, etc.

The speech act is presented within the framework of the theory of speech acts as consisting of three links:

locution act - the act of utterance;

Illocutionary act - manifestation of the purpose of the statement;

Perlocution act - recognition of communicative intention, intention, addressee and his reaction to the speech act of the speaker.

The illocutionary force of an utterance can sometimes be expressed by an illocutionary verb, for example: I ask you to do it. Verb I beg expresses the illocutionary force of the request.

Statements containing illocutionary predicates of the type I swear, I promise, I declare etc., are called performative utterances. They kind of create a situation. No utterance I promise, there can be no act of promise. Such statements do not describe the situation, but express the intention of the speaker. Such predicates have performative power only if they are used in the 1st person singular. number, present tense, i.e. if they are related to the I-speaker. statement He promised to do it- does not have the performative power of a promise, it is a statement of the fact that a promise was accepted by some other person.

Some statements have illocutionary ambiguity. Such expressions are used in indirect speech acts which are understood as such speech acts that are expressed by language structures intended for a different type of speech acts, for example: Could you tell me how to get to the station? Naturally, the speaker does not expect an answer: I can. The speech act has the power of a polite request, although it has the form of a question. The addressee correctly establishes the illocutionary force of the utterance and adequately responds to the utterance as to a request.

Language is the most important means of human communication. Without language, human communication is impossible, and without communication there can be no society, and thus no person. Without language, there can be no thinking, that is, a person's understanding of reality and himself in it.

But both that and another is possible only in a human hostel.

Let us recall in Jules Verne's "Mysterious Island" the story of how the colonists found the feral Ayrton, left as a punishment for crimes on a desert island. Cut off from society, Ayrton ceased to live like a human being, lost the ability of human thinking and stopped speaking. When he got into the environment of a small team, entered the lives of people, the ability to think returned to him, and he again began to speak.

If the human has not manifested itself and has not been fixed, then the descendants of people who have fallen into the conditions of life of animals acquire the skills of animal life and irretrievably lose everything human. So it was with two girls in India, whom in 1920 the Indian psychologist Reed Sing found in a wolf den with cubs. One of the girls looked to be 7-8 years old, and the other was 2 years old. The youngest soon died, and the eldest, named Kamala, lived for about 10 years. R. Sing kept a diary of observation of the development and life of Kamala throughout this period. From this diary and the writings of R. Singh, we learn that Kamala at the beginning walked on all fours, leaning on her hands and knees, and while running she leaned on her feet; she ate meat only from the floor, did not take it from her hands, drank, lapped. If someone approached her while eating, she made sounds similar to a growl. Sometimes at night she howled. Kamala slept during the day, squatting in the corner, facing the wall. She tore off her clothes. In the dark, at night, the girl saw very well, initially she was afraid of fire, strong light, water.

After 2 years, Kamala learned to stand, after 6 years to walk, but she ran, as before, on all fours. Within 4 years, she learned only 6 words, and after 7 - 45. By this time, she had ceased to be afraid of the dark, began to eat with her hands and drink from a glass, fell in love with people.

As you can see, when returning to the life of people, it was not possible to make Kamala completely “human”, which is rightly noted by R. Sing.

For a long time, scientists tried to prove that language is the same organism as animals and plants, that it develops according to the same laws of nature, the same for all languages ​​in any place and at any time, tends to decline and dies. Such an understanding of the language was especially popular in the middle of the nineteenth century, when success natural sciences, in particular Darwinism, fascinated many who were engaged in the sciences of man and his features.

However, such an understanding of the language does not lead to a correct explanation of the phenomena of reality, but, on the contrary, leads away from the truth.

Some "mental" experiments may prove otherwise.

At first glance, it may seem that a child learns to breathe, look, walk and talk in the same way. But this is not true. If a newborn child is placed on desert island and if he survives there, he will perfectly run, climb, hide from dangers, get food for himself, but he will not speak, since he has no one to learn to speak from and no one to talk to.

The natural, biological properties of a person can develop outside of society and in an isolated state, but the skills associated with the language cannot develop in such conditions.

It is known that only Negro children can come from Zulu parents, and only Chinese from Chinese parents, but does this mean that the first child will necessarily speak Zulu, and the second - Chinese?

To solve this issue, let's do the second "mental" experiment: "relocate" the newborn Zulu to China, and the Chinese girl to Africa to the Zulus. It turns out that the Zulu will speak Chinese, and the Chinese - Zulu. And although their appearance these children will stand out sharply from their environment (the little Zulu will look like his parents, and the little Chinese will look like his own), in language they will be exactly the same as the people around them.

Thus, language is not transmitted by physical heredity, while the color of the skin, the proportions of the body, the shape of the skull, the nature of the hairline - the so-called racial characteristics - inevitably follow the biological laws of heredity.

From this it is clear that the identification of linguistic and racial features is a gross mistake. The proximity of languages ​​to each other does not at all correspond to racial similarity, and, conversely, the commonality of a race is not connected with the unity or similarity of languages. The boundaries of races and the boundaries of languages ​​do not coincide.

Thus, representatives of the Mediterranean race living along the northern coast mediterranean sea, by language they belong to different groups and families (Turks, Greeks, Albanians, Serbs, Italians, French, Spaniards, etc.); speaking the same - French - the inhabitants of France are racially different (northern, central and southern French).

Of particular interest in this regard is the population of the United States of America, extremely variegated in its racial composition due to the fact that it was made up of immigrants from various parts of the world and countries (Europeans of different races, blacks, Chinese, Turks, Arabs, and many others.) , but the language is the same: they all speak English language and its American variety.

Supporters of the biological view of language identified language and race, and thereby distorted real relationship that actually exist between these phenomena.

But many scholars at the end of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries strongly protested against this identification. So, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) wrote: “One of the scientific fallacies is the identification of language with race. There is not the slightest connection between race and a particular language.”

The national policy of our state in practice also refutes another "racist prejudice" - all sorts of theories of the inequality of races and the establishment of a "cultural ceiling" for the development of various peoples and races. Many small nationalities of Tsarist Russia, called "foreigners", who were "supposed" to be considered endangered, received all the prerequisites for the development of their national culture and their native language, received writing in their native language, created and successfully develop their literature, school, theater in it .

So, the racial characteristics of people, firstly, does not say anything about the linguistic affiliation of a given population and, secondly, has nothing to do with their cultural development. From this it is clear what the greatest crime against humanity is racial discrimination, systematically carried out earlier in the colonial countries.

Supporters of the biological view of language have one more argument in store. This is the so-called single "children's" language for all peoples.

Observations show that it is true for all children at any point the globe the first "sounds" are syllabic combinations mainly with labial consonants: ma-ma, pa-pa, ba-ba, and then: nya-nya, ta-ta, ya-da. This commonality is due to the fact that the movement of the lips is easier to control than the movement of, for example, the back of the tongue, and the presence of syllables nanny etc. due to the fact that with soft consonants a large mass of the tongue works than with hard ones; but this "childish" babble has nothing to do with language, because these are only “sounds” that are meaningless and resulting from muscle testing, just like the “jerking” of legs and arms is not a dance or plasticity.

These sound combinations become words only when they become names, when they begin to convey meaning. And then any illusion of the commonality of the "children's" language and the naturalness of its occurrence disappears.

Words with the same meaning mean different things in different languages. Yes, in Russian mother- "mother", and in Georgian - "father", woman- in Russian "grandmother", and in the Turkic languages ​​\u200b\u200b- "grandfather", grandfather in Georgian - "mother", and Russian words grandfather and uncle have nothing to do with the "mother", while English children use the words daddy, daddy called father. Therefore, although children use these sound combinations in the same way, they cannot understand each other the way they do. different languages, which depends on the language of adults, who teach children to turn meaningless syllables into words.

Even Aristotle spoke out against such an assumption: “Only a person of all living beings is gifted with speech” (“Politics”). This formulation in a developed form is often found among the figures of the Renaissance. different countries. So, Dante (XIV century) indicates that only a person needs speech in order to explain his thoughts to each other (treatise “On Folk Eloquence”); Bossuet (XVII century) wrote as follows: “It is one thing to perceive a sound or a word, since they act on the air, then on the ears and on the brain, and it is completely different to perceive them as a sign established by people, and to call up in your mind the objects designated by them. . This latter is the understanding of the language. Animals have no trace of such an understanding” (treatise “On the Knowledge of God and Oneself”).

True, in animals we can observe some cases of the use of sounds for communication: these are, for example, the sound signals with which the mother calls her chicks (ducks, black grouse) or with which the leader male warns the brood or herd of danger (partridges, mountain sheep); animals can also use sounds to express their emotions (anger, fear, pleasure). However, all these are only biological, reflex phenomena, partly based on instincts (without conditioned reflexes), partly on experience (conditioned reflexes). There are no "words" or expressions of "thoughts" here.

Sometimes they refer to the conscious onomatopoeia of birds and animals. Indeed, starlings and parrots can be taught to "speak", i.e. these birds can, by training on the basis of onomatopoeic reflexes, imitate human speech. But when the parrot “says”: “The ass is a fool”, he does not understand that he is scolding himself, for him speaking is purely sound monkeying. More serious are the considerations that animals, for the purpose of beckoning, can imitate the sounds that their victims make. Such, for example, are tigers, who, during the “rut of red deer” (wedding fights of male deer), imitate their voice in order to call the enemy closer. But, as the famous traveler V.K. Arseniev, "repeating the same notes, the tigers give them in reverse order." So, even here the correct imitation does not work. Moreover, it is impossible to teach a cat to bark and a dog to meow, although cats and dogs are the most domestic "humanized" animals.

Research by I.P. Pavlova allow theoretically correct solution of these questions.

I.P. Pavlov wrote: “... animals and primitive people, until these latter developed into real people and approached our state, were carried and communicated with the outside world only with the help of those impressions that they received from each individual irritation in the form possible sensations - visual, sound, temperature, etc. Then, when, finally, a person appeared, these first signals of reality, by which we constantly orient ourselves, were replaced to a large extent by verbal ones. It is clear that on the basis of impressions of reality, on the basis of these first signals of reality, we have developed second signals in the form of words.

From this follows the theory of I.P. Pavlov about the first and second signal systems.

Impressions, sensations and ideas from the external environment, both general natural and social (excluding the word, audible and visible) - "this is the first signal system of reality, which we have in common with animals."

The second signaling system is associated with abstract thinking, the formation of general concepts and the word: “The huge advantage of man over animals lies in the ability to have general concepts, which were formed with the help of the word.

"... The Word constituted the second, especially ours, signal system of reality, being the signal of the first signals."

At first glance, it seems that all this does not apply to pets that "understand" a person and his speech. Of course, domestic animals, living from generation to generation among people, are thereby involved in the social circle of the human hostel, are easily trainable and tamed to “listen” to a person ( but!, whoa! - for horses; lie down!, down!, kush! - for dogs; scat! - for cats, etc.), they can warn a person (dogs - by barking, and when they “ask”, then by squealing), they can express their emotions (neighing, whining, meowing, etc.), but still this is not goes beyond the first signal system, since speech activity is not available even to the most "intelligent" animals.

Dühring, who was trying to liberate abstract and genuine thinking from "the medium of speech", received a rebuke from Engels: "If so, then animals turn out to be the most abstract and genuine thinkers, since their thinking is never obscured by the importunate intervention of language."

We will dwell on the question of the "naturalness" or "conventionality" of the relationship between sound and meaning in a word a little later, in connection with the identification of the question of the structure of language.

All of the above leads to the conclusion that:

1) language is not a natural, not a biological phenomenon;

2) the existence and development of language is not subject to the laws of nature;

3) physical signs of a person (for example, racial) are not related to language;

4) only people have a language - this is the second signaling system that animals do not have.

Language is the most important means of human communication

Two kinds of linguistic units: the shortest sound units, or speech sounds, and the shortest structural-semantic units, or morphemes. Does it have units larger than morphemes? Of course there is. These are well-known (at least in their name) words. If a morpheme, as a rule, is built from a combination of sounds, then a word, as a rule, is formed from a combination of morphemes. Does this mean that the difference between a word and a morpheme is purely quantitative? Far from it. After all, there are such words that contain a single morpheme: you, cinema, only what, how, where. Then - and this is the main thing! - the word has a definite and independent meaning, while the morpheme, as already mentioned, is not independent in its meaning. The main difference between a word and a morpheme is created not by the amount of "sounding matter", but by the quality, ability or inability of a linguistic unit to independently express a certain content. The word, due to its independence, is directly involved in the construction of sentences, which are divided into words. The word is the shortest independent structural and semantic unit of the language.

The role of words in speech is very great: our thoughts, experiences, feelings are expressed by words, combined statements. The semantic independence of words is explained by the fact that each of them denotes a certain “object”, a phenomenon of life and expresses a certain concept. Tree, city, cloud, blue, lively, honest, sing, think, believe - behind each of these sounds are objects, their properties, actions and phenomena, each of these words expresses a concept, a "piece" of thought. However, the meaning of the word is not reducible to the concept. The meaning reflects not only the objects themselves, things, qualities, properties, actions and states, but also our attitude towards them. In addition, the meaning of a word usually reflects various semantic connections of this word with other words. Having heard the word native, we will perceive not only the concept, but also the feeling coloring it; in our minds there will arise, albeit very weakened, ideas about other meanings historically associated in Russian with this word. These ideas will be different for different people, and the very word native will cause some differences in its understanding and evaluation. One, having heard this word, will think of his relatives, the other - of his beloved, the third - of friends, the fourth - of the Motherland ...

This means that both sound units (speech sounds) and semantic units, but not independent ones (morphemes), are needed, after all, in order for words to arise - these are the shortest independent carriers of a certain meaning, these smallest parts of statements.

All words of a particular language are called its vocabulary (from the Greek lexis "word") or vocabulary. The development of language unites words and separates them. On the basis of their historical association, various vocabulary groups are formed. These groups cannot be “lined up” in one row for the reason that they are distinguished in the language on the basis of not one, but several different features. So, in the language there are vocabulary groups formed as a result of the interaction of languages. For example, in the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language there are many words of foreign origin - French, German, Italian, Ancient Greek, Latin, Old Bulgarian and others.

By the way, there is a very good manual for mastering foreign vocabulary - "Dictionary of Foreign Words".

There are vocabulary groups of a completely different nature in the language, for example, active and passive words, synonyms and antonyms, local and general literary words, terms and non-terms.

It is curious that among the most active words in our language are the unions and, a; prepositions in, on; pronouns he, I, you; nouns year, day, eye, hand, time; adjectives big, different, new, good, young; verbs to be, to be able, to speak, to know, to go; adverbs very, now, now, it is possible, good, etc. Such words are the most common in speech, that is, they are most often needed by speakers and writers.

Now we will be interested in a new, important question in the study of the structure of language: it turns out that by themselves, individual words, no matter how active they are in our speech, cannot express coherent thoughts - judgments and conclusions. But people need such a means of communication that could express coherent thoughts. This means that the language must have some kind of “device”, with the help of which words could be combined to build statements that can convey a person’s thought.

Let's return to the sentence For the shores of the homeland, you left the land of a stranger. Let us take a closer look at what happens to words when they are included in the composition of an utterance. We can relatively easily notice that one and the same word can change not only its appearance, but also its grammatical form, and hence its grammatical features and characteristics. So, the word coast is put in our sentence in the form of the genitive plural; the word fatherland - in the form of the genitive case of the singular; the word distant is also in the form of the genitive case of the singular; the word you appeared in its "initial" form; the word leave “adapted” to the word you and the expressed meaning and received signs of the past tense, singular, feminine; the word edge has signs of the accusative case of the singular; the word alien is endowed with the same signs of case and number and received the masculine form, since the word edge “requires” from the adjective precisely this generic form.

Thus, by observing the "behavior" of words in various utterances, we can establish some schemes (or rules) according to which words naturally change their form and are associated with each other to build utterances. These schemes of the regular alternation of grammatical forms of the word in the construction of statements are studied at school: the declension of nouns, adjectives, conjugation of verbs, etc.

But we know that declension, conjugation, and various rules for linking words into sentences and constructing sentences are no longer vocabulary, but something else, what is called the grammatical structure of the language, or its grammar. It is not necessary to think that grammar is some set of information about the language compiled by scientists. No, grammar is, first of all, the schemes inherent in the language itself, the rules (regularities) to which the change in the grammatical form of words and the construction of sentences are subject.

However, the concept of "grammar" cannot be clearly explained if the question of the duality of the very nature of the word is not, at least schematically, incompletely considered: for example, the word spring is an element of the vocabulary of the language and it is also an element of the grammar of the language. What does it mean?

This means that each word, in addition to individual features inherent only to it, also has common features that are the same for large groups of words. The words window, sky and tree, for example, are different words, and each of them has its own special sound and meaning. However, they all have features that are common to them: they all designate an object in the broadest sense of this term, they all belong to the so-called neuter gender, they can all change in cases and numbers and will receive the same endings. And now, with its individual features, each word is included in the vocabulary, and with its general features, the same word is included in the grammatical structure of the language.

All the words of the language, coinciding in their common features, form one large group, called the part of speech. Each part of speech has its own grammatical properties. For example, the verb differs from the name of the numeral both in meaning (the verb denotes an action, the numeral denotes a quantity), and in formal signs (the verb changes according to moods, tenses, persons, numbers, genders - in the past tense and the subjunctive mood; all verb forms have a voice and specific characteristics; and the numeral changes according to cases, genera - only three numerals have forms of the genus: two, one and a half, both). Parts of speech refer to the morphology of the language, which, in turn, is an integral part of its grammatical structure. In morphology, the word enters, as already mentioned, with its common features, namely: 1) its general meanings, which are called grammatical; 2) their common formal signs - endings, less often - suffixes, prefixes, etc.; 3) general patterns (rules) of its change.

Let's take a look at these words. Do the words have common, grammatical meanings? Of course: to walk, to think, to speak, to write, to meet, to love - these are words with a general meaning of action; walked, thought, spoke, wrote, met, loved - here the same words reveal two more common meanings: they indicate that actions were performed in the past, and that they were performed by one person "male"; below, in the distance, in front, above - these words have the general meaning of a sign of certain actions. It is enough to look at the verbs just given to make sure that the words also have common formal signs: in the indefinite form, the verbs of the Russian language usually end with the suffix -т, in the past tense they have the suffix -l, when they change in the present tense, they get the same endings, etc. Adverbs also have a peculiar common formal sign: they do not change.

It is also easy to see that words have general patterns (rules) for their change. Forms read - read - will read do not differ, if we keep in mind the general rules for changing words, from the forms I play - I played - I will play, I meet - I met - I will meet, I know - I knew - I will know. At the same time, it is important that grammatical changes in a word affect not only its “shell”, its external form, but also its general meaning: read, play, meet, know denote an action carried out by one person at 1 moment of speech; read, played, met, knew indicate an action carried out by one person in the past; a I will read, I will play, I will meet, I will know express concepts of actions that will be carried out by one person after the moment of speech, that is, in the future. If the word does not change, then this sign - immutability - turns out to be common to many words, that is, grammatical (recall adverbs).

Finally, the morphological "nature" of a word is revealed in its ability to enter into relations of domination or subordination with other words in a sentence, to require the attachment of a dependent word in the required case form, or to take on one or another case form itself. So, nouns easily obey verbs and just as easily obey adjectives: read (what?) A book, book (what?) New. Adjectives, being subordinate to nouns, can hardly enter into connection with verbs, comparatively rarely subordinate nouns and adverbs to themselves. Words belonging to different parts of speech are involved in the construction of a phrase in different ways, that is, a combination of two significant words related by the method of subordination. But, speaking of word combinations, we move from the area of ​​morphology to the area of ​​syntax, to the area of ​​sentence construction. So, what have we been able to establish by looking at how the language works? Its structure includes the shortest sound units - the sounds of speech, as well as the shortest non-independent structural and semantic units - morphemes. A particularly prominent place in the structure of the language is occupied by words - the shortest independent semantic units that can participate in the construction of a sentence. Words reveal the duality (and even trinity) of their linguistic nature: they are the most important units of the vocabulary of the language, they are the components of a special mechanism that creates new words, word formation, they are also units of the grammatical structure, in particular morphology, language. The morphology of a language is a set of parts of speech in which common grammatical meanings of words, common formal signs of these meanings, common compatibility properties and general patterns (rules) of change are revealed.

But morphology is one of the two components of the grammatical structure of a language. The second part is called the syntax of the language. Having met this term, we begin to remember what it is. In our minds, not very clear ideas about simple and complex sentences, about composing and subordinating, about coordinating, managing and adhering, emerge. Let's try to make these representations more distinct.

Once again, we call on our proposal for help. For the shores of a distant homeland, you left a foreign land, In its composition, phrases are easily distinguished: For the shores (what? Whose?) of the homeland (what?) distant did you leave (what?) The land (what? Whose?) Alien. In each of the four marked phrases there are two words - one main, dominant, the other - subordinate, dependent. But none of the phrases individually, nor all of them together, could express a coherent thought if there were not a special pair of words in the sentence that constitutes the grammatical center of the utterance. This couple: you left. This is the subject and predicate known to us. Combining them with each other gives a new, most important from the point of view of expressing thought, a unit of language - a sentence. The word in the composition of the sentence acquires temporarily new signs for it: it can become completely independent, dominating is the subject; a word can express such a sign that will tell us about the existence of an object indicated by the subject - this is a predicate. A word in a sentence can act as an addition, in which case it will denote an object and will be in a position dependent on another word. Etc.

The members of a sentence are the same words and their combinations, but included in the statement and expressing different relationships to each other based on its content. In different sentences, we will find the same members of the sentence, because parts of statements that are different in meaning can be connected by the same relations. The sun illuminated the earth and boy read a book- these are very far from each other statements, if we keep in mind their specific meaning. But at the same time, these are the same statements, if we keep in mind their general, grammatical features, semantic and formal. The sun and the boy alike designate an independent object, illuminated and read alike indicate such signs that tell us about the existence of an object; the earth and the book equally express the concept of the subject to which the action is directed and extended.

The sentence, by its specific meaning, is not included in the syntax of the language. The specific meaning of the sentence is included in various areas of human knowledge about the world, therefore it interests science, journalism, literature, it interests people in the process of work and life, but linguistics is cold to it. Why? Simply because the concrete content is, after all, those very thoughts, feelings, experiences, for the expression of which both the language as a whole and its most important unit, the sentence, exist.

The sentence enters the syntax with its general meaning, general, grammatical features: the meanings of narrative interrogation, motivation, etc., general formal signs (intonation, word order, conjunctions and allied words, etc.), general patterns (rules) of its construction.

The whole infinite set of already created and newly created statements on grammatical grounds can be reduced to relatively few types of sentences. They differ depending on the purpose of the statement (narrative, interrogative and incentive) and on the structure (simple and complex - compound and complex). Sentences of one type (say, narrative) differ from sentences of another type (say, incentives) both in their grammatical meanings, and in their formal signs (means), for example, intonation, and, of course, in the laws of their construction.

Therefore, we can say that the syntax of a language is a collection of different types of sentences, each having its own common grammatical meanings, common formal signs, general patterns (rules) of its construction, necessary to express a specific meaning.

Thus, what in science is called the structure of a language turns out to be a very complex “mechanism”, consisting of many different component “parts”, connected into a single whole according to certain rules and jointly performing a large and important work for people. The success or failure of this "work" in each case depends not on the linguistic "mechanism", but on the people who use it, on their ability or inability, willingness or unwillingness to use its powerful force.

ROLE OF LANGUAGE.

Language was created and is developing because the need for communication constantly accompanies the work and life of people, and its satisfaction is necessary. Therefore, language, being a means of communication, has been and remains a constant ally and helper of a person in his work, in his life.

The labor activity of people, no matter how complex or simple it may be, is carried out with the obligatory participation of the language. Even in automated factories run by a few workers and where the need for language seems to be small, it is still needed. Indeed, in order to establish and maintain the smooth operation of such an enterprise, it is necessary to build perfect mechanisms and train people capable of managing them. But for this you need to acquire knowledge, technical experience, you need a deep and intense work of thought. And it is clear that neither the mastery of work experience, nor the work of thought is possible without the use of a language that allows you to read, books, listen to lectures, talk, exchange advice, etc.

The role of language in the development of science, fiction, educational activities of society is even more obvious, more accessible for understanding. It is impossible to develop science without relying on what it has already achieved, without expressing and consolidating the work of thought in words. The bad language of writings, in which certain scientific results are presented, very noticeably complicates the mastery of science. It is no less obvious that serious shortcomings in speech, through which the achievements of science are popularized, can erect a “Chinese wall” between the author of a scientific work and its readers.

The development of fiction is inextricably linked with language, which, according to M. Gorky, serves as the "primary element" of literature. The fuller and deeper the writer reflects life in his works, the more perfect their language should be. Writers often forget this simple truth. M. Gorky was able to convincingly remind her in time: “The main material of literature is the word, which forms all our impressions, feelings, thoughts. Literature is the art of plastic representation through the word. The classics teach us that the more simply, clearly, clearly the semantic and figurative content of the word, the more firmly, truthfully and steadily the image of the landscape and its influence on a person, the image of a person’s character and his relationship to people.

The role of language in agitation and propaganda work is also very noticeable. To improve the language of our newspapers, radio broadcasts, television programs, our lectures and conversations on political and scientific topics is a very important task. Indeed, back in 1906, V. I. Lenin wrote that we should “be able to speak simply and clearly, in a language accessible to the masses, decisively throwing away the heavy artillery of tricky terms, foreign words, memorized, ready, but still incomprehensible to the masses, unfamiliar her slogans, definitions, conclusions. Now the tasks of propaganda and agitation have become more complex. The political and cultural level of our readers and listeners has risen, therefore the content and form of our propaganda and agitation must be deeper, more varied and more effective.

It is difficult even approximately to imagine how unique and significant the role of language in the work of the school. The teacher will not be able to give a good lesson, communicate knowledge to children, interest them, discipline their will and mind, if he speaks inaccurately, inconsistently, dryly and stereotyped. But language is not only a means of transferring knowledge from teacher to student: it is also a tool for acquiring knowledge, which the student constantly uses. K. D. Ushinsky said that the native word is the basis of all mental development and the treasury of all knowledge. The student needs a good command of the language in order to acquire knowledge, quickly and correctly understand the word of the teacher, the book. The level of speech culture of a student directly affects his academic performance.

Native speech, skillfully applied, is an excellent tool for educating the younger generation. Language connects a person with his native people, strengthens and develops a sense of the Motherland. According to Ushinsky, “the language spiritualizes the whole nation and its entire homeland”, it “reflects not only the nature of the native country, but the whole history of the spiritual life of the people ... Language is the most lively, most abundant and strong bond connecting the obsolete, living and future generations of the people into one great, historical living whole. It not only expresses the vitality of the people, but is precisely this very life.

TREASURE LANGUAGES.

Writers are always on the lookout. They are looking for new, fresh words: it seems to them that ordinary words can no longer evoke the desired feelings in the reader. But where to look? Of course, first of all, in the speech of the common people. The classics were aimed at this.

N. V. Gogol: “... Our extraordinary language is still a mystery ... it is boundless and can, living like life, enrich itself every minute, drawing, on the one hand, lofty words from the language of the Church-Biblical, and on the other hand, choosing apt names to choose from from countless of their dialects, scattered throughout our provinces.

The appeal of writers to colloquial folk speech, to dialects - this is a reliable way to develop vocabulary. How happy the writer is when he finds a well-aimed, figurative word, as if rediscovered for himself!

A. N. Tolstoy once remarked: “The language of the people is unusually rich, much richer than ours. True, there is not a whole series of words, phrases, but the manner of expression, the richness of shades is greater than ours. The writer compares the literary Russian language (“we have”) and the “folk language”. But we agreed that there are two varieties of this "folk language". However, here's the thing. Actually, dialect vocabulary does not allow people to communicate only with its help: it serves as an addition to the main vocabulary fund, to well-known words. It's like a local "seasoning" to the well-known vocabulary.

However, folk dialects as a source of replenishment of the language are being questioned today. Young people living in different areas, under the influence of the media - radio, television - forget local words, are embarrassed to use them in speech. Is it good or bad?

This question is of interest not only to us Russian people. The concern about this is expressed by the American writer John Steinbeck in his book Traveling with Charlie in Search of America: “The language of radio and television takes on standard forms, and we probably never speak so cleanly and correctly. Our speech will soon become the same everywhere, like our bread... Following the local accent, the local rates of speech will also die. Idioms and figurativeness will disappear from the language, which enrich it so much and, testifying to the time and place of their origin, give it such poetry. And in return we will get a national language, packaged and packaged, standard and tasteless.

Sad prediction, isn't it? However, we must remember that scientists are not asleep. A collection of dialect material was carried out in various localities, and regional dictionaries of local dialects were created. And now work is underway to publish issues of the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects, more than 20 books of which have already gone out of print. This is a wonderful pantry that both writers and scientists will look into, a pantry that can be used in the future. This dictionary summarizes the work of all regional dictionaries, the existence of each word with its individual meanings will be indicated.

Our classical writers dreamed of such a dictionary of the “folk language”. “And really, it would not be bad to take up the lexicon, or at least criticize the lexicon!” - exclaimed A. S. Pushkin.

N.V. Gogol even began work on "Materials for a Dictionary of the Russian Language", moreover, on a dictionary of the "folk language", because dictionaries of the literary language were already being created by the Russian Academy. Gogol wrote: “For many years, studying the Russian language, marveling more and more at the accuracy and intelligence of its words, I became more and more convinced of the essential need for such an explanatory dictionary, which would expose, so to speak, the face of the Russian word in its direct meaning, illuminate would have it, would have shown more tangibly its dignity, so often unnoticed, and would have revealed in part its very origin.

To a certain extent, the Dictionary of V. I. Dahl solved this problem, but it did not satisfy the needs of writers either.

LANGUAGE IN ACTION - SPEECH.

Usually they say not “language culture”, but “speech culture”. In special linguistic works, the terms "language" and "speech" are in great use. What is meant when the words "language" and "speech" are consciously distinguished by scientists?

In the science of language, the term “speech” refers to language in action, i.e., language used to express specific thoughts, feelings, moods and experiences.

Language is the property of all. He has the means necessary and sufficient to express any specific content - from the naive thoughts of a child to the most complex philosophical generalizations and artistic images. The norms of the language are national. However, the use of language is very individual. Each person, expressing his thoughts and feelings, chooses from the entire stock of language means only those that he can find and that are needed in each individual case of communication. Each person must combine the means selected from the language into a coherent whole - into a statement, a text.

The possibilities that various means of language have are realized, carried out in speech. The introduction of the term "speech" recognizes the obvious fact that the general (language) and the particular (speech) in the system of means of communication are one and at the same time different. We are accustomed to call the means of communication, taken in abstraction from any specific content, language, and the same means of communication in connection with a specific content - speech. The general (language) is expressed and implemented in the particular (in speech). Private (speech) is one of many specific forms of the general (language).

It is clear that language and speech cannot be opposed to each other, but we must not forget about their difference. When we speak or write, we perform certain physiological work: the “second signaling system” is operating, therefore, certain physiological processes are carried out in the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, new and new neuro-brain connections are established, the speech apparatus works, etc. What is the product of this activity? Just those same statements, texts that have an inner side, i.e. meaning, and an external side, i.e. speech.

The role of an individual in the formation of speech is very significant, although far from unlimited. Since speech is built from the units of the language, and the language is nationwide. The role of an individual in the development of a language, as a rule, is negligible: the language changes in the process of speech communication of the people.

RUSSIAN LESSON SUMMARY
5th grade
lesson number:
Topic:
Goals:
Equipment:
Materials:
1
Language and man. Communication verbal and written
1) educational: to introduce students to the textbook; show
the importance of language as the most important means of communication; to tell about
types of communication;
2) developmental: develop children's thinking, the ability to think and
empathize;
3) educational: to instill interest in the Russian language,
cultivate sensitivity, responsiveness.
Textbook.
1. Russian language. Grade 5: textbook. for general education institutions / [T.
A. Ladyzhenskaya, M. T. Baranov, L. A. Trostentsova, etc.]. – M.:
Enlightenment, 2009.
During the classes
2 minutes
15 minutes
1. Organizational moment.
2. Introductory speech of the teacher.
Guys, pick up your textbooks. Our Russian textbook
language was composed by teachers Taisa Alekseevna Ladyzhenskaya,
Mikhail Trofimovich Baranov and Lidia Alexandrovna
Trostentsova. Let's get to know him better.
Like any other book, it has a binding. And the binding
if you don't know, this is a cover, a cover made of cardboard, into which
all book pages are glued.
Unfold the binding. Here it is - flyleaf. It's a tight double
a sheet that glues the cardboard binding of a book to others
pages. The flyleaf protects them from dirt. Here we see
examples of the rules that we will study with you during
the whole year. There are already other examples of rules on the back flyleaf.
Scroll. Now we see the title, that is, the main one,
sheet. On its reverse side, find the authors of the textbook and
annotation for it. Next, we will see the conventions −
icons and drawings, and next to them - explanations for them. look
carefully. If suddenly we are somewhere in the textbook, next to
exercise, we will meet, for example, an airplane, then this
interesting exercise, exercise game.
what is this task
What if we meet a group? What will it mean? (Children
answer,
which suggests
repetition of previously studied or additional task.
It is advisable to explain to the children all the notation, since when
self-acquaintance with the icons they can understand
not all words. Do the same with the asterisk and the numbers above
1

According to study Russian language. Grade 5: textbook. for general education institutions / [T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, M. T. Baranov, L.
A. Trostentsova and others]. – M.: Enlightenment, 2009.
­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­
words.)
On page 169, a reminder was placed to help: how to prepare
to dictation and presentation, how to write an essay and some
other. Next you will see the section "Write correctly!", There
the words that you need to remember so as not to make a mistake are indicated
when writing them. And in the section "Pronounce it right!" us
show how to speak without mistakes.
There is a small explanatory dictionary in the textbook. What
"dictionary"? This is a dictionary that explains
words. So you heard some unfamiliar, incomprehensible word -
take a look at this dictionary and read what it means.
"Interpret" means "to explain", to answer the question "what
like that?"
Now find the content. In the content of the tutorial topic
are indicated in order, as they go in the textbook - one after
another.
Very well. Acquaintance with the textbook of the Russian language
passed successfully. Knowing what and where is in it, we do not
let's get lost in its pages.
Now put it aside. Let's continue talking about language.
Russian lessons can be very interesting. And in
you will see for yourself very soon.
Today (but only today!) we will not write. We
Let's talk and talk about language.
Language... Have you ever wondered what it is? Language -
it's not just what's in our mouths. Language is also
which helps us communicate and understand each other. Just
we were born, we immediately hear the affectionate mother's speech. We
growing up - and learning the language, learning to understand words, learning
talk. But not all children become like you and me. There is
in the world those who still cannot speak and do not
understand no language. These children are called "children.
Mowgli."
Have any of you guys watched the cartoon "Mowgli"
Or read a book about him? Who was he? (Children answer that
Mowgli grew up in the jungle and was raised by wolves and others
animals; he spoke animal language and possessed animal
habits.)
Correctly. And I will tell you two stories: one of them
happened here in Russia, and the other - in Kyrgyzstan.
The first story happened in the city of Chita. Found there
a five-year-old girl who was raised not by mom and dad, but
cats and dogs. She has never been on the street and does not know how
talk to people. This girl barks like a dog and laps
food from a bowl. Despite the fact that the girl lived at home
together with her father, grandparents, she hardly
speaks, although understands human speech.
When the police came to them, the girl began to throw herself at them,
2

According to study Russian language. Grade 5: textbook. for general education institutions / [T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, M. T. Baranov, L.
A. Trostentsova and others]. – M.: Enlightenment, 2009.
­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­
like a dog.
And in Kyrgyzstan, a boy whose parents left for
earnings in Russia, lived for eight years in a semi-abandoned barn
among the sheep. He was found when the boy was already 14 years old.
It turned out that his parents had left, leaving the child for
care of a sick, infirm grandmother. Since then he lived in a barn
high in the mountains and almost did not communicate with people. Of course, first
he tried to leave his hiding place and descended into
the nearest village, but the children teased and beat him, and he
completely stopped going out to people.
The child was remembered only after the death of the old woman. Boy
almost forgot human speech, walked barefoot, ate with his hands and
haven't washed in a long time. Doctors say he may never learn
read and write.
20 minutes
(Here it would be appropriate to let the children speak. How
practice shows, these stories produce on them
great impression.)
3. Work with the textbook.
1. Reading by the student of the theoretical material on page 3.
What have you learned from what you have just read?
(Language is a means of conveying thoughts, knowledge and feelings. C
people use language to communicate with each other
exchange some information, their thoughts,
impressions, passing on the experience to the next generations.
To make it easier for the children to understand, the teacher can
give an example of the following content: “I am a teacher. I am teaching you.
I teach what they once taught me. That is, now I
I pass on my experience to you."
2. Exercise 1. It is read aloud by two
three students.
Answer the question posed for the exercise: What's new about
the meaning of language in people's lives have you learned? Why does a person need
language? (Language connects people, moves progress; all life
human being is inextricably linked with language.)
Why do you think certain words are highlighted?
bold? (Italicized words are everything,
through which a person communicates with his fellows. Fairy tales,
jokes, books, songs convey thoughts, feelings and
the mood of those who composed them. math formulas,
science, technology, art and craft are also a kind of
language.)
3. Language is studied by the science of linguistics. Remember that
linguistics is the science of language. Linguistics tells us about
There are two types of communication - oral and written.
Consider the drawings on p. 6. Which one shows oral
communication, and on what - written?
(Children answer. Here you can tell the children that
3

According to study Russian language. Grade 5: textbook. for general education institutions / [T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, M. T. Baranov, L.
A. Trostentsova and others]. – M.: Enlightenment, 2009.
­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­
Writing appeared much later than oral speech.
The ancient Egyptians were the first inventors of writing.
who wrote their texts in hieroglyphs, i.e. curly
signs, drawings, and scientists call such a letter
hieroglyphic. Traces of such a letter in our time
preserved in mathematics. These are the signs +, -, = and some
other.
In general, the very first type of writing was subject
letter. And to convey any message to distant
distances, used various objects. For example,
there was a legend about the Persian king Darius I, who
received a message from the Scythians. The message included
four items: a bird, a mouse, a frog and arrows. Messenger
said that he was not ordered to tell him anything else, and with that
said goodbye to the king. How to understand this message of the Scythians?
The king thought that the Scythians were giving themselves into his power and as a sign
of their obedience brought him a gift of earth, water and sky, because
a mouse means earth, a frog means water, a bird means sky, and arrows
refusal of the Scythians from resistance. But one of the wise men objected
Darius. He interpreted the message to his friend: "If you Persians,
like birds, do not fly into the sky, or, like mice, do not burrow into
land, or, like frogs, do not jump into the swamp, then perish
from our arrows. As it turned out later, the sage was right.
The Russian language, like all other modern world languages,
uses alphabetic letter, since it has an alphabet. FROM
using alphabets, we translate spoken language into
written.)
4. Exerc. four.
5. Exerc. 5. (Answering the question why the words "speaking -
listening" and "writing-reading" are connected by double
arrows, children must understand that in both situations
there are two speakers and one listening to the speaker,
writing and reading.)
5 minutes
4. Summing up.
6. Exerc. 6.
You can summarize the lesson by reading the theoretical
material on page 5: “At Russian language lessons (as well as at other
subjects) you learn not only to speak and write, but also
listen and read. This is how you learn to express your
thoughts, perceive and assimilate information. It's possible
convey in your own words.
At the end of the lesson, it is advisable to inform students about notebooks.
for control and speech studies, as well as about
the need to have dictionaries for writing words, not
amenable to the rules of the Russian language, that is, words that
need to be remembered.
6. Homework.