marco polo mediterranean sea. The famous traveler Marco Polo: what he discovered. On native land

Polo Marco

(c. 1254 - 1324)

Venetian traveler. Born on the island of Korcula (Dalmatian Islands, now in Croatia). In 1271-1275 he traveled to China, where he lived for about 17 years. In 1292-1295 he returned to Italy by sea. The "Book" (1298) written from his words is one of the first sources of European knowledge about the countries of Central, East and South Asia.

The book of the Venetian traveler to China, Marco Polo, is mainly compiled from personal observations, as well as from the stories of his father Niccolo, uncle Maffeo and people he met.

The older Polos not once, like Marco himself, but crossed Asia three times, two times from west to east and once in the opposite direction, during the first trip. Niccolo and Maffeo left Venice around 1254 and, after a six-year stay in Constantinople, left from there for trading purposes in the southern Crimea, then moved in 1261 to the Volga. From the middle Volga, the Polo brothers moved southeast through the lands of the Golden Horde, crossed the Trans-Caspian steppes, and then through the Ustyurt plateau went to Khorezm, to the city of Urgench. Their further path ran in the same southeast direction up the valley of the Amu Darya to the lower reaches of the Zarafshan and up along it to Bukhara. There they met with the ambassador of the conqueror of Iran, Ilkhan Hulagu, who was heading to the great Khan Kublai, and the ambassador invited the Venetians to join his caravan. They went with him "north and northeast" a whole year.

Along the valley of Zarafshan they climbed to Samarkand, crossed into the valley of the Syr Darya and went down to the city of Otrar along it. From here, their path lay along the foothills of the Western Tien Shan to the Ili River. Further east, they went either up the Ili valley, or through the Dzungarian Gates, past Lake Alakol (east of Balkhash). Then they moved along the foothills of the Eastern Tien Shan and reached the Khami oasis, an important stage on the northern branch of the Great Silk Road from China to Central Asia. From Khami they turned south, into the valley of the Sulehe River. And further east, to the court of the great khan, they followed the same path that they did later with Marco. Their return route is not clear. They returned to Venice in 1269.

Marco Polo talks sparingly about his childhood, about the first steps of his life until the day he left Venice and went on a journey that brought him immortal fame.

Marco Polo's mother died early, and the boy's uncle, also Marco Polo, probably traded all these years in Constantinople without a break, and future traveler lived in Venice with his aunt Flora (on the paternal side). He had several cousins and sisters. It is likely that until Marco's father returned from Asia, the boy was raised by relatives.

Marco's life proceeded as it proceeded at that time for all the boys. Marco acquired knowledge on the canals and embankments, bridges and squares of the city. Formal education was then received by very few; however, contrary to the opinion of many publishers and commentators, it is possible that Marco could read and write in his native language. In the introductory chapter to his book, Polo states that "he entered in a notebook only a few notes", because he did not know if he would ever return from China to his homeland. In another chapter of the book, Polo states that during his journey to the great khan, he tried to be as attentive as possible, noting and writing down everything new and unusual that he heard or saw. "Therefore, we can conclude that the boy, who, as you know, later, while in Asia, he learned four languages, could read and write at least a little Italian, and it is possible that he had some knowledge of French as well.

The arrival of Niccolo and Maffeo in Venice was a turning point in Marco's entire life. He eagerly listened to the stories of his father and uncle about the mysterious countries they visited, about the many peoples among whom they lived, about their appearance and clothing, their customs and customs - how they are similar and how they are not similar to Venetian ones. Marco even began to learn some words and expressions in Tatar, Turkic and other outlandish languages - his father and uncle often explained themselves in them, and they often filled their Venetian speech with other people's words. Marco learned what goods various tribes buy and sell, what kind of money they use, where which people are found along the great caravan routes, what they eat and drink where, what rituals they perform with newborns, how they marry, how they bury, what they believe in and what worship. Unconsciously, he accumulated practical knowledge, which in the future served him invaluable service.

Niccolo and his brother, after fifteen years of travel, did not easily put up with a relatively monotonous existence in Venice. Fate persistently called them, and they obeyed her call.

In 1271, Nicollo, Maffeo, and seventeen-year-old Marco set off on a journey.

Before that, they met with Pope Gregory X, who had just ascended the throne, who gave them as companions two monks from the Order of Preachers - Brother Piccolo of Vicenza and Brother Guillaume of Tripoli.

Three Venetians and two monks reached Layas and began to advance to the East. But as soon as they reached Armenia, they learned that Baybars the Arbalest, a former slave who had taken the throne of the Mamelukes, had invaded these places with his Saracen army, killing and destroying everything that came to hand. The travelers faced a very real danger, but they decided to move on. However, the frightened monks preferred to return to Acre. They gave the Polo brothers papal letters and gifts intended for the great khan.

The desertion of cowardly monks did not at all discourage the Venetians. They knew the way from their previous journey, they knew how to speak local languages, they carried letters and gifts from the highest spiritual shepherd of the West to the greatest monarch of the East, and - most importantly - they had a golden tablet with the personal seal of Khubilai, which was a safe-conduct and a guarantee that they will be provided with food, shelter and hospitality in almost the entire territory through which they had to pass.

The first country they passed through was "Lesser Armenia" (Cilicia) with the port of Layas. There was a lively, extensive trade in cotton and spices.

From Cilicia the travelers ended up in present-day Anatolia, which Marco calls "Turcomania". He informs us that the Turkomans make the finest and most beautiful carpets in the world.

Having passed Turkomania, the Venetians entered the borders of Greater Armenia. Here, Marco tells us, on the top of Mount Ararat, is Noah's Ark. The Armenian sovereign Khaiton, who wrote the history of his homeland in 1307, when he was the abbot of the monastery, says that " this mountain is higher than all the mountains in the world". Both Marco and Khaiton tell the same thing - this mountain is inaccessible because of the snows that cover its winter and summer, but something black (the ark) appears on the snow, and this can be seen at any time of the year.

The next city that the Venetian traveler talks about was Mosul - "all silk and gold fabrics, which are called Mosulins, are made here." Mosul is located on the western bank of the Tigris, opposite ancient Nineveh, it was so famous for its wonderful woolen fabrics that we still call a certain type of fine woolen fabric "muslin".

The travelers then stopped in Tabriz, the largest shopping center, where people from all over the world gathered - there was a flourishing merchant colony of the Genoese.

In Tabriz, Marco first saw the world's largest pearl market - pearls were brought here in large quantities from the shores of the Persian Gulf. In Tabriz it was cleaned, sorted, drilled and strung on threads, and from here it dispersed all over the world. Marco watched with curiosity as pearls were bought and sold. After the pearls were examined and evaluated by experts, the seller and the buyer squatted opposite each other and carried on a silent conversation, shaking hands covered with folded sleeves, so that none of the witnesses knew on what terms they bargained.

Leaving Tabriz, the travelers crossed Iran in a southeasterly direction and visited the city of Kerman.

After seven days of travel from Kerman, the travelers reached the top of a high mountain. It took two days to overcome the mountain, and the travelers suffered from severe cold. Then they came to a vast, flowering valley: here Marco saw and described bulls with white humps and sheep with fat tails - "their tails are thick, large; in a different weight, thirty pounds."

Now the Venetians entered into dangerous places, since in this part of Persia there were many robbers, called Karaunas. Marco writes that they descended from Indian women, and their fathers were Tatars. Acquaintance with the caraunases almost cost Polo his life and almost deprived the world of one of the most interesting books. Nogodar, the leader of the robbers, attacked the caravan with his gang, taking advantage of the fog that is frequent in this area (Marko attributes the fog to the witchcraft of the Karaunas). The robbers took the travelers by surprise, and they rushed in all directions. Marko, his father and uncle, and some of their guides, seven in all, escaped in a nearby village. The rest were captured and killed or sold into slavery.

Having recomposed the caravan, the undaunted Venetians moved towards their goal - towards the Persian Gulf, towards Hormuz. Here they were going to board a ship and sail to China - Hormuz was then the final point of maritime trade between Far East and Persia. The transition lasted seven days. At first, the road went along a steep descent from the Iranian plateau - a mountain path, where many robbers were outrageous. Then, closer to Hormuz, a beautiful, well-watered valley opened up - date palms, pomegranates, oranges and other fruit trees grew here, countless flocks of birds flew.

In Polo times, Ormuz was on the mainland. Later, as a result of raids by hostile tribes, it was destroyed, and "the inhabitants moved their city to an island five miles from the mainland."

Obviously, the Venetians came to the conclusion that a long voyage on the local unreliable ships, and even with horses, usually loaded on top of leather-covered goods, was too risky - they turned to the northeast, inland, towards the Pamirs.

For more than a week they traveled through desert places where the water is green as grass and very bitter, reached Kobian, and then made a many-day march through the desert and arrived in Tonokain. Marco liked the inhabitants of these countries very much. Here he draws his conclusions about women, the first of many. The Tonokain women made a very strong impression on him, for when, twenty-five years later, having already visited many countries, having seen many women and, no doubt, having experienced many hobbies, he was writing his book, he could still say that Muslim girls in Tonokaine are the most beautiful in the world.

For many days the Venetians traveled through hot deserts and fertile plains and ended up in the city of Sapurgan (Shibargan), where, to Marco's pleasure, game was found in abundance and hunting was excellent. From Sapurgan the caravan headed for Balkh, in northern Afghanistan. Balkh is one of the oldest cities in Asia, once the capital of Bactriana. Although the city surrendered to the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan without resistance, the conqueror sold all the youth into slavery, and killed the rest of the city's population with incredible cruelty. Balkh was swept off the face of the earth. The Venetians saw sad ruins in front of them, although some of the inhabitants of the city, who had survived from the Tatar sword, were already returning to their old place.

It was in this city, as the legend says, that Alexander the Great married Roxana, the daughter of the Persian king Darius.

Leaving Balkh, travelers for many days moved through the lands abounding in game, fruits, nuts, grapes, salt, wheat. Leaving these beautiful places, the Venetians again ended up in the desert for several days and finally arrived in Badakhshan (Balashan), a Muslim region along the Oka River (Amu Darya). There they saw large mines of rubies, called "balash", deposits of sapphires, lapis lazuli - Badakhshan was famous for all this for centuries.

The caravan was delayed here for a whole year either due to Marco's illness, or because the Polo brothers decided to live in the wonderful climate of Badakhshan in order to make sure that the young man would fully recover.

From Badakhshan, the travelers, rising higher and higher, went in the direction of the Pamirs - upstream of the Oka River; they also passed through the Kashmir valley. Marko, who was undoubtedly deeply impressed by these places, claims that the local inhabitants are engaged in witchcraft and black magic. According to Marco, they can make idols speak, change the weather at will, turn darkness into sunlight, and vice versa. Despite the popular belief that the people of Kashmir were swindlers and deceivers, Marco found that the women there "although they are black, they are good". Indeed, Kashmiri women were famous for their beauty throughout India for centuries, they were everywhere sought to be taken as wives and concubines.

From Kashmir, the caravan went to the northeast and climbed the Pamirs: Marko's guides assured him that this was the highest place in the world. Marco notes that during his stay there, the air was so cold that not a single bird could be seen anywhere. The stories of many ancient Chinese pilgrims who crossed the Pamir confirm Marco's message, and the latest researchers say the same. The Venetian had a sharp eye, and the ascent to the roof of the world was so engraved in his memory that when, almost thirty years later, he was dictating his book in distant Genoa, he remembered how dimly the fire burned at this height, laid out by travelers, how it shone with others , an unusual color, how much more difficult it was to cook food there than usual.

Descending from the Pamirs along the gorge of the Gyoz River (Gyozdarya is the southern tributary of the Kashgar River), the Polos entered the wide plains of East Turkestan, now called Xinjiang. Here deserts stretched, then rich oases met, irrigated by many rivers flowing from the south and west.

Polo, first of all, visited Kashgar - the local climate seemed to Marco moderate, nature, in his opinion, gave here "everything you need for life". From Kashgar, the caravan route continued to the northeast. Although Niccolò and Maffeo probably lived in Samarkand during their first trip, we have no evidence that Marco was there.

During his journey, Polo described ancient city Hotan, where emeralds have been mined for centuries. But much more important was the trade in jade, which went from here to the Chinese market from century to century. Travelers could watch how workers dig up pieces of a precious stone in the beds of dried up rivers - this is how it is done there to this day. From Khotan, jade was transported through the deserts to Beijing and Shazhou, where it was used for polished products of a sacred and non-sacred nature. The thirst of the Chinese for jade is insatiable, there is nothing more valuable for them, they consider it the quintessence, the material embodiment of the power of yang - the bright masculine principle of the universe.

Leaving Khotan, Polo, stopping to rest at rare oases and wells, drove through a monotonous desert covered with dunes.

The caravan moved through vast desert spaces, occasionally bumping into oases - Tatar tribes, Muslims lived here. The transition from one oasis to another took several days, it was necessary to take with them more water and food. In Lon (modern Charklyk), travelers stood for a whole week to gain strength to overcome the Gobi desert ("gobi" in Mongolian and means "desert"). A large supply of food was loaded onto camels and donkeys.

On the thirtieth day of the journey, the caravan arrived at Shazhou ("Sand District"), located on the border of the desert. It was here that Marco first observed purely Chinese manners and customs. He was especially struck by the funeral rites in Shazhou - he describes in detail how coffins were made, how the deceased was kept in the house, how they made offerings to the spirit of the deceased, how paper images were burned, and so on.

From Ganzhou, our travelers went to the city that now bears the name of Lanzhou. On the way, Marco saw yaks: the size of these animals and their role in the economy made a vivid impression on him. Valuable little musk deer (musk deer) - this animal is found in large numbers there to this day - Marco Polo was so interested that, returning to his homeland, he took thousands of miles with him to Venice "the dried head and feet of this beast."

And now a long journey through the plains, mountains and deserts of Asia is already coming to an end. It took three and a half years: during this time, Marco saw and experienced a lot, learned a lot. But this endless journey, one must think, is tired of both Marco and his senior companions. One can imagine their joy when they saw on the horizon a cavalry detachment sent by the great khan to accompany the Venetians to the khan's court. The squad leader told Polo they had more to do. "forty day marches"- he meant the way to Shangdu, the summer residence of the khan, - and that the convoy was sent so that the travelers would arrive in complete safety and come directly to Kublai. "Is- said the head of the detachment, - noble Messers Piccolo and Maffeo are not plenipotentiary ambassadors of the khan to the apostle and should not be received according to their rank and position?

The rest of the journey flew by unnoticed: at each stop they were given the best reception, they had everything that was required at their service. On the fortieth day, Shandu appeared on the horizon, and soon the exhausted caravan of the Venetians entered its high gate.

The reception given to travelers by Kublai Khan, surprisingly, Marco described very simply and restrainedly. Usually, he does not hesitate to describe at length the splendor and splendor of the khan's receptions and feasts, processions and festivities. Venetians on their arrival in Shandu "went to the main palace, where the great khan was, and with him a large gathering of barons". The Venetians knelt before the khan and bowed to the ground. Khubilai graciously ordered them to get up and "received them with honor, with merriment and feasts."

Great Khan after the official reception, he talked for a long time with the Polo brothers, he wanted to find out about all their adventures, starting from the day they left the khan's court many years ago. Then the Venetians presented him with gifts and letters entrusted to them by Pope Gregory (and two timid monks who turned back), and also handed over a vessel with holy oil, taken at the request of the khan from the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and carefully kept under all the vicissitudes and dangers of the long journey with shores of the Mediterranean. Marco was added to the list of courtiers.

The young Venetian very soon attracted the attention of Khubilai - this happened thanks to the mind and ingenuity of Marco. He noticed how eagerly Khubilai perceived all kinds of information about the lands subject to him, about their population, customs, wealth; the Venetian also saw that the khan could not stand it when the ambassador, having completed all the assigned tasks, returned without any additional information and observations obtained beyond the instructions. Cunningly deciding to take advantage of this, Marco began to collect information, making notes about every place he went to, and always sharing his observations with the Khan.

According to Marko himself, the Great Khan decided to test him as an ambassador and sent him to the remote city of Karajan (in Yunnan province) - this city was so far from Khanbalik that Marko "barely turned around in six months". The young man coped with the task brilliantly and delivered to his master a lot of very interesting information. Marko's stories enchanted the great khan: "In the eyes of the sovereign, this noble youth had a divine mind rather than a human one, and the sovereign's love increased,<...>until the sovereign and the whole court spoke of nothing with such astonishment as the wisdom of a noble youth.

The Venetian stayed in the service of the Great Khan for seventeen years. Marco nowhere reveals to the reader on what particular cases he was sent as a confidant of Khan Kublai for many years. It is impossible to accurately trace his travels in China.

Marco reports on the peoples and tribes of China and neighboring countries, on the amazing views of the Tibetans on morality; he described the indigenous population of Yunnan and other provinces.

The chapter of Marco's book is very interesting, in which he talks about the ancient custom of using cowrie shells as money, about crocodiles (Marco considered them snakes with two legs) and how to catch them. He also tells about the custom of the Yunnanese: if a handsome or noble stranger or any person stayed in their house "with good reputation, influence and weight", at night he was poisoned or killed in another way. "They didn't kill him to steal his money, and they didn't kill him out of hatred.", but in order for his soul to remain in the house where he was killed, and bring happiness. The more beautiful and noble the dead, the Yunnanese believed, the happier the house in which his soul remained would be.

As a reward for his loyalty and in recognition of his administrative ability and knowledge of the country, Kublai appointed Marco governor of the city of Yangzhou, in the province of Jiangsu, on the Grand Canal, near its junction with the Yangtze.

Given the commercial importance of Yangzhou and the fact that Marco lived there for a long time, one cannot help but be surprised that the traveler devoted one short chapter to it. stating that "Mr. Marco Polo, the same one mentioned in this book, ruled this city for three years"(approximately from 1284 to 1287), the author remarks sparingly that "the people here are commercial and industrial", that especially a lot of weapons and armor are made here.

The Venetians enjoyed the patronage and great favors of Khubilai, in the service of him they acquired both wealth and power. But the khan's favor aroused envy and hatred towards them. Enemies at the court of Khubilai among the Venetians became more and more. They were afraid of the day when the khan would die. Cost their mighty patron "ascend up" on a dragon, how they would be unarmed in the face of enemies, and their riches would almost inevitably doom them to death.

And they were on their way. However, the Khan at first did not want to let the Venetians go.

Khubilai called Marco to him along with his father and uncle, spoke to them about his great love to them and asked them to promise, having visited the Christian country and at home, to return to him. He ordered them to be given a golden tablet with commands that they should not be delayed throughout his land and food was given everywhere, he ordered that they be provided with escorts for safety, and also authorized them to be his ambassadors to the pope, the French and Spanish kings and to other Christian rulers. .

The Great Khan ordered fourteen vessels of the Court to be set afloat, probably stationed in Zaiton (Quanzhou), they had four masts and so many sails that Marco marveled, as all medieval travelers who came to the Far East marveled.

After spending many years in the service of Khubilai, the Venetians returned to their homeland by sea - around South Asia and through Iran. On behalf of the Great Khan, they accompanied two princesses - Chinese and Mongol, who were given in marriage to the Ilkhan (Mongol ruler of Iran) and his heir, to the capital of the Ilkhans, Tabriz. In 1292, the Chinese flotilla moved from Zeytun to the southwest, through the Chip (South China) Sea, during this transition, Marko heard about Indonesia - about "7448 islands", scattered in the Chin Sea, but he visited only Sumatra, where the travelers lived for five months. From Sumatra, the flotilla moved to the island of Sri Lanka past the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Sri Lanka (as well as Java) Marco incorrectly classifies as "the biggest in the world" islands, but truthfully describes the life of the Sri Lankans, the deposits of precious stones and the famous pearl fishing in the Polk Strait. From Sri Lanka, the ships passed along Western India and Southern Iran, through the Strait of Hormuz to the Persian Gulf.

Marco also talks about African countries adjacent to the Indian Ocean, which he apparently did not visit: about the great country of Abasia (Abyssinia, that is, Ethiopia), about those located near the equator and in southern hemisphere the islands of Zangibar and Madeigascar. But he confuses Zanzibar with Madagascar, and both islands with the East African maritime region, and therefore gives much false information about them. Yet Marco was the first European to report on Madagascar. After a three-year voyage, the Venetians brought the princesses to Iran (about 1294), and in 1295 they arrived home. According to some reports, Marco participated in the war with Genoa and around 1297 during sea battle was captured by the Genoese. In prison in 1298 he dictated the "Book", and in 1299 he was released and returned to his homeland. Almost all the information cited by biographers about his later life in Venice is based on later sources, some of which even refer to XVI century. Very few documents of the XIV century about Marco himself and his family have come down to our time. It has been proven, however, that he lived out his life as a wealthy, but far from rich, Venetian citizen. He died in 1324.

The overwhelming majority of biographers and commentators believe that Marco Polo really made those journeys that he speaks of in his Book. However, many mysteries still remain.

How could he, during his travels, "not notice" the most grandiose defensive structure in the world - the Great Wall of China? Why did Polo, who lived in northern capital China and having visited many Chinese cities, having seen, therefore, many Chinese women, did not say a word about the custom, already widespread among Chinese women, to disfigure the feet? Why does Polo never mention such an important and typical Chinese consumer product as tea? But precisely because of such gaps in the "Book" and the fact that Marco, undoubtedly, did not know either the Chinese language or Chinese geographical nomenclature (with few exceptions), some of the most skeptical historians in the first half of the 19th century suggested that Marco Polo never been to China.

In the XIV-XV centuries, the "Book" of Marco Polo served as one of the guides for cartographers. The "Book" of Marco Polo played a very important role in the history of great discoveries Not only did the organizers and leaders of the Portuguese and first Spanish expeditions of the 15th-16th centuries use maps compiled under the strong influence of Polo, but his work itself was a reference book for outstanding cosmographers and navigators, including Columbus. The "Book" of Marco Polo is one of the rare medieval writings - literary works and scientific papers that are currently being read and reread. It entered the golden fund of world literature, translated into many languages, published and republished in many countries of the world.

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Marco Polo was born around 1254 in Venice or on the island of Korcula (the territory of modern Croatia). Polo's ancestors came to Venice from Dalmatia and were never among the noble Venetian merchant families. When Marco was six years old, his father Niccolò and uncle Maffeo set out on a nine-year journey to the East. During this time, the boy's mother died and he was raised by his paternal aunt. Marco received a quite tolerable education for that time - he read the Bible and some ancient authors, he knew how to count and write. And he spent his free time on the Venetian canals or in the port, where merchant ships loaded with goods came and went to all corners of the world.

Marco was 15 years old when his father Nicolò and uncle Mateo, rich merchants, returned to Venice from a long and distant journey. This was in 1269. They visited the Crimea, the Middle Volga, Samarkand and Bukhara, and Mongolia. According to them, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Even China was under the rule of the Mongol Khan Kublai.

Khan hospitably received the Polo brothers and, when they got ready for their return trip, instructed them to deliver a letter to the Pope, in which he expressed his readiness to establish diplomatic relations.

Only two years later (1271) did the Polo brothers receive a letter from the pope and gifts for Khan Kublai. This time, Nicolò took his 17-year-old son Marco with him. Thus began the famous 24-year journey of Marco Polo. The way to China was long, it took about 4 years (1271-1275).

The first Chinese city that the Polo family reached in 1275 was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). In the same year, they reached Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern China's Gansu province). According to Marco Polo, the khan was delighted with him, gave various instructions, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even kept him governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the Khan's army and taught him how to use catapults during the siege of fortresses.

In the spring of 1292, a fleet of fourteen four-masted ships set sail from the port of Zaitong (Quanzhou). While traveling around the eastern and southern coasts of Asia, Marco Polo learned about Japan, about the islands of Indonesia (“the labyrinth of 7448 islands”), about the country of Chambo on the eastern coast of Indochina. From the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean, the ships passed through the Strait of Malacca, made a three-month stop on the coast of the island of Sumatra. After stopping in Ceylon and sailing along the western shores of India, the ships entered the Persian Gulf and anchored at Ormuz, where the Polos had been 22 years earlier. While sailing in the Indian Ocean, Marco Polo managed to obtain some information about the African coast, Ethiopia, the islands of Madagascar, Zanzibar and Socotra. Having delivered the princesses to Persia, the Polo family returned to Venice in 1295. All Venice was amazed to learn how much wealth - precious stones - were brought from the East by three travelers.

Soon a war broke out between Venice and Genoa for supremacy in trade in the Mediterranean. Marco Polo outfitted the ship at his own expense and took part in the battle himself. Together with his team, he was taken prisoner and imprisoned in a Genoese prison. There, Marco Polo told the prisoners about his travels in distant lands. One of the captives, the Italian writer Rusticiano, wrote down the stories of the Venetian about everything he saw and heard during his interesting and long journey.

Some time later, Marco Polo was released from prison, returned to Venice and continued to record his travels. He died in 1324 a noble, respected man. His book interested contemporaries. In the beginning, she walked in many handwritten lists. It was first published in 1477 and then translated into many languages. This book introduced Europeans to the distant countries of the East, with their nature, inhabitants, and culture. True, not everything in it was reliable. But the huge amount of valuable information about the East that Marco Polo collected during his travels made this work a favorite book of such prominent navigators as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Fernando Magellan. The book of Marco Polo played an important role in the discovery of America and the sea route to India.

"To the book of wonders of the world"

Also known as The Travels of Mark Polo, The Book of the Diversity of the World, The Book of Marco Polo (Old French Livres des merveilles du monde).

Description of Marco Polo's travels in Asia and Africa, made between 1276 and 1291, which Rustichelli da Pisa, who was with him in a Genoese prison, recorded from his words in Old French.

"Journey" consists of four parts. The first describes the territories of the Middle East and Central Asia that Marco Polo visited on his way to China. The second describes China and the court of Kublai Khan. The third part deals with the coastal countries: Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and the east coast of Africa. The fourth describes some of the wars between the Mongols and their northern neighbors.

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. This applies to the names of individual cities and provinces, their mutual location, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

Marco Polo visited

Armenia

According to Marco Polo, Armenia was divided into Great (most of modern Armenia) and Lesser (most likely he meant Cilicia).

"It great country. It starts in a city called Arzinga (Erzincan), where the best fabrics and linens in the world are woven. It also has the best baths from natural sources that are available throughout the city. The people of the country are Armenians. There are many cities and villages in the country, but Arzinga is a significant city, where the Throne of the Archbishop, Arziron (Erzrum) and Arzizi (Arzhish) are located. Passing from Trebizond to Tauris, there is one castle - Paypurt (Bayburt), it stands on a hill of the peninsula and here you can see silver mines, ”the traveler wrote.

Marco Polo was perhaps the first European to discover to the West the indescribable and majestic beauty of the biblical Mount Ararat. In his notes, he described everything. Marco Polo wanted to convey the important fact that it is in Armenia, on the top of the Holy Mountain, that Noah's Ark is located.

Russia

Russia is a large country in the north. Greek Christians live here. There are many kings and their own language; the people are simple-hearted and very beautiful; men and women are white and blond. There are many difficult passages and fortresses on the border. They pay tribute to no one, only a little to the king of the West; and he is a Tatar and is called Taktaktay, they pay tribute to him, and no one else. This country is not commercial, but they have many expensive furs of high value; they have sables, and ermines, and squirrels, and ercolins, and many glorious foxes, the best in the world. They have many silver ores; they mine a lot of silver.

There is nothing else to say here, and therefore we will go from Russia and tell you about the Great Sea, which is around these regions, and the inhabitants there, we will begin first of all with Constantinople.

But I will tell you first of all about the region that is to the north and northwest. In this country, I will tell you, there is the Lak region, it borders on Russia, there is a king, and the inhabitants are Christians and Saracens. There are many good furs here; merchants take them out in different directions. The inhabitants are engaged in trade and crafts. There is nothing else to say about anything else, so let's go from here and talk about something else.

I want to say something about Russia that I forgot. Know, in truth, the strongest cold in the world in Russia; it's hard to hide from him. The country is large, to the very sea-ocean; in this sea they have several islands, where gyrfalcons and pilgrim falcons are found, all this is exported by different countries Sveta. From Russia, I tell you, the way is not long to Norway, and if it weren't for the cold, we could get there soon, but because of the great cold, it's not easy to go there.

to italy

In 1260, Nicolò (Marco's father), with his brother Maffeo, undertook a trading expedition to East Asia. Marco was also among the travelers. The route ran from Venice (Northern Italy) to Palestinian Akka, then to the port of Ayas on the southern coast of Asia. The merchants crossed the Armenian Highlands and descended the Tigris to the port of Basra. The purpose of this enterprise was to reach the coast of China by sea. But fearing the difficulties of sea travel and not trusting unreliable (according to merchants) ships, they abandoned the sea route and continued their journey to China by land.

In China, Marco Polo lived for about 15 years as a trader. Serving with Khan Marko crossed Eastern China many times. Only two routes can be known with certainty from the traveler's stories. The first path goes along coastline south to the cities of Kinsai and Zeytun. The second route leads to eastern Tibet, Yunnan and further north into Indochina.

Kazakhstan

In the history of the penetration of information about the Kazakh land into Europe, the name of the Venetian Marco Polo, “the greatest traveler of all times and peoples”, as the Russian scientist, Asian explorer I. Mushketov, deservedly called him. The paths of the Polo brothers crossed both the territory of Central Asia and the Kazakh land (Otrar, the Syrdarya and Ili valleys).

The six chapters of Marco Polo's book deal in detail with the disagreements and struggle between some courageous people named Alau and Berke. The name Alau-batyr is also found in folklore works published by V. V. Radlov in his work “Samples of Folk Literature of the Northern Turkic Tribes”, and in “The Song of Forty Crimean Heroes” (“Tsyrymnyts kytryk, batyrs turaly zhyr”).

Mongolia

Marco Polo served for 17 years at the court of the Mongol Khan Kublai, who founded the Yuan Empire. Fulfilling the instructions of the emperor, he traveled through almost all the provinces of today's China. The subsequently written book “On the Diversity of the World” became a real treasure of medieval literature. It tells in detail about the life, life, traditions, history and culture of the Mongols of the 14th century.

In 1292, the khan released three travelers with rich gifts; they went to the ocean and through Cochinchina, Sumatra, Ceylon, Trebizond and Constantinople returned to Venice in 1295.

In Venice, Marco Polo, thanks to his wealth, reached a high position and received the nickname Masser Millioni.

India

The trip to India was the last of Marco Polo's big missions. This is stated in his book as follows: “Marco returned from India, because of many seas, and told a lot of new things about that country”

In the book of Marco Polo there is a mention of the city of Myang. It is believed that Myan is Pagan on the Irrawaddy River. Accordingly, Mian Marco Polo is Burma.
In the book of Marco Polo it is said that the city of Mian is “big, noble, the most important in the kingdom; people here are idolaters, they speak in a special, their own language, they are subject to the great khan.

and indonesia

It is believed that the traveler Marco Polo (1254-1324) was the first European to visit the Indonesian archipelago. He allegedly wandered there by chance, looking for various spices, which were extremely highly valued at that time.

In the introduction, Marco describes Indonesia as eight kingdoms, six of which he visited, "namely ... the kingdom of Ferlek, Basman, Sumatra, Dagroyan, Lambri and Fansur." Perhaps the most primitive of them was Basman, whose inhabitants "have no law, like animals." He remarks: "The Great Khan considers them his subjects, but they do not pay tribute to him, because they are so far away that the people of the Great Khan do not get here."

Museum of Marco Polo

The House Museum of Marco Polo is located in Korcula, Croatia.

The Marco Polo Museum is located very close to the Cathedral of St. Mark in one of the old houses, where, according to one version, he was born. So, no one really knows.

At the entrance to the museum, you will be greeted by a wax figure of Marco Polo himself, dressed in a costume similar to what merchants and travelers wore then. A wide stone staircase leads to the building, along which you can climb to a narrow door made of boards. Here are scenes from the life of the young Marco Polo in Korcula, his travels through the Egyptian sands and China, the scene of his meeting with Khan Kublai in Mongolia, as well as the scenes of Marco Polo's imprisonment - it was there that he began to describe his travels.

Marco Polo (TV series)

American historical television series that tells the story of the journey of the legendary Venetian merchant Marco Polo. Starring Lorenzo Riquelmi (Marco Polo) and Benedict Wong (Kublai Khan). Since December 12, 2014.

Plot of the film

1273. The young Venetian Marco Polo, along with his father, as part of a group of European merchants, arrives in China, which is under the rule of the Mongols, and ends up at the court of the ruler, Kublai Khan. Marco's father offers the khan to give his son into his service in exchange for the right to trade on the Silk Road. Marco learns about local traditions and culture, becomes close to the khan, and involuntarily becomes involved in political intrigues at court.

Source - Internet

Marco Polo - Italian merchant and traveler, author of the book "The Book of the Diversity of the World" updated: September 17, 2017 by: website

ABOUT MARCO POLO
Material from Wikipedia

Marco Polo (Italian: Marco Polo; September 15, 1254, Venice - January 8, 1324, ibid.) was an Italian merchant and traveler who presented the story of his travels in Asia in the famous Book of the Diversity of the World. Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on geography, ethnography, history of Armenia, Iran, China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and other countries in the Middle Ages. . This book had a significant impact on navigators, cartographers, and writers of the 14th-16th centuries. In particular, she was on the ship of Christopher Columbus during his search for a route to India; According to researchers, Columbus made 70 marks on it.

It is believed that Marco Polo was born in the family of the Venetian merchant Niccolò Polo, whose family was engaged in the trade of jewelry and spices. Since no birth certificates for Marco Polo have been preserved, the traditional version of his birth in Venice was challenged in the 19th century by Croatian researchers who claim that the first evidence of the Polo family in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia , while until 1430 the Polo family owned a house in Korcula, now in Croatia.

The Venetian merchants, who in the thirteenth century had achieved trading power in the Mediterranean, could not remain indifferent to the explorations undertaken by bold travelers in Central Asia, India and China. They understood that these journeys opened up new markets for them and that trade with the East promised them incalculable benefits. Thus, the interests of trade were bound to lead to the exploration of new countries. It was for this reason that two major Venetian merchants undertook a journey to East Asia.

In 1260, Nikolo, Marko's father, together with his brother Maffeo went to the Crimea (to Sudak), where their third brother, also named Marko, had his own trading house. Then they moved along the same route that Guillaume de Rubruk had taken in 1253. After spending a year in Sarai-Batu, the brothers moved on to Bukhara. Due to the danger of hostilities conducted by Berke (Batiy's brother) in this region, the brothers were forced to postpone their return home. After staying in Bukhara for three years and not being able to return home, they joined the Persian caravan, which Ilkhan Hulagu sent to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to his brother, the Mongol Khan Kublai, who by that time had practically completed the defeat of the Chinese Song dynasty and soon became the sole ruler Mongol Empire and China.

In the winter of 1266, the brothers reached Beijing and were received by Khubilai, who, according to the brothers, gave them a golden paizu for a free road back and asked them to convey a message to the Pope asking him to send him oils from the tomb of Christ in Jerusalem and preachers of Christianity. Together with the brothers, the Mongolian ambassador went to the Vatican, however, on the way he fell ill and fell behind. On the way, Nicolo learned about the death of his wife and the birth of a son who was born a few days after his departure, in 1254, and named Marco. Arriving in Venice in 1269, the brothers found that Pope Clement IV had died and a new one had never been appointed. Wishing to complete the task as soon as possible, they decided not to wait for the appointment of a new pope, and in 1271 they went to Jerusalem, taking Marco with them.

The first Chinese city that the Polo family reached in 1275 was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). In the same year, they reached Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern China's Gansu province). According to Polo, the khan was delighted with him, gave various orders, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even kept him governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the Khan's army and taught him how to use catapults during the siege of fortresses.

The description of Polo's life in China rarely follows chronological order, which presents a problem in determining the exact route of his travels. But his description is geographically accurate enough, it gives an orientation to the cardinal points and distances in terms of days of the route: "To the south of Panshin, in one day's journey, the great and noble city of Kaiu." In addition, Polo describes the daily life of the Chinese, mentioning the use of paper money, typical crafts and culinary traditions. various areas. He stayed in China for seventeen years.

Despite numerous requests from the Polo family, the Khan did not want to let them go, but in 1291, when he gave one of the Mongol princesses to the Persian Ilkhan Argun, he needed the help of the Venetians in order to deliver the bride by a safer sea route.

One of the myths around Marco Polo's voyage is that it was the first contact between Europe and China. Even without taking into account the assumption of contacts between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century facilitated the route between Europe and Asia (since it now passed through the territory of almost one state).

In the archives of Khubilai from 1261 there is a reference to European merchants from the Land of the Midnight Sun, probably Scandinavian or Novgorod. On their first journey, Nicolò and Maffeo Polo followed the same route as Guillaume de Rubruck, indeed sent by King Louis IX, who reached the then Mongol capital of Karakoram and returned in 1255. The description of his route was known in medieval Europe and could have been known to the Polo brothers on their first journey.

During Polo's stay in China, a native of Beijing, Rabban Sauma, came to Europe, and the missionary Giovanni Montecorvino, on the contrary, went to China. Published in 1997 by David Selbourne, the text of the Italian Jew Jacob from Ancona, who allegedly visited China in 1270-1271, shortly before Polo, is, according to most Hebraists and Sinologists, a hoax.

However, unlike previous travelers, Marco Polo left a description of the places he visited. His book gained great popularity and throughout the Middle Ages competed in success with the public with the fantastic journey of John Mandeville (the prototype of which was Odorico Pordenone).

Thanks to Marco Polo, a wide circle of Europeans became aware of paper money, the sago palm, and black stones that burn. Information about the location of spices, which were worth their weight in gold, contributed to the involvement of Europeans in their trade, the elimination of the trade monopoly of Arab merchants and the subsequent redivision of the world.

From the moment he returned to the city, stories from the trip were viewed with disbelief. Peter Jackson cites as one of the reasons for disbelief the reluctance to accept his description of a well-organized and hospitable Mongol Empire, which was contrary to the traditional Western idea of barbarians. In turn, in 1995, Frances Wood, curator of the Chinese collection of the British Museum, published a popular book in which she questioned the very fact of Polo's travel to China, suggesting that the Venetian did not travel beyond Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but simply used descriptions of the travels of Persian merchants. For example, in his book Marco Polo writes that he helped the Mongols during the siege of the Sung base in Sanyang, but the siege of this base ended in 1273, that is, two years before his arrival in China. Francis Wood notes that neither hieroglyphics, nor typography, nor tea, nor china, nor the practice of bandaging women's feet, nor the Great Wall of China are mentioned in Polo's book. Arguments put forward by proponents of the authenticity of the journey are based on the peculiarities of the process of creating a book and Polo's goal in transmitting his memories.

In defense of Marco Polo, it can be said that he was describing from memory, he was familiar with Persian and used Persian names, which were often also inconsistent in their rendering of Chinese names. Some inaccuracies were introduced during the translation or rewriting of the book, so some surviving manuscripts are more accurate than others. In addition, in many cases Marco did use second-hand information (especially when describing historical or fantastic events that happened before his trip). Many other contemporary descriptions of this kind also sin with inaccuracies, which cannot be blamed for the fact that their authors were not in that place at that time.

Polo knew Persian (the language of international communication of the time) while living in China, learned Mongolian (the language of the Chinese administration during this period), but did not have to learn Chinese. As a member of the Mongol administration, he lived at a distance from Chinese society (which, according to his testimony, had a negative attitude towards European barbarians), had little overlap with its everyday life, and did not have the opportunity to observe many of the traditions that are evident only in the household. For a person who did not receive a systematic education and was alien to literature, local books represented " Chinese charter", but Polo details the production of paper money, which differs little from the printing of books.

Tea was by that time widely known in Persia, therefore it was of no interest to the author, in a similar way it is not mentioned in Arabic and Persian descriptions of that time. Porcelain was briefly mentioned in the book.

With regard to the binding of the feet, there is a mention in one of the manuscripts (Z) that Chinese women walk with very small steps, but this is not explained more fully.

The Great Wall as we know it today was built during the Ming Dynasty. In the time of Marco Polo, these were mostly earthen fortifications, which did not represent a continuous wall, but were limited to the most militarily vulnerable areas. For a Venetian, fortifications of this kind might not be of significant interest.

The honor given by Khubilai to the young Marco Polo, his appointment as governor of Yangzhou, the absence of Chinese or Mongolian official records of the presence of merchants in China for almost twenty years, according to Frances Wood, look unreliable. As proof of Polo's stay in China, for example, a single reference is mentioned from 1271, in which Phagba Lama, a close adviser to Khubilai, mentions in his diary a foreigner who is on friendly terms with the Khan, but neither name nor nationality is indicated in it, nor the duration of this foreigner's stay in China.

However, in his book, Polo demonstrates such an awareness of the happenings at the Khan's court that it is difficult to acquire without proximity to the court. Thus, in Chapter LXXXV (On the treacherous plan to revolt the city of Kambala), he, emphasizing his personal presence at the events, describes in detail the various abuses of Minister Ahmad and the circumstances of his murder, naming the killer (Wangzhu), which exactly corresponds to Chinese sources.

This episode is especially significant because the Chinese Yuan-shih dynasty chronicle mentions the name of Po-Lo as a person who was on the commission investigating the murder and stood out for telling the emperor frankly about Ahmad's abuses.

It was a common practice to use Chinese nicknames for foreigners, making it difficult to find references to Polo's name in other Chinese sources. Many Europeans who officially visited the center of the Mongol Empire during this period, such as de Rubruck, did not even get a mention in the Chinese chronicles.

Very little is known about his life after his return from China. According to some reports, he participated in the war with Genoa. Around 1298, Polo was captured by the Genoese and remained there until May 1299. His travel stories were recorded by another prisoner, Rusticello (Rusticiano), who also wrote chivalric romances. According to some sources, the text was dictated in the Venetian dialect, according to others - it was written in Old French with inserts in Italian. Due to the fact that the original manuscript has not been preserved, it is not possible to establish the truth.

After his release from the Genoese captivity, he returned to Venice, married and from this marriage he had three daughters (two were married off to merchants from Dalmatia, which, according to some researchers, confirms the hypothesis of his Croatian origin, but the wife herself was from the famous Venetian kind, which rather speaks of the well-established ties of the Polo family in Venice). He also had a house on the corner of Rio di San Giovanni Crisostomo and Rio di San Lio. There are documents that he participated in two small trials.

In 1324, already a sick man, Polo wrote his will, which mentions the golden paiza received from the Tatar Khan (he received it from his uncle Maffeo, who, in turn, bequeathed it to Marco in 1310). In the same year, 1324, Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo. In 1596, his house (where, according to legend, the things he brought from the Chinese campaign were kept) burned down. The church in which he was buried was demolished in the 19th century.

Did Marco Polo visit China?
Cesar Cervera

The Venetian merchant and traveler does not mention in his notes either the Great Wall of China or tea, just as he does not talk about chopsticks or the custom of bandaging the feet of girls from noble families. Historians, on the other hand, pay attention to the fact that today completely different traditions are associated with Chinese culture than in the days of Marco Polo.

The traveler's contemporaries hardly believed his stories about distant China. In his work entitled "The Book of the Diversity of the World", he described exotic lands, unknown civilizations and countless treasures that were delivered to European markets. The travels of the Venetian merchant excited the imagination of his readers. But let's think about how plausible his stories are? Has Marco really been to China?

The history of the Polo family in East Asia began in 1260. Nicolo and Mateo Polo, Marco's father and uncle, sold everything they owned in Constantinople, an important trading center in both Europe and Asia, and went to Saray Batu, located in the territory of the Mongol Empire. A group of Venetians caught the attention of the Great Khan, who had never met the Italians before and was fascinated by the interaction with them.

A year later, the Polo family came to the court of Khubilai, the grandson of the founder of the empire, Genghis Khan. Khan ordered the Polo brothers to return to Italy in order to find 100 outstanding people who could become an ornament to his court. Upon his return to Venice, Nicolò learned that in his absence his son Marco was born. During the second expedition of Nicolo Polo to the court of the Great Khan, in 1271, he was accompanied by his 17-year-old son.

From 1271 to 1295 Marco and his family spent in the heart of Asia, in China, at the Court of Kublai. All this time, Marco Polo dictated incredible, amazing stories to the clerk. One of these stories described the mobile bamboo palace of Khan Kubilai, as well as his summer residence, Shangdu, which, thanks to the memoirs of the Venetian, became a real symbol of oriental luxury. From another story, we learn about the Khan's court, which shone with noble nobles, sages, monks and sorcerers.

On the territory of Armenia, Marco Polo visited the mountain where Noah's Ark was alleged to have ended up; in Persia, he visited the alleged tomb of the Magi, where the imperishable relics of Caspar, Melchior and Balthazar rested. Upon his arrival in China, he became one of the first European writers to mention oil and understand, albeit partially, the importance of coal. Marco Polo and his clerk Rustichello of Pisa embellished their stories with numerous legends and set out all the adventures in a very accessible language, not alien to literary canons.

However, as the story unfolds and travelers move deeper into Asia, some inconsistencies become more and more apparent. The world of the East turns out to be shrouded in a haze of legends and fiction, and the genre of memoirs smoothly flows into science fiction, more and more reminiscent of Gulliver's Travels. After the Polo family reached Beijing, Marco, among other foreigners, entered the service of the Great Khan. According to some records, everything at the court was truly gigantic. Marco Polo revealed to Europeans the most severe discipline that reigned in the Mongol army, as well as the existence of huge cities, such as Kinsai, modern Hangzhou, where there were about one million inhabitants and 12 thousand bridges.

How plausible are the stories of Marco Polo?

A clear penchant for fiction and some unconvincing details have led historians to doubt that Marco Polo really ended up as far away in Asia as his book claimed. It is known that he visited Mongolia, however, some researchers wonder why he does not mention the Great Wall of China, tea, chopsticks or the custom of bandaging the feet of girls from noble families? Maybe the Venetian's foot never set foot on the lands of the Celestial Empire, and he learned all the details from travelers and from Persian books?

Some doubts resolve themselves. The state of the Great Wall of China in the Middle Ages is unknown, since at the beginning of the New Age it was almost completely rebuilt by order of the rulers of the Ming Dynasty. It is likely that during the journey of Marco Polo, only ruins remained from the fortification.

Some of the traditions that today are associated in our minds with Chinese culture may not have been of particular importance to the Venetian, and besides, Marco's opinion was strongly influenced by the Mongols who then ruled in this part of the world.

In 2012, the German researcher Hans Ulrich Vogel published the most comprehensive historical study examining Marco Polo's voyages for credibility. In addition to the arguments already given in defense of the Venetian, the scholar-historian draws our attention to the fact that not a single European and, in general, not a single author provides such a complete description of the Chinese coins of that period, as well as the process of obtaining salt. A comparison was made between Polo's story about how salt was mined in the Chinese city of Shanglu and authentic documents from the Yuan Dynasty era. In addition, Marco is the only one who has described the technique of making paper from mulberry bark with amazing accuracy. Only someone who personally saw how this happens could describe everything in such detail.

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Marco Polo (1254-1324) - a famous Italian merchant and traveler, author of the famous "Book of the Diversity of the World", in which he spoke in detail about his journey through Asian countries. Despite the fact that for many centuries doubts have been expressed about the truth of the facts cited, this work continues to be an important source on the history, geography, and ethnography of many medieval Asian states and peoples. The work of Marco Polo had a huge impact on future travelers and discoverers. It is known that H. Columbus actively used the book during his voyage to America.

Marco Polo was the first among Europeans who decided on such a long and risky journey into an unknown world. The right to be called the homeland of the traveler is contested by Poland and Croatia. Representatives of the first state claim that the surname Polo comes from the abbreviated name of the Pole nationality. Croats, on the other hand, claim that the roots of the Italian clan are located on the territory of their state in Dolmatia.

Childhood and youth

Marco Polo was born in Venice on September 15, 1254 into a noble family. His mother died in childbirth, so the upbringing of the future traveler was taken over by his aunt and father Nikolo, who, like many residents of a large trading city, was selling spices and jewelry. By virtue of his profession, he traveled a lot around the world, visiting Central Asia, Mongolia and the Crimea. In 1260, together with their brother Matthew, they came to Sudak, after which they proceeded to Bukhara and further to Beijing, where the Mongols then ruled.

The older relatives returned to Venice in 1269 and enthusiastically talked about their wanderings. They managed to get to the court of Kublai Khan, where they were received with great honor, and they were even granted Mongol titles. Before leaving, the Khan asked the Venetians to turn to the Pope to send him scientists who mastered the seven arts. However, upon arrival at home, it became clear that the previous head of the Catholic Church, Clement IV, had died, and a new one had not yet been elected.

It is not known for certain whether Marco received any education, but during his travels he managed to learn several languages. In his book, Polo indirectly confirms his literacy by writing "I entered a few notes in my notebook." In one of the chapters, he notes that he tried to be more attentive to all the events taking place in order to write down everything new and unusual in more detail.

Travel to Asia

Only in 1271 was a new pope elected. They became Teobaldo Visconti, who received the name Gregory X. This prudent politician appointed the Polo family (Nicolo, Morfeo and Marco) as his official envoys to the Mongol Khan. So the brave merchants set off on their long journey to China.

The first stop on their way was the port of Layas, located on the Mediterranean coast. It was a kind of transit point where East and West met. It was here that goods were brought from Asian countries, which were then bought up and taken to Europe by the Venetians and Genoese.

From here, the Polos proceeded to Asia Minor, called by Marco "Turkmania", after which they passed through Armenia. The traveler will mention this country in connection with the ark of Noah, which is allegedly located on the very top of Ararat. Further, their path ran through Mesopotamia, where they visited Mosul and Baghdad, in which "the caliph lives with untold riches." After living here for some time, the Polos rush to the Persian Tabriz, where the largest pearl market was located. In his book, Marco described in detail the process of buying and selling this jewel, which looked like some kind of sacred ritual. They also visited the city of Kerman, after which a high mountain and a rich valley with unusually well-fed bulls and sheep awaited them.

While moving across Persia, the caravan was attacked by robbers who killed some of the escorts, but the Polo family miraculously managed to survive. Being on the verge of life and death from the strongest thirst that tormented travelers in the hot desert, the Italians were lucky enough to get to the once prosperous Afghan city of Balkh, where they found their salvation. Further to the east, endless fertile lands began, which abounded in fruits and game. The next region visited by Europeans was Badakhshan. There was an active mining of precious stones, carried out by numerous slaves. There is a version that the Europeans stayed in these places for almost a year due to Marco's illness.

The further path ran through the Pamirs, having overcome the spurs of which, the travelers ended up in Kashmir. Polo was struck by local sorcerers who "change the weather with conspiracies, let in great darkness." The Italian also noted the beauty of local women. Further, the Italians ended up in the Southern Tien Shan, where the foot of the Europeans had not yet set foot. Polo notes clear signs of highlands: the fire flares up with difficulty and glowed with an unusual flame.

The subsequent movement of the caravan went in a northeasterly direction through the oases along the outskirts of the Takla-Makan desert. Some time later, they reached the first Chinese city of Shangzhou (“Sandy Circle”), where Marco managed to see local rites with his own eyes, among which he highlighted the funeral. After they passed through Guangzhou and Lanzhou. In the latter, he was struck by yaks and a small musk deer, whose dried head he then took home.

Visiting Khan

After three and a half years of long wanderings, the travelers finally reached the Khan's possessions. The cavalry detachment that met them with great honor accompanied them to the summer residence of Kublai Shandu. Polo does not describe in detail the solemn ceremony of meeting with the ruler, limiting himself to the general words "received with honor, fun and feast." But it is known that Khubilai talked to the Europeans for a long time in an informal setting. They handed over the gifts they brought, including a vessel with sacred oil from the Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulcher, as well as letters from Gregory X. After that, Marco Polo became one of the Khan's courtiers.

In order to win Khubilai's favor, the smart Italian told him in great detail about the population of the territories subject to him, their customs and moods. He always tried to please the ruler additional information which might interest him. One day, Marco was sent to the distant city of Karanjan, a trip to which took six months. As a result, the young man brought a lot of important information that made him talk about the divine mind and wisdom of the Venetian.

In total, Polo was an ambassador-at-large for 17 years. During this time, he traveled all over China, though without leaving details about the purpose of his trips. By the end of this period, the khan had aged a lot, and the process of decentralization began in his state. It was becoming increasingly difficult for him to maintain power over the provinces. All this, as well as a long separation from home, made the Polo family think about returning to their homeland.

The way home

And then there was a convenient excuse to leave China. In 1292, messengers arrived to Khubilai from one of his governors, who lived in Persia, who asked him to find a bride for him. After the girl was found, the Venetians volunteered to accompany her.

As M. Polo wrote: “If not for this lucky break, we would never have left there”. The path of the flotilla, which consisted of 14 ships, lay by sea from Zayton. Marco left a description of the route, where he indicated that they sailed past the island of Java, landed in Sumatra, crossed the Straits of Singapore and Malacca, walked past the Nicobar Islands, about the inhabitants of which the traveler wrote that they go completely naked.

At this time, the team thinned to 18 people, where the rest of the 600 who sailed Polo did not specify. But he became the first European to leave information about Madagascar (although in part they turned out to be incorrect). As a result, the ship managed to reach the Persian Hormuz, from where Princess Kokechin was taken to her destination in Tabriz. Then the road was well known - through Trebizond to Constantinople. In the winter of 1295, after 24 years of wandering, Marco Polo returned to his homeland.

Birth of the book

Two years later, the war between Venice and Genoa will begin, in which Polo took part. During one of the battles, he was captured and was put in prison. Here he shared his memories with Rusticiano's cellmate, who wrote down his vivid stories, included in the Book of the Diversity of the World. More than 140 versions of the work, written in 12 languages, have been preserved, which give certain ideas about the life of the countries of Asia and Africa.

Despite the presence of obvious conjectures, for which the author was nicknamed "Million", it was from Polo that Europeans learned about coal, paper money, sago palm, and also the places where spices grow. His book served as a guide for cartographers, although over time Marco's errors in calculating distances were proven. In addition, the work contains rich ethnographic material that tells about the rituals and traditions of the Asian peoples.

last years of life

After returning to his homeland, fate will release Marco Polo for another 25 years of life. At this time, he, like a true Venetian, will engage in trade, start a family and give birth to three children. Thanks to his book, translated into Latin and Italian, the traveler will become a real celebrity.

In his declining years, excessive stinginess was revealed in him, which became the reason for litigation with his wife and children. Marco Polo lived to the age of 70 and died in his native Venice. Today, only a small house reminds of the great countryman here. Despite this, in the memory of many people he will remain as a man who discovered an amazing and unknown world full of secrets, mysteries and adventures.

History reference

Marco Polo was born on September 15, 1254 in the major Italian trading city of Venice. He was from a merchant family, which partly determined his future fate. Medieval trade was based on trips to other countries for valuable goods, which can partly be considered a journey. Marco's father, returning in 1269 from Mongolia, the Crimea and the lands of modern Uzbekistan, spoke about large and little-known countries that are rich in outlandish goods. The commercial orientation became the basis of a new campaign that lasted 24 years, in which the young Marco Polo set off in 1271.

Life in China, where the merchants arrived in 1275, was successful, except for the excessive guardianship over them by Khan Kublai. According to historians, the older Polo brothers were good advisers on the technical re-equipment of the Chinese army. Marco was also quite smart, and the khan entrusted him with diplomatic work. With instructions from Khubilai, Marco Polo traveled almost all of China, getting acquainted with the history of the country and its culture. Foreigners were probably beneficial to the khan, so they lived until 1292, as if in a golden cage.

Only a chance helped them to leave China. To accompany the princesses to Persia, who were given as wives to the ruler of this country, the khan needed especially confidants. There were no better candidates than the Polo brothers. Travelers decided to go by sea: by land it was quite dangerous because of the strife between the princes within the country. The sea voyage ended successfully both for the future wives in the harem of the Persian ruler, and for Marco Polo, the traveler and writer. The road home passed not only through Persia, where the fleet with royal persons was actually heading. Along the way, Marco Polo described the new lands he saw. Sumatra, Ceylon, Madagascar, Malaysia and a number of other islands, the African coast, India and many other lands entered the stories of Marco Polo.

Significance for modern times

Arriving home, Marco Polo went to prison as a participant civil war but was soon released. Death overtook him in 1324, when he was known and respected for writing a book and tales of his own adventures. Despite many inaccuracies in his narrative, it was from the pages of the original handwritten (and since 1477 printed) edition that Europeans first learned about Japan, Indonesia, and Indochina. Today, this campaign of Marco Polo, his story about what he saw, makes it possible to spend holidays in Bali, travel to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and many other islands. These places are loved by many connoisseurs of beach holidays, diving, surfing. The nature of the region is untouched by civilization, and admirers of ecotourism will appreciate the primordial flora of the Indonesian islands.

The description of Chipingu Island opened Japan to readers, and modern tourists - the opportunity to visit this island country. Although this island is one of 3922 that are part of Japan, the information received about it then has turned into a powerful tourism industry today, offering tours to the most technological state in the world. Traveling in the spring, during the cherry blossom season, is most popular with Russian tourists. Hot springs and various natural parks are also favorite places for vacationers in Japan. And, of course, the culture unusual for Europeans attracts.

Despite the popularity of China during Polo's time, his popularization of this country, the abundance of information received during his 17 years in China attracted many Europeans to these places. Today, tours to China are becoming more and more in demand, and the Chinese themselves, in gratitude to Marco Polo for his achievements in the development of their country, erected a monument to him.

Conclusion

Christopher Columbus used The Diversity of the World as an authoritative reference in his search for India. Despite the seeming fame of the biography of Columbus, many facts from his fate will be of interest to readers.