The use of radioactive isotopes. The phenomenon of radioactivity. its importance in science, technology, medicine. Radioactive isotopes in agriculture
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Elements that do not exist in nature.
Nuclear reactions can produce radioactive isotopes of all chemical elements found in nature only in a stable state. Elements numbered 43, 61, 85 and 87 do not have stable isotopes at all and were first obtained artificially. So, for example, the element with the serial number Z - 43, called technetium, has the longest-lived isotope with a half-life of about a million years. Transuranium elements have also been obtained with the help of nuclear reactions. In addition to them, the following elements were also obtained: americium (Z = 95), curium (Z = 96), berkelium (Z = 97), californium (Z = 98), einsteinium (Z = 99), fermium (Z = 100), mendelevium (Z = 101), nobelium (Z = 102), lawrencium (Z = 103), rutherfordium (Z = 104), dubnium (Z = 105), seaborgium (Z = 106), borium (Z = 107) , hassium (Z = 108), meitnerium (Z = 109), as well as elements numbered 110, 111 and 112, which do not yet have generally recognized names. Elements starting from number 104 were synthesized for the first time either in Dubna near Moscow or in Germany.
Use in agriculture. Sediment Wastewater irradiated with radioactive radiation and then can be used as fertilizer. Preservation of food with y-radiation. . This method is 3 times cheaper than all conventional ones. Radiopharmaceuticals such as radioactively labeled sodium iodide have been used in nuclear medicine therapy for several decades. They are used to treat inflamed mucous membranes and hyperthyroidism, but also in specific forms of cancer such as those of the thyroid and pancreas.
radioactive isotopes emitting beta radiation are used in nuclear medicine therapy. They have unstable atomic nuclei, in which there is an excess of neutrons. Through changes in the atomic nucleus, they pass into a more stable state, thereby releasing radiation in the form of an electron. This beta radiation is very energetic and has an average range of a few millimeters in human tissue. In nuclear medicine therapy, it is used, among other things, to destroy diseased tissues such as inflamed mucous membranes or cancerous tumors in the body.
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labeled atoms.
At present, both in science and in production, radioactive isotopes of various chemical elements are increasingly being used. The method of labeled atoms has the greatest application. The method is based on the fact that the chemical properties of radioactive isotopes do not differ from the properties of non-radioactive isotopes of the same elements. Radioactive isotopes can be detected very simply - by their radiation. Radioactivity is a kind of label that can be used to trace the behavior of an element in various chemical reactions and physical transformations of substances. The method of labeled atoms has become one of the most effective methods for solving numerous problems in biology, physiology, medicine, etc.
Patients receive unstable isotopes in the form of so-called radiopharmaceuticals. Radiopharmaceuticals usually consist of three building blocks: a radioactive isotope that emits measurable radiation, a carrier that plays an important role in the metabolism of the diseased organ, and a linker that chemically combines both. Thus, a radioactive isotope is introduced into the body like a spy without noticing the patient.
As a carrier, for example, sugar is questioned. It prefers to store itself in tumor cells, as they increase their sugar intake at the expense of their growth. Iodine can also be such a carrier. It plays an important role in thyroid metabolism, and as an isotope, iodine-131 emits beta radiation. As a result, radioactive iodine also acts as an isotope and as a carrier substance. These properties make it particularly suitable for the treatment of thyroid disorders.
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Radioactive isotopes are sources of radiation.
Radioactive isotopes are widely used in science, medicine, and technology as compact sources of gamma rays. Radioactive cobalt is mainly used.
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Radioactive isotopes in biology and medicine.
One of the most outstanding studies carried out with the help of labeled atoms was the study of metabolism in organisms. It has been proven that in a relatively short time the body undergoes an almost complete renewal. Its constituent atoms are replaced by new ones. Only iron, as experiments on the isotopic study of blood have shown, is an exception to this rule. Iron is part of the hemoglobin in red blood cells. When radioactive iron atoms were introduced into food, it was found that they almost do not enter the bloodstream. Only when the iron stores in the body run out, iron begins to be absorbed by the body. If there are no sufficiently long-lived radioactive isotopes, as, for example, in oxygen and nitrogen, the isotopic composition of stable elements is changed. Thus, by adding an excess of an isotope to oxygen, it was found that the free oxygen released during photosynthesis was originally part of water, and not carbon dioxide.
Programmed cell death with iodine
The half-life indicates the time during which the amount of registered beta radiation will statistically halve. 
Radioiodine therapy is one of the most common procedures in nuclear medicine. It is mainly used to treat benign overactive thyroid - or when the thyroid has been surgically removed to treat cancer. Metastases dispersed in the body can be well treated with iodine-131, because it is additionally taken up by the metabolism of cancer cells.
Slide 7
radioactive isotopes
They are used in medicine both for diagnosis and for therapeutic purposes. Radioactive sodium, injected in small amounts into the blood, is used to study circulation. Iodine is intensively deposited in the thyroid gland, especially in Graves' disease. By monitoring the deposition of radioactive iodine with a counter, a diagnosis can be made quickly. Large doses of radioactive iodine cause partial destruction of abnormally developing tissues, and therefore radioactive iodine is used to treat Graves' disease. Intense cobalt gamma radiation is used in the treatment of cancer (cobalt gun).
Radioactive isotopes - radiation sources
The emitted beta radiation affects the genome of affected cells. They cannot grow and can no longer reproduce. However, this effect does not occur until the next cell division. As a result, nuclear medicine therapy usually does not work until weeks or months later.
A certain dose of radiation is needed to destroy the affected cells in the target organ. Using the Marinelli formula, doctors calculate the amount of radioactivity that must be administered to a patient to achieve the desired dose of radiation in the target organ. Three things are important here: how much activity from the test capsule is taken up by the tissue, how long does the isotope stay in the thyroid, and what is the size of the tissue being irradiated? The test capsule contains relatively small amounts of the radiopharmaceutical used, and it should be avoided that this is later too high or too low.
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Slide 9
Radioactive isotopes in industry.
The field of application of radioactive isotopes in industry is no less extensive. One example is a way to monitor piston ring wear in engines. internal combustion. By irradiating the piston ring with neutrons, they cause in it nuclear reactions and make it radioactive. When the engine is running, particles of the ring material enter the lubricating oil. By examining the level of radioactivity of the oil after a certain time of engine operation, the wear of the ring is determined. Radioactive isotopes make it possible to judge the diffusion of metals, processes in blast furnaces, etc. Powerful gamma radiation from radioactive preparations is used to study the internal structure of metal castings in order to detect defects in them.
The radiopharmaceutical is distributed throughout the body after ingestion through the bloodstream. Therefore, in the short term, other healthy cells are also irradiated. However, due to its properties, iodine-131 preferentially accumulates almost exclusively in thyroid tissue in order to destroy the affected cells in a targeted manner. What does not accumulate is almost completely eliminated within 48 hours through the kidneys, bladder and urine. For this to happen as quickly as possible, you should drink plenty of water after your iodine-131 treatment.
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Radioactive isotopes in agriculture
Radioactive isotopes are being used more and more widely in agriculture. Irradiation of plant seeds (cotton, cabbage, radish, etc.) with small doses of gamma rays from radioactive preparations leads to a noticeable increase in yield. Large doses of radiation cause mutations in plants and microorganisms, which in some cases leads to the appearance of mutants with new valuable properties (radioselection). Thus, valuable varieties of wheat, beans and other crops were bred, and highly productive microorganisms used in the production of antibiotics were obtained. Gamma radiation from radioactive isotopes is also used to control harmful insects and for conservation food products. Labeled atoms are widely used in agricultural technology. For example, in order to find out which of the phosphate fertilizers is better absorbed by the plant, various fertilizers are labeled with radioactive phosphorus CR. By examining the plants for radioactivity, one can determine the amount of phosphorus absorbed by them from different varieties of fertilizer.
The risk of additional cancers, such as leukemia, is not increased by treatment of benign thyroid disease. However, with tumors of the thyroid gland, a significantly higher activity is administered. For this reason, the risk increases in the long run by two to three percent. This applies to both treatments and chemotherapy commonly used for cancer and other medicines used to treat tumors.
One of these methods is radiopeptide therapy. The radiopharmaceutical is also distributed by infusion through the bloodstream in the body and accumulates in the target organ. However, in this case it does not consist of a natural carrier substance, which at the same time emits radioactive radiation, but an artificially created carrier, which only "imitates" the body's own substance in its function. This endogenous substance is the hormone somatostatin. It binds to very specific receptors that are "adapted" to the hormone.
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Radioactive isotopes in archeology.
An interesting application for determining the age of ancient objects of organic origin (wood, charcoal, fabrics, etc.) was obtained by the method of radioactive carbon. Plants always have a beta-radioactive carbon isotope with a half-life of T = 5700 years. It is formed in the Earth's atmosphere in a small amount from nitrogen under the action of neutrons. The latter arise due to nuclear reactions caused by fast particles that enter the atmosphere from space (cosmic rays). Combining with oxygen, this isotope of carbon forms carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants, and through them, by animals. One gram of carbon from young forest samples emits about fifteen beta particles per second. After the death of the organism, its replenishment with radioactive carbon stops. The available amount of this isotope decreases due to radioactivity. By determining the percentage of radioactive carbon in organic remains, one can determine their age if it lies in the range from 1000 to 50,000 and even up to 100,000 years. This method is used to find out the age of Egyptian mummies, the remains of prehistoric fires, etc. Radioactive isotopes are widely used in biology, medicine, industry, agriculture, and even archeology.
This means that the hormone can only bind to this type of receptor and thus cause a reaction in the body. These receptors are increasingly present on the cell surface in neuroendocrine tumors. These are special forms of cancer that occur mainly in the pancreas, in the gastrointestinal tract and partly in the lungs.
This is due to the range, which is eleven millimeters in human tissue. The half-life is three days. Yttrium-90 irradiates the tissue in all directions - this is called the crossfire effect. However, free yttrium-90 can accumulate in the kidney and cause damage. Therefore, low-energy lutetium-177 is often used in elderly patients. It has a half-life of almost seven days and a tissue density of about one millimeter.
Municipal educational institution"Pobedinsky average comprehensive school» Shegarsky District Tomsk Region
STATE (FINAL) CERTIFICATION OF GRADUATES OF IX CLASSES ABSTRACT IN PHYSICS
PHENOMENON OF RADIOACTIVITY. ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE
Completed: Dadaev Aslan, 9th grade student Supervisor: Gagarina Lyubov Alekseevna, teacher of physicsPobeda 2010
Phagocytes in the synovial membrane
This is a procedure in which chronic inflammatory joint diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis are treated. The mucous membrane of the joints here is thickened in places of chronic inflammation. Three isotopes are available for therapy: Yttrium-90 is mainly used in large structures such as the knee joint. Erbium-169 has an even longer half-life of nine days. With a maximum range of one millimeter, it is mainly used for knuckles and toes. Radiosinoorthesis is treated only locally; The radiopharmaceutical is injected into the colloid directly into the joint.
Introduction……………………………………………………………...page 1
The phenomenon of radioactivity………..…………………………………….p.2
Learn the history of the discovery of radioactivity.
A colloid is a liquid in which the particles are evenly distributed - like droplets of fat in milk or mud in dirt. After injection, it is evenly distributed in the synovial fluid. There it is recognized as a foreign body by skeletal cells sitting on the surface of the joint mucosa. They "eat" the radioactive intruder, which radiates the mucous membrane from the inside. There, diseased cells finally die slowly.
Radioactive isotopes in agriculture
However, the effect of programmed cell death occurs only after a few weeks. Due to the short range, the radiation remains in the joint capsule, so it does not need to be removed from the body. The adjacent healthy tissue usually does not reach them either. At the appropriate dosage, beta radiation usually does not pose a risk to the environment, and the patient can return home immediately after treatment. However, the joint must be absolutely quiet for at least two days. As a result, the phagocytes in the synovial membrane have sufficient time to absorb the radiopharmaceutical.
Find out what happens to a substance when it is exposed to radiation.
Find out how to get radioactive isotopes and where they will be used.
Develop the skill of working with additional literature.
Perform a computer presentation of the material.
Henri Becquerel Welhelm Conrad Roentgen On February 26, 1896, the weather over Paris deteriorated and the prepared photographic plates with pieces of uranium salt had to be placed in a dark desk drawer until the sun came up. It appeared over Paris on March 1, and the experiments could be continued. Taking the plates, Becquerel decided to develop them. Having developed the plates, the scientist saw silhouettes of uranium samples on them. Understanding nothing, Becquerel decided to repeat the random experiment. 2 He put two plates in an opaque box, poured uranium salt on them, first placing glass on one of them, and an aluminum plate on the other. Five hours all this was in a dark room, after which Becquerel developed photographic plates. And what - the silhouettes of the samples are again clearly visible. This means that some rays are formed in uranium salts. They look like X-rays, but where do they come from? One thing is clear that there is no connection between X-rays and phosphorescence. He reported this at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences on March 2, 1896, completely confusing all its members. Becquerel also established that the intensity of the radiation of the same sample does not change with time and that new radiation is capable of discharging electrified bodies. Most of the members of the Paris Academy, after the next report of Becquerel at a meeting on March 26, believed that he was right. The phenomenon discovered by Becquerel is called radioactivity, at the suggestion of Maria Sklodowska-Curie. 
Maria Sklodowska - Curie Radioactivity
- the ability of atoms of some chemical elements to spontaneous radiation. In 1897, while doing her doctoral dissertation, Maria, having chosen a topic for research - the discovery of Becquerel (Pierre Curie advised her wife to choose this topic), decided to find the answer to the question: what is the true source of uranium radiation? To this end, she decides to examine a large number of samples of minerals and salts and find out if only uranium has the property to radiate. Working with samples of thorium, she discovers that, like uranium, it gives the same rays and about the same intensity. This means that this phenomenon turns out to be a property not only of uranium, and it should be given a special name. Uranium and thorium were called radioactive elements. Work continued with new minerals. 3 Pierre, as a physicist, feels the importance of work and, leaving the study of crystals for a while, begins to work with his wife. As a result of this joint work, new radioactive elements were discovered: polonium, radium, etc. On June 25, 1903, in a small auditorium of the Sorbonne, Marie Curie defended her doctoral dissertation. In November 1903, the Royal Society awarded Pierre and Marie Curie one of England's highest scientific awards, the Davy Medal. On November 13, the Curies, together with Becquerel, receive a telegram from Stockholm about the award of Nobel Prize in physics for outstanding discoveries in the field of radioactivity. The case started by the Curies was picked up by their students, among whom was daughter Irene and son-in-law Frederic Joliot, who in 1935 won the Nobel Prize for the discovery artificial radioactivity. 
Irene and Frederic Curie - Joliot English physicists E. Rutherford and F. Soddy it was proved that in all radioactive processes mutual transformations occur atomic nuclei chemical elements. The study of the properties of the radiation that accompanies these processes in the magnetic and electric fields, showed that it is divided into a-particles, b-particles and g-rays ( electromagnetic radiation very short wavelength). four 
E.Rutherford
F. Soddy Some time later, as a result of the study of various physical characteristics and properties of these particles ( electric charge, masses, etc.) it was possible to establish that the b-particle is an electron, and the a-particle is a fully ionized atom of the chemical element helium (i.e., a helium atom that has lost both electrons). In addition, it turned out that radioactivity- this is the ability of some atomic nuclei to spontaneously transform into other nuclei with the emission of particles. So, for example, several varieties of uranium atoms were found: with masses of nuclei approximately equal to 234 a.m.u., 235 a.m.m., 238 a.m.u. and 239 amu Moreover, all these atoms had the same chemical properties. They entered in the same way chemical reactions, forming the same compounds. In some nuclear reactions, strongly penetrating radiation is produced. These rays penetrate through a layer of lead several meters thick. This radiation is a stream of particles charged neutrally. These particles are named neutrons. In some nuclear reactions, strongly penetrating radiation is produced. These rays are different types and have different penetrating power. For example, neutron flux
penetrates through a layer of lead several meters thick. 5 2.2. Sources of radiation Radiation is very numerous and diverse, but about seven
its main sources. The first source is our Earth. This radiation is explained by the presence of radioactive elements in the Earth, the concentration of which varies widely in different places. second origin radiation - space, from where a stream of high-energy particles constantly falls to the Earth. The sources of cosmic radiation are stellar explosions in the Galaxy and solar flares. Third source radiation is radioactive natural materials used by man for the construction of residential and industrial premises. On average, the dose rate inside buildings is 18% - 50% higher than outside. A person spends three quarters of his life indoors. A person who is constantly in a room built of granite can receive - 400 mrem / year, from red brick - 189 mrem / year, from concrete - 100 mrem / year, from wood - 30 mrem / year. Fourth the source of radioactivity is little known to the population, but no less dangerous. These are radioactive materials that a person uses in daily activities. - Inks for printing bank checks include radioactive carbon, which provides easy identification of forged documents. - Uranium is used to produce paint or enamel on ceramics or jewelry. - Uranium and thorium are used in the manufacture of glass. - Porcelain artificial teeth are reinforced with uranium and cerium. At the same time - the radiation on the mucous membranes adjacent to the teeth can reach 66 rem / year, while the annual norm for the whole organism should not exceed 0.5 rem (i.e. 33 times more) - The TV screen emits 2-3 rem per person mrem/year. Fifth source - enterprises for the transportation and processing of radioactive materials. sixth nuclear power plants are the source of radiation. At the NPP, 6, in addition to solid waste, there are also liquid (contaminated water from the reactor cooling circuits) and gaseous ones contained in the carbon dioxide used for cooling. Seventh the source of radioactive radiation is medical installations. Despite the common use of them in everyday practice, the risk of exposure from them is much greater than from all the sources discussed above and sometimes reaches tens of rem. One of the most common diagnostic methods is an x-ray machine. So, with radiography of teeth - 3 rem, with fluoroscopy of the stomach - the same amount, with fluorography - 370 mrem. What happens to matter when exposed to radiation? Firstly, the amazing constancy with which radioactive elements emit radiation. During the day, months, years, the radiation intensity does not noticeably change. It is not affected by heating or an increase in pressure, the chemical reactions in which the radioactive element entered also did not affect the intensity of the radiation. Secondly, radioactivity is accompanied by the release of energy, and it is released continuously over a number of years. Where does this energy come from? With radioactivity, a substance undergoes some profound changes. It was suggested that the atoms themselves undergo transformations. Having the same chemical properties means that all these atoms have the same number of electrons in electron shell, which means that same charges nuclei. If the charges of the nuclei of atoms are the same, then these atoms belong to the same chemical element (despite the differences in their masses) and have the same serial number in the table of D.I. Mendeleev. Varieties of the same chemical element that differ in the mass of atomic nuclei are called isotopes
.
7 3.
Obtaining and using radioactive isotopes Radioactive isotopes found in nature are called natural. But many chemical elements occur in nature only in a stable (i.e. radioactive) state. In 1934, French scientists Irene and Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered that radioactive isotopes could be created artificially as a result of nuclear reactions. These isotopes are called artificial. To obtain artificial radioactive isotopes, one usually uses nuclear reactors and accelerators elementary particles. There is a branch of industry specialized in the production of such elements. Subsequently, artificial isotopes of all chemical elements were obtained. In total, approximately 2000 radioactive isotopes are currently known, and 300 of them are natural. At present, radioactive isotopes are widely used in various fields of scientific and practical activity: technology, medicine, agriculture, communications, the military field, and some others. In this case, the so-called labeled atom method. 3.1 Usageisotopesin medicine Application of isotopes, one of the most outstanding studies carried out with the help of "tagged atoms" was the study of metabolism in organisms. With the help of isotopes, the mechanisms of development (pathogenesis) of a number of diseases were revealed; they are also used to study metabolism and diagnose many diseases. Isotopes are introduced into the human body in extremely small quantities (safe for health), not capable of causing any pathological changes. They are distributed unevenly throughout the body by blood. The radiation arising from the decay of an isotope is recorded by devices (special particle counters, photography) located near the human body. As a result, you can get an image of any internal organ. From this image, one can judge the size and shape of this organ, the increased or decreased concentration of the isotope in 8 different parts of it. It is also possible to assess the functional state (i.e. work) of the internal organs by the rate of accumulation and excretion of the radioisotope by them. to study pulmonary ventilation and diseases of the spinal cord, isotopes of technetium and xenon are used; macroaggregates of human serum albumin with an iodine isotope are used to diagnose various inflammatory processes in the lungs, their tumors, and in various diseases of the thyroid gland. 
Use of isotopes in medicine The concentration and excretory functions of the liver are studied using bengal-rose paint with an isotope of iodine, gold. An image of the intestine, stomach is obtained using the isotope of technetium, of the spleen using erythrocytes with the isotope of technetium or chromium; with the help of an isotope of selenium, diseases of the pancreas are diagnosed. All these data allow us to make the correct diagnosis of the disease. With the help of the “tagged atoms” method, various deviations in the work of the circulatory system are also examined, tumors are detected (since it is in them that some radioisotopes accumulate). Thanks to this method, it was found that in a relatively short time the human body is almost completely renewed. The only exception is iron, which is part of the blood: it begins to be absorbed by the body from food only when its reserves run out. When choosing an isotope, the question of the sensitivity of the method of isotopic analysis, as well as the type of radioactive decay and the radiation energy, is of great importance. In medicine, radioactive isotopes are used not only for diagnosis, but also for the treatment of certain diseases, such as cancer, Graves' disease, etc. Due to the use of very small doses of radioisotopes, radiation exposure to the body during radiation diagnosis and treatment does not pose a danger to patients. 3.2.
Radioactive isotopes in agriculture Increasingly, radioactive isotopes are being used in agriculture. Irradiation of plant seeds (cotton, cabbage, radish, etc.) with small doses of gamma rays from radioactive preparations leads to a noticeable increase in yield. Large doses of radiation cause mutations in plants and microorganisms, which in some cases leads to the appearance of mutants with new valuable properties ( radioselection). Thus, valuable varieties of wheat, beans and other crops have been bred, and highly productive microorganisms used in the production of antibiotics have been obtained. Gamma radiation from radioactive isotopes is also used to control harmful insects and to preserve food. "Tagged atoms" are widely used in agricultural technology. For example, to find out which of the phosphorus fertilizers is better absorbed by the plant, various fertilizers are labeled with radioactive phosphorus. By examining the plants for radioactivity, one can determine the amount of phosphorus absorbed by them from different varieties of fertilizer. An interesting application for determining the age of ancient objects of organic origin (wood, charcoal, fabrics, etc.) was obtained by the method of radioactive carbon. In plants, there is always a beta - radioactive isotope of carbon with a half-life of T = 5700 years. It is formed in the Earth's atmosphere in a small amount from nitrogen under the action of neutrons. The latter arise due to nuclear reactions caused by fast particles that enter the atmosphere from space (cosmic rays). Combining with oxygen, this carbon forms carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants, and through them by animals. Isotopes are widely used to determine physical properties soil 10 and the reserves of plant food elements in it, to study the interaction of soil and fertilizers, the processes of assimilation of nutrients by plants, the entry of mineral food into plants through the leaves. Isotopes are used to identify the effect of pesticides on the plant organism, which makes it possible to establish the concentration and timing of their treatment of crops. Using the isotope method, the most important biological properties of agricultural crops (when evaluating and selecting breeding material) are studied: productivity, early maturity, and cold resistance. AT animal husbandry study the physiological processes occurring in the body of animals, analyze feed for the content of toxic substances (small doses of which are difficult to determine by chemical methods) and trace elements. With the help of isotopes, techniques are being developed to automate production processes, for example, the separation of root crops from stones and clods of soil when harvesting with a combine on stony and heavy soils. 3.3 Radiation chronometry Some radioactive isotopes can be successfully used to determine the age of various fossils ( radiation chronometry). The most common and effective method radiation chronometry is based on the measurement of the radioactivity of organic substances, which is due to radioactive carbon (14C). Studies have shown that in every gram of carbon in any organism, 16 radioactive beta decays occur per minute (more precisely, 15.3 ± 0.1). After 5730 years, in each gram of carbon, only 8 atoms per minute will decay, after 11,460 years - 4 atoms. One gram of carbon from young forest samples emits about fifteen beta particles per second. After the death of the organism, its replenishment with radioactive carbon stops. The available amount of this isotope decreases due to radioactivity. By determining the percentage of radioactive carbon in organic remains, one can determine their age if it lies in the range from 1,000 to 50,000 and even up to 100,000 years. The number of radioactive decays, i.e., the radioactivity of the samples under study, is measured by radiation detectors. Thus, by measuring the number of radioactive decays per minute in a certain weight of the material of the sample under study and recalculating this number per gram of carbon, we can determine the age of the object from which the sample was taken. This method is used to find out the age of Egyptian mummies, the remains of prehistoric fires, etc. 11 3.4. The use of radioactive isotopes in industry One example is the following method for monitoring piston ring wear in internal combustion engines. By irradiating the piston ring with neutrons, they cause nuclear reactions in it and make it radioactive. When the engine is running, particles of the ring material enter the lubricating oil. By examining the level of radioactivity of the oil after a certain time of engine operation, the wear of the ring is determined. Radioactive isotopes make it possible to judge the diffusion of metals, processes in blast furnaces, etc. Powerful gamma radiation from radioactive preparations is used to study the internal structure of metal castings in order to detect defects in them. Isotopes are also used in nuclear physics equipment for the manufacture of neutron counters, which makes it possible to increase the counting efficiency by more than 5 times, in nuclear power as neutron moderators and absorbers. 3.5. Use of isotopes in science The use of isotopes in biology led to a revision of previous ideas about the nature of photosynthesis, as well as about the mechanisms that ensure the assimilation of inorganic substances by plants of carbonates, nitrates, phosphates, etc. organism. By introducing a label into organisms with food or by injection, it was possible to study the speed and migration routes of many insects (mosquitoes, flies, locusts), birds, rodents, and other small animals and obtain data on the size of their populations. In the area of plant physiology and biochemistry With the help of isotopes, a number of theoretical and applied problems have been solved: the routes of entry of mineral substances, liquids and gases into plants, as well as the role of various chemical elements, including microelements, in plant life have been clarified. It has been shown, in particular, that carbon enters plants not only through the leaves, but also through the root system, and the ways and speeds of movement of a number of substances from the root system to the stem and leaves and from these organs to the roots have been established. In the area of physiology and biochemistry of animals and humans arrival rates studied various substances in their tissues (including the rate of incorporation of iron into hemoglobin, phosphorus into nervous and muscle tissues, calcium into bones). The use of "labeled" food led to a new understanding of the rates of absorption and distribution of nutrients, their "fate" in the body and helped to trace the influence of internal and external factors (starvation, asphyxia, overwork, etc.) on metabolism.
Radiation protection during treatment
However, the more a joint moves, the more likely it is to be carried through the lymphatic system and then to other organs such as the liver and spleen. 
However, in order to protect people and environment, patients must remain in the hospital for at least 48 hours in radioiodine and radiopeptide therapy. This is stipulated, in particular, by the German Radiation Protection Ordinance. It also specifies that the radioactivity excreted by the patient through urine, sweat and shower water should be collected.
CONCLUSION The outstanding French physicists Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, their daughter Irene and son-in-law Frederic Joliot and many other scientists not only made a great contribution to the development nuclear physics but were passionate fighters for peace. They did significant work on the peaceful use of atomic energy. In the Soviet Union, work on atomic energy began in 1943 under the guidance of the outstanding Soviet scientist I. V. Kurchatov. In the difficult conditions of an unprecedented war, Soviet scientists solved the most complex scientific and technical problems associated with the mastery of atomic energy. On December 25, 1946, under the leadership of I.V. Kurchatov, for the first time on the continent of Europe and Asia, chain reaction. In the Soviet Union began era of the peaceful atom. In the course of my work, I found out that radioactive isotopes obtained artificially have found wide application in science, technology, agriculture, industry, medicine, archeology and other fields. This is due to the following properties of radioactive isotopes:
"Russian physicists Nobel Prize winners"
Water is stored in special tanks of the decay system until the allowable limits are exceeded. This is necessary mainly because of the gamma radiation emitted by some isotopes at the same time as the beta radiation. "Two-beam" isotopes include iodine-131, rhenium-186, and lutetium.
If radiopharmaceuticals are administered by injection, personnel are also exposed to radiation. Therefore, for the purposes of radiation protection, the so-called syringe body is used as a shield. For beta emitters, the shell is made of plexiglass because it shields the emitted electrons well. In addition, the syringe, for example, is connected to the patient's venous sleeve through a connecting tube. For isotopes that additionally emit gamma radiation, a tungsten or lead shield is also available.
- a radioactive substance continuously emits a certain type of particles and the intensity does not change over time; radiation has a certain penetrating power; radioactivity is accompanied by the release of energy; under the action of radiation, changes can occur in the irradiated substance; radiation can be detected in various ways: with special particle counters, photography, etc.
LITERATURE
Iodine-131 can also be taken as a capsule, which is very similar to a regular drug capsule. However, it is often dyed Orange color signal and is delivered individually due to radiation in a lead container weighing up to ten kilograms.
Marinelli. The formula calculates how much radiation should be used in a nuclear medicine therapy for a disease. The activity of one becquerel means that one radioactive atom decays per second, for a megabakkel it is equivalent to a million atoms per second. The gray unit shows how much radiant energy is absorbed by one kilogram of tissue. For beta and gamma radiation this is equivalent to the sievert module. The latter takes into account how dangerous a particular type of radiation is to the body.
- F.M. Diaghilev "From the history of physics and the life of its creators" - M .: Education, 1986. A.S. Enokhin, O.F. Kabardin and others. "Reader in Physics" - M.: Enlightenment, 1982. P.S. Kudryavtsev. "History of Physics" - M .: Education, 1971. G.Ya. Myakishev, B.B. Bukhovtsev "Physics grade 11" - M.: Education, 2004. A.V. Peryshkin, E.V. Gutnik "Physics grade 9" - M.: Bustard, 2005. Internet resources.
- Pages not numbered; Each section is not printed on a new page; There are no references to illustrations in the text; The "Literature" section does not contain Internet resource sites. abstract
- abstract
All life on Earth is associated with a habitat that includes diverse geographic areas and the communities of living organisms that inhabit them. By the nature of the action, the connections of the organism with the environment can be abiotic (this includes
"Russian physicists Nobel Prize winners"
abstractThe development of the science of physics is accompanied by constant changes: the discovery of new phenomena, the establishment of laws, the improvement of research methods, the emergence of new theories.
Cytology is the science of cells - the elementary units of the structure, functioning and reproduction of living matter. The objects of cytological studies are cells of multicellular organisms, bacterial cells, protozoan cells.
