SOUND FILE FORMATS

Reverberation distortions are those distortions that the speech signal undergoes from the signal source (human speech tract) to the sound pressure receiver (microphone). These distortions belong to the class of multiplicative interference and are the product of convolution of the speech signal with the impulse response of the acoustic path. The impulse response depends on the reflections and re-reflections of the acoustic signal entering the microphone (for example, from walls, room ceiling, furniture, various items etc.). It is characterized by the reverberation time, RT 60 or T, (sometimes called the standard reverberation time) or the time when the sound pressure at the microphone drops by a certain amount (60 dB or 1000 times) from the initial level. This time is more than less sound energy during reflections, it is absorbed by walls and objects in the room.

The acoustic properties of the room significantly affect the spectrum of the speech signal and, first of all, its high-frequency region (they are more strongly absorbed by the elements of the room's furnishings: carpets, upholstered furniture, materials for its sheathing, and also fade faster with increasing distance). In this case, the perception of the naturalness of the sound of speech may change. The smallest reverberation distortions are observed in open areas or in specially prepared anechoic rooms. At small values ​​of T due to reverberation, the useful sound pressure level at the listening point increases. So, in the best concert halls, the delay between the direct sound and the first reflection is from 10 to 20 ms. As the reverberation time increases, speech begins to distort: ​​first, explosive sounds, then intelligibility in general decreases, “boom” and “mumbling” appear, which, in the end, makes speech completely unintelligible. An example is phonograms obtained in echoing empty halls with bare walls.

Currently, there are a significant number of both hardware and hardware-software complexes in the world designed to combat various noises and interferences that interfere with the perception of sounding speech recorded on a phonogram. Moreover, the bulk of such devices is used in musical sound recording and broadcasting.

The development of computer technologies has made it possible to implement complex and efficient digital signal processing algorithms. All of them are based to some extent on information about the speech signal and background noise and can be divided, according to the literature data 1 , into several groups and based on the following approaches:

assessment of the frequency of vocalized speech;

estimation of the parameters of a digital model of speech production, or Markov filtering;

interference suppression by the adaptive filtering method according to the criterion of the minimum root-mean-square filtering error;

direct estimation of the short-term amplitude spectrum of speech (methods of spectral subtraction).

The devices that implement the adaptive filtering method are most widely used in expert activities in the study of sounding speech.

13. Sound file formats

Sounding speech can be recorded on both analog and digital media. Today, digital phonograms are of particular difficulty in research. Let's consider in what formats an expert can receive a digital phonogram and a file for examination.

The concept of format is used in two different senses. When using a specialized media or recording method and special read/write devices, the concept of the format includes the physical characteristics of the audio carrier - the dimensions of the tape or disk cassette, the tape or disk itself, the recording method, signal parameters, principles of coding and error protection, etc. n. When using a universal information carrier of wide application - for example, a computer floppy or hard disk - the format is understood only as a method of encoding a digital signal, the arrangement of bits and words, and the structure of service information; the entire "low-level" part related directly to working with the media, in this case, remains under the jurisdiction of the computer and its operating system.

SOUND FILE FORMATS

Many formats differ from each other only in the order of bits in a word, samples of the left and right channels in the stream, and service information - headers, checksums, anti-jamming codes, etc. The exact way to check the integrity of the signal is to convert several different streams (files) of the format F1 to F2 format and then back to F1. If the information part of each stream (file) is identical to the original - this species transformations can be considered non-distorting.

The information part of a stream (file) is understood as the actual set of data describing the sound signal; the rest is considered a service part and generally does not affect the signal shape. For example, if the service part of a file or stream has a field for the time of its creation (transfer), then even if the information parts of two different files or streams completely coincide, their service parts will turn out to be different, and this will be fixed by the logical analyzer in the case of a stream or by a byte-by-byte program. comparisons - in the case of a file. In addition, the time shift of one signal relative to another, which occurs when the digital stream is aligned along the boundaries of words or blocks and consists in adding zero samples to the beginning and / or end of the file or stream, also leads to their apparent digital mismatch. In such situations, it is necessary to use special equipment or software to check the identity of digital signals.

Of the specialized digital audio formats and media, the following are currently best known:

CD (Compact Disk - compact disc) - a single-sided plastic disc with optical laser recording and reading, 120 or 90 mm in diameter, containing 80 or 90 minutes of stereo sound with a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz and 16-bit linear quantization. The system was proposed by Sony and Philips and is called CD-DA (Compact Disk - Digital Audio). A distinction is made between pressed (CD), write-once (CD-R), and repeatedly rewritable (CD-RW) compact discs.

S-DAT (Stationary head Digital Audio Tape - digital audio tape with a fixed head) - a system like a conventional cassette recorder, in which recording and reading are carried out

fixed thin film head unit on 3.81 mm wide tape in a 86 x 55.5 x 9.5 mm double-sided cassette. Realizes 16-bit recording of two or four channels at frequencies of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz.

R-DAT (Rotary head Digital Audio Tape - digital audio tape with a rotating head) - a system like a VCR with a cross-tilted recording with rotating heads. The most popular R-DAT digital tape recording format is often referred to simply as DAT. The R-DAT uses a 73 x 54 x 10.5 mm cassette, with a 3.81 mm wide tape, and the cassette and recorder system is very similar to a typical VCR. The base speed of the tape is 8.15 mm/s, the rotation speed of the head unit is 2000 rpm. R-DAT works with a two-channel (four-channel in some models) signal at sampling rates of 44.1 and 48 kHz with 16-bit linear quantization, and 32 kHz with 12-bit non-linear quantization. For error protection, a double Reed-Solomon code and modulation with an 8-10 code are used. Cassette capacity - 80-240 minutes depending on the speed and length of the tape. Consumer DAT recorders are usually equipped with a system of protection against illegal copying of phonograms, which does not allow recording from an analog input at a frequency of 44.1 kHz, as well as direct digital copying in the presence of prohibitive codes SCMS (Serial Code Manager System). Studio tape recorders do not have such restrictions.

DASH (Digital Audio Stationary Head) - a system with recording on a magnetic tape with a width of 6.3 and 12.7 mm in the longitudinal direction with fixed heads. The speed of the tape - 19.05, 38.1, 76.2 cm / s. Implements 16-bit recording at 44.056, 44.1 and 48 kHz sampling rates from 2 to 48 channels.

DAT (Alesis DAT) is Alesis' proprietary 8-channel S-VHS audio recording system. Uses 16-bit linear quantization at 48 kHz, cassette capacity is up to 60 minutes per channel. ADAT tape recorders allow cascading, as a result of which a 128-channel synchronous recording system can be assembled. Many different interface units are available for ADAT for interfacing with DAT, CD, MIDI, etc. The Meridian model (ADAT Type II) uses 20-bit quantization at 44.1 and 48 kHz.

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DCC (Digital Compact Cassette - Digital Compact Cassette) is a consumer longitudinal recording system on a standard compact cassette developed by Philips. Tape speed - 4.76 cm / s, the maximum playing time is the same as with analog recording. Sampling rates - 32, 44.1, 48 kHz, resolution - 16/18 bits (PASC compression method). DCC recorders can play (but not record) conventional analog compact cassettes. Currently, the DCC system is recognized as unpromising.

MD (MiniDisk) is a home and concert magneto-optical disc recording system developed by Sony. A 64 mm disc placed in a 70 x 67.5 x 5 mm plastic case holds 74 minutes (60 in earlier versions) of stereo sound. When exchanging with external devices, the format of 16-bit samples at a frequency of 44.1 kHz is used, however, the signal is recorded on the disk itself after compression by the ATRAC method.

Of the universal computer formats, the most popular are the following:

Microsoft RIFF/WAVE (Resource Interchange File Format/Wave) is a standard audio file format for IBM PC computers. A file of this format contains a header describing the general parameters of the file, and one or more fragments (chunks), each of which is a waveform or auxiliary information - playback modes and order, marks, names and coordinates of wave sections, etc. Files of this formats have a WAV extension.

Apple AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format) is the standard audio file type on Apple Macintosh systems. It is similar to RIFF and also allows you to place additional information along with the sound wave, in particular - WaveTable instrument samples along with synthesizer parameters.

A "pure digitization" RAW format that does not contain a header and is only a sequence of sound wave samples. Typically, a digitization is stored in a 16-bit signed format, with the left channel samples coming first in each pair, although there may be exceptions.

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Glossary of Computer Audio Processing and Magnetic Recording

Automated workplace(ARM) - a computer system designed to automate professional activities. The basis of the workstation is a PC, equipped with an input / output system of information and specialized software.

Adaptive system- a system that automatically adjusts to the conditions of use.

adaptability- the ability of devices or programs to change their parameters due to changes in themselves or depending on the conditions of use in order to increase efficiency.

Active speaker system- a speaker system whose speakers are powered by a built-in amplifier.

Active window- window computer program The that the user is currently working with or can work with.

Active filter- a device in which amplifying elements (lamps, transistors, microcircuits, etc.) are used that use additional power and have frequency-selective properties, that is, a certain frequency response and phase response. They allow you to get the required characteristics easier than passive ones.

Acoustic system (AC)- acoustic equipment designed to reproduce an analog sound signal.

Algorithm- the content and sequence of operations that accurately determine the solution of the problem by means of a computational process that transforms the initial data into the final result.

Amplitude - highest value sinusoidally changing value.

Amplitude modulation- a method of modulating the amplitude of a high-frequency oscillation of a constant frequency by a signal. Modulation in which undamped oscillations change in amplitude in accordance with the lower frequency oscillations that modulate it. During modulation, the carrier frequency is located in the center of the signal spectrum, and the sidebands are located to the right and left.

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Amplitude-frequency response (AFC)- frequency dependence of the amplitude of a sinusoidally changing value at the output of the device on the amplitude of the excitation at the input.

analog device- a device in which information is presented in the form of continuously changing physical quantities in a certain range (for example, electric current).

analog signal is a signal described only by continuous functions.

Analog to digital conversion- representation of an analog audio or video signal in digital form or in the form of code pulses.

Archiving- compressing one or more files in order to save memory and placing the compressed data in one archive file.

Attenuator- a device or program for smooth or discrete attenuation of the level of the signal passing through it.

ADC(ADC) - analog-to-digital converter. A device designed to automatically convert an analog signal into a digital signal.

binaural effect- the ability of a person to determine the direction to the source of sound.

Bitrate (bitrate- bit rate) - the number of bits allocated for storing a sound recording unit, the intensity of the bit stream when playing a multimedia file. Usually measured in kilobits per second - Kbps or Kb/s.

Buffer (buffer)- in general - "softener". An electronic circuit or device placed between two other devices to accommodate differences in their performance.

Weighted characteristic- a special form of frequency response measuring device used to measure subjective effects more realistically than a flat (unweighted) instrument.

High frequency bias- the most common way to linearize the magnetization curve of a magnetic recording medium.

Harmonic- the simplest periodic function characterizing the harmonic oscillation, which is the composition

lying complex oscillation, with a frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental frequency (the first harmonic).

Headset- a set of headphones and a microphone on the bow near the mouth, convenient for voice dialogue through a computer network.

Sound volume- characteristics of the auditory sensation of sound; in a complex way depends on the sound pressure, frequency and form of sound vibrations.

Speaker- an electroacoustic transducer that converts an electric current or voltage of sound frequencies into sound vibrations of air using a movable diffuser.

engine, slider- a regulator responsible for the value of a certain parameter, for example, volume.

binary code- in digital technology, a way to represent data as a combination of two characters, which can be denoted as 0 and 1. Characters or ones are called bits.

Decoder (decoder)- a device or program for converting encoded data into its original form.

Decoding is the reverse operation of coding. Represents the conversion of a signal from one form to another. The decoding result may differ from the original if the encoding was irreversible.

Demodulation- process, reverse modulation. It consists in extracting a low-frequency modulating signal from modulated high-frequency oscillations. The latter can be modulated in amplitude, phase or frequency.

Detonation of sound- violation of the tonality of sound in the recording and playback equipment due to the instability of the relative speed of the information carrier. With slow changes in speed, floating of the sound occurs, and with fast changes, the sound vibrates.

Decibel (dB)- tenth of Bel, a relative logarithmic unit of measurement and comparison of various quantities. The magnitude of the signal amplitude in decibels X (dB) = 20 Log(X/U), where U is a linear unit of measurement. In general, a logarithmic scale is useful when the linear value is over a large range. In this case, the range is compressed. For audio signals, the logarithmic scale is natural due to the peculiarities of auditory perception.

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Dedigitization- the process, the reverse of digitization, i.e., converting a signal from digital to analog. In this case, this term is more precise than decoding.

Jitter (jitter) - temporary instability of clock pulses synchronizing the operation of individual elements of a digital audio system, signal phase jitter during synchronous transmission, i.e. mismatch of the fronts of bits and clock signals. Measured in picoseconds. Can be caused by oscillator instability, as well as the transmission of data and clock signals over the same channel (due to data penetration into the clock signal and vice versa). Jitter degrades the quality of a digital soundtrack.

dithering (dithering- jitter) - a compromise method of sound processing to reduce distortion when digitizing quiet signals (for phonograms with a large spread of loudness). To do this, high-frequency oscillations of small amplitude are mixed into the signal. As a result, the amplitude of quiet signals increases, and they are perceived more fully. This increases the high-frequency noise, which is not so noticeable to the ear. High-frequency noise can be added to both an analog signal (when recording) and a digital one (when processing sound in an audio controller or when processing sound files using special music editors).

Dynamic Range(sound transmission equipment) - the difference between the minimum and maximum levels of the transmitted signal. The minimum signal level is limited by the noise level of the equipment and the information carrier (depends on the nature and conditions of noise measurement). The maximum level is usually limited by non-linear distortions (when a certain level is exceeded, they increase sharply).

Diffraction(sometimes obstruction) - rounding the sound (or other wave) obstacles. The sound coming, for example, from behind a column will sound somewhat different than in its absence.

Dolby (Dolby)- noise reduction system. Named after an English engineer, the creator of a number of such systems. There are systems: Dolby-A, Dolby-B, Dolby-C, Dolby HX Pro, etc.

Driver (driver)- a mini control program that ensures the joint operation of application programs with a separate (peripheral) device.

Duplex- two-way communication between two devices, in which each of them can receive and transmit messages simultaneously.

Sound card(sound card) - an electronic board that allows you to input (output) sound signals to (from) the computer(s).

Sound pressure- additional pressure arising in the medium (air) when sound waves pass through it.

Sound range- the range of 20-20,000 Hz is the one that a person can hear.

Soundproofing- reduction of sound exposure due to the installation of a reflective (absorbing) wall between the sound source and the impact site.

Sound absorption- loss of sound energy during the incidence of sound waves and their propagation in the material environment.

PCM(PCM) - a method of pulse modulation in which information is transmitted by various groupings of pulses of the same shape.

Intermodulation distortion- one of the forms of non-linear distortion that occurs when an analog signal is transmitted over a channel with a non-linear transfer characteristic. The coefficient of intermodulation distortion expresses the appearance in the output signal of distortion associated with the interaction of two input harmonics. The coefficient is measured as a percentage.

Interpolation- search for intermediate values ​​of a quantity based on some of its known values, signal recovery between readings.

Interface- a set of rules for the interaction of devices and programs with each other or with the user and the means that implement this interaction.

Interference- the phenomenon of amplification of oscillations at some points in space and weakening of oscillations at other points as a result of the superposition of two or more waves arriving at these points. Interference is possible if the waves are coherent, that is, the phase difference of the waves is constant in time.

Sound distortion- characterized by the difference between the original sound and the sound reproduced by the recording apparatus.

Codec channel- number of output channels of the codec decoder. The currently used channel codecs are 2, 4, 6, 8.

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Channel (channel, data link)- the path along which a signal (data) is transmitted from one device to another.

To anality sound adapter- number of output analog channels. Possible values: 2, 4, 6, 7.

Audio controller channels- digital audio channels for exchange with memory.

Quantization- an operation in the process of analog-to-digital conversion, in which the true values ​​of discrete signal samples are replaced by the allowed (quantized) values ​​closest to their value.

Coaxial cable- the name of a cable with a single-core or stranded center wire, covered with a plastic dielectric and surrounded by a braided conductive (copper) screen that plays the role of earth. Outside, the cable is protected by a plastic sheath.

Encoder/Decoder (encoder/encoder)- a program for encoding / decoding a file from one audio format to another, for example, from WAV to MP3.

Coding- conversion of signals from one form to another, more convenient for further processing (storage, transmission, etc.). There are reversible encoding (lossless) and irreversible (lossy) with respect to the restoration of the original form.

Compader(Compressor) - a device or program designed to compress (compress) the dynamic range of a signal. Often this is necessary to avoid overloading the audio path.

Compander coding methods- (acronym for compacting/expanding, i.e. narrowing / expanding). Encoding methods that have higher accuracy for small amplitudes compared to the PCM method. For small amplitudes, a finer grid is used.

Material sound absorption coefficient is the ratio of the absorbed energy to the incident sound energy. A characteristic of the ability of a material to absorb sound waves, measured from 0 to 1 (sometimes measured as a percentage - from 0 to 100%). At zero sound absorption coefficient, all sound energy is reflected by the surface of the material. 1 - means that all sound energy is absorbed by the material.

crossover- an electronic circuit serving to separate

signal in the speakers into different frequency bands (separation of the signal into a band of high, medium and low frequencies for a three-way speaker system).

Line elements- elements that do not change the shape of the sinusoidal signal. Linear elements form linear electrical circuits.

mono sound- the sound represented by one channel. When outputting to one speaker, a mono sound can be called a dot (0D) (if the dot is identified with an acoustic speaker).

mixer (mixer- mixer) - a device or program designed to mix (mix) several input channels into one output, as well as to adjust the signal levels in the channels and at the inputs / outputs. In the software mixer, all the work is done by the computer processor, in the hardware - the audio controller.

Modulation- change in time according to a given law of quantities characterizing any regular physical process.

Nonlinear distortion- distortion, manifested as the occurrence in the transmitted signal of frequency components that were not in the original signal. This is due to the non-linearity of the transfer characteristic of the links of the recording-playback channel. As a measure of non-linear distortion, the harmonic coefficient is taken (expressed as a percentage), which is the percentage of the geometric sum of the amplitudes of the high-frequency harmonic components of the signal arising due to non-linearity, to the amplitude of the first harmonic. In audio recordings, the coefficient of the third harmonic, called the coefficient of nonlinear distortion, is taken as a measure of non-linear distortion.

Noise shaping (noise shaping) - literal translation- changing the shape of the noise. Method of virtual noise reduction of a digitized soundtrack. Digitizing noise is processed in such a way that its power does not change, but the spectrum changes from uniform to reverse with respect to the hearing sensitivity curve, i.e. it becomes smaller in the sensitivity region (1-5 kHz) and larger outside this region. Implemented in sound editors such as CoolEdit.

Oversampling (oversampling)- resampling with a higher frequency.

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Occlusions (occlusions- obstacles) - sounds passing through permeable obstacles. An example is sound passing through a wall to the listener.

surround sound (surround sound)- sound coming from many horizontal directions (2D sound). It is usually implemented by acoustic speakers surrounding the listener.

Octave- unit of frequency interval, the interval between two frequencies of an acoustic or electrical signal, the ratio of which is 2:1. An octave is equal to the interval between two frequencies f1 and f2, the logarithm of the ratio of which is equal to one (log(f2/f1)= 1), which corresponds to the frequency difference f1 and f2 twice.

Octave band- the frequency range at which the highest frequency is twice the lowest frequency.

Octave spectrum- sound level, determined and displayed in octave-wide bands. Recommended middle frequencies octaves: 31.5; 63; 125; 250; 500; 1000; 2000; 4000; 8000 Hz.

Reference frequency is the normalized frequency of the signal with which another signal is compared.

Signal to noise ratio(S/N) - shows (in dB) how much the useful signal exceeds the noise (interference).

Countdown- numerical value of the signal amplitude at a certain point in time.

Pan (panning) audio channel(s) - control the signal level in the channels to create a positioning effect. This is the simplest positioning, without any phase and frequency conversion of the signal. An example is creating the effect of a passing train.

Passive speaker system- an acoustic system whose speakers receive energy for their work from the output stage of a sound or television amplifier.

Passive filter- a filter made of passive linear elements - inductances, capacitances, resistors and not having additional power for its elements.

Resampling- a method of attenuating quantization noise based on digitizing a signal with an increased sampling rate.

Resampling- convert digital audio from from

changing both frequency and bit depth.

plugin - (plug in) is an embeddable module. A program that extends the capabilities of a software package. Usually embedded in the package body and called directly from the program for which it is intended. In relation to the processing of musical signals, a plug-in is a small program that works in conjunction with the main program and serves to solve particular problems in sound processing, for example, to implement sound effects. Mostly plug-ins of DirectX and VST standards are used. There are software packages with their own plugin format.

full duplex (full duplex)- the ability of the device to simultaneously receive / transmit signals (in the particular case, write and read). All modern audio codecs are full duplex.

Band pass filter- a device or program that passes or does not pass a signal in a specified frequency band and removes other signals whose frequency is above a certain F B but below a certain F ^ Can be interpreted as a combination of low-pass filter and high-pass filter.

hearing threshold- the minimum effective sound pressure level of the sound signal that excites the auditory sensation in given listening conditions, that is, the minimum sound intensity with which the human hearing aid begins to perceive the sound signal.

Psychoacoustics- the science of the influence of sound on the human psyche.

Psychoacoustic compression methodsPCMfiles- use the imperfection of hearing, throwing out "irrelevant" data for hearing. They allow you to significantly (10 or more times) compress PCM files with acceptable quality.

Separation of stereo channels- characterizes (in dB) the amount of crosstalk as the ratio of the signal in the controlled channel to the penetrating signal of the adjacent channel.

Reverberation (Reverberation)- "after-sound" or "echo", the gradual fading of sound in the room after the termination of the sound source. In digital audio, an effect based on repeated overlaying of a signal delayed by a fraction of a second. When using reverb algorithms, you can well emulate the properties of real rooms - concert halls, halls, etc.

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Notch filter- a device or program that removes the audio signal only in the specified frequency band and passes the rest.

pink noise (pink noise, Rosa-Rauschen)- noise that has a constant energy in an octave band, i.e. each octave band contains an amount of sound energy inversely proportional to frequency.

Signal- information carrier in the form of a changing physical quantity used for data transmission.

Sound signal- sound in analog or digital form.

Symmetric- a method of transmitting an electrical signal using two wires, one of which transmits the signal in antiphase.

Natural resonant frequency- the number of oscillations per second of the mechanical acoustic system, the characteristic of the vibroacoustic properties of the mechanical or acoustic (air volume) structure; the frequency at which the amplitude of oscillations increases sharply and many times.

natural frequency (allowed frequency)- frequency of natural vibration of the given oscillatory system.

Soundproofing ability- the acoustic characteristic of a material or structure, defined as the ratio of the sound energy incident on the structure to that passed through it (the structure); measured in decibels (R = M^W^/W^).

Stereo sound- sound output via two audio channels to two speakers or stereo headphones. Each channel is output to its own column. Allows the listener to recreate with some approximation the spatial picture of the sound sources of the original sound.

Third octave spectrum- the spectrum of the signal, in which the sound level is determined and displayed in bands with a width of a third of an octave. In this case, the bandwidth, as well as the bandwidth of the octave spectrum, referred to the middle frequency, is constant.

Rear speakers- loudspeakers located behind the listener (usually symmetrically).

Phase(for a sinusoidal signal) - an argument, that is, something

which is under the sine sign. The phase difference of two signals is the difference of the arguments. The concept of phase can be most strictly introduced only for sinusoidal signals.

phantom power- low-power power supply necessary for the operation of condenser microphones.

Filter- a device or program that has a frequency dependence of some physical parameters, and this dependence can be detected through external manifestations. Electric filter - a device that filters the signal, that is, the selection (or suppression) of the signal in a given frequency band. By design, filters can be passive - not requiring additional power supplies, active - requiring power supplies, digital - based on digital technology.

Low pass filter(LPF) - A filter that passes sinusoidal signals up to a certain frequency, and then begins to pass them with an attenuation called filtered attenuation. A high pass filter (HPF) does the same job, only in reverse.

Filtration- signal conversion, which results in amplification or attenuation of individual frequency regions.

Phonogram(Greek, literally - sound recording) - a signalogram obtained as a result of sound recording.

Front speakers- loudspeakers located in front of the listener (usually symmetrically).

DAC(DAC)- digital-to-analogue converter, designed for automatic conversion of a digital signal into an analog one.

Sampling frequency- in case of analog-to-digital conversion of signals, the frequency is equal to the number of samples per second.

Frequency modulation(FM) - a type of modulation in which the frequency of the carrier high-frequency oscillation is changed according to the law of the transmitted modulating signal.

Frequency distortion- distortions resulting from unequal transmission over the communication channel of the amplitudes of various frequency components of the water signal. Frequency distortion is also called amplitude or linear distortion.

Noise- the noise signal that appears at the output of the amplifier in the absence of an input signal. Are conditioned

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internal processes in the path, such as thermal noise.

Noise weighted- noise measured in the audio frequency range by a device with a selective (non-uniform) amplitude-frequency characteristic.

Digitizing noise- quantization noise. The function is the difference between the original analog signal and its approximating function, built from the results of digitization. That is, the noise that appears during quantization as a result of rounding the signal amplitude to the nearest level.

noise reduction- improving the quality of sound or video recording by reducing noise and interference.

Equalizer(EQ, equalizer - equalizer, corrector) - a device or program that allows you to correct the signal frequencies, that is, independently adjust the gains of various sections of the frequency range of signals. Equalizers are divided into graphic and parametric.

Effect Processor- a hardware module or a specialized program built on the use of a signal processor (see DSP) and designed to apply various sound effects to the signal.

Echo (echo) is a wave reflected with a delay in time.

AAC(Advanced Audio Coding)- technology of coding (compression) of sound signals.

A-weighting- a frequency filter applied during signal averaging (usually by the RMS method), in which the audibility function of the middle human ear is taken as a weighting function. This function takes into account that the most audible frequencies are 1-10 kHz. Therefore, the function is close to 0 dB in this area and falls off at the edges of the audio range.

AC-3(Acoustic Coding3) - acoustic sound compression system.

AEC(Acoustic Echo Cancellation)- acoustic echo suppression. The possibility of a microphone (including as part of the phone). Implemented by the echo cancellation processor, which recognizes the echo and subtracts it from the signal. Typically, an adaptive suppressor is used that learns to recognize. The training is pretty fast.

in about 50 ms, and this interval is called the convergence time.

AEC/EBU is a two-channel studio digital interface format, also known as AES3. Recommended in 1992 for the transmission of audio signals. Balanced transmission line, XLR connector is used.

ADPCM(Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation)- adaptive difference pulse-code modulation. A method of digital coding and compression of an analog signal, when the samples are recorded not in absolute form, but in the form of relative changes in the signal amplitude (recording an increment in amplitude values). The (rounded) difference between the current value and the value predicted from the extrapolation is stored. For quantization, usually 4 bits are used. This operation makes it possible to reduce the overall size of the digitized signal, but does not accurately represent signals with rapidly changing amplitude. Widely used for speech compression, usually for a PCM file.

ANSI(American National Standards Institute)- American National Standards Institute, develops industrial standards.

Anti-skin/Anti-shock- anti-shock protection system ("anti-shock") against CD and MD playback failures, using, among other things, an electronic memory buffer (up to 20 MB). Usually, the time during which data is received from the buffer is specified (up to 100 sec).

API(Application Programming Interface)- application programming interface. A set of subroutines or functions through which a program or application tells the operating system to do some work.

ASIO(Audio Stream Input Output)- system for input and output of audio stream. Technology (interface) for fast exchange between computer memory and digital sound device developed by Steinberg. Used to optimize hardware when using music software.

ATRAC(Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding)- an algorithm proposed by Sony for adapted coding when recording sound in compressed form on a mini-disk.

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Attenuation- signal attenuation when receiving or recording too strong signals.

Bi-amping(Bi-amplify) - speaker connection scheme, in which each band (or speaker) is controlled by a separate amplifier channel; that is, a pair of two-way speakers requires two stereo amplifiers and two sets of wires for each speaker.

bias- a high-frequency signal used in analog magnetic sound recording to improve the accuracy of audio signal recording, is generated by a bias oscillator.

Bi-wiring- a speaker connection diagram, in which each of its strips is connected by a separate cable to one amplifier. You need to have speakers with two sets of inputs and a separating crossover.

BNC(Bayonet Neil-Concelman, bayonet- bayonet; Neil and Concelman- names of developers) - bayonet (i.e. fixed with a slight turn) metal connector for coaxial cables.

BPM(beats per minute)- the number of beats per minute. A common and convenient way to measure tempo.

CCIR(Commission Consultative International de Radiodiffusion)- International Commission for Standardization for Broadcasting and Television.

CD (compact disc)- compact disc.

CD-DA(CDDigital Audio,he isAudio CD)- a standard for digital audio format on CD. PCM audio is 16 bit and 44.1 kHz. The standard dates back to 1980 and was developed by Sony and Philips.

codec(Compression/Decompression algorithm)- a hardware module or software block designed to encode/decode (or compress/decompress) data.

Cross talk cancellation(cross suppression) - a technology in which sound coming from, for example, the left channel is heard only by the left ear. Easily implemented on headphones, but difficult on speakers.

DAC(Digital to Analog Converter)- DAC, digital-to-analog converter.

DAT(Digital Audio Tape)- system of digital magnetic sound recording on magnetic tape.

DIN-5connector- round 5-pin connector. Used, for example, for MIDI equipment and AT keyboards. miniDIN is a connector used for PS/2 keyboards.

Dithering- artificial mixing of pseudo-random white noise to the audio signal, as a result of which the quantization noise is scattered over the signal spectrum.

Dolby Digital (DD)- a sound recording standard for home theater systems, a digital audio coding technology developed by Dolby Laboratories. It is a further development of the Dolby Surround Pro Logic system and includes 6 channels for sound recording. Multi-channel audio is recorded digitally.

Dolby HX Pro- a system of dynamic adjustment of the bias current during magnetic sound recording, which provides better recording of high frequencies.

Dolby NR System- noise reduction system (noise reduction) Dolby (compader noise suppressor). It has modifications B, C and S, which provide an increase in the signal-to-noise ratio by 10, 15 and more than 20 dB, respectively.

DSP(Digital Signal Processor)- digital signal processor. A specialized processor designed for high-speed signal processing (audio, video, communication).

DTS(Digital Theater Sound) is a sound format used in movie recording that creates new sound effects (six-channel sound).

DVD(Digital Versatile Disc)- digital multifunction disc.

DVD-ROM- The DVD-based data format uses the UDF file format and holds up to 4.7 GB of data per disc.

Dubbing- dubbing from one device to another sound (Audio Dubbing) or video (Video Dubbing) files.

duration- note duration in MIDI.

dynamic range- dynamic range.

EBU(European Broadcasting Union)- European Broadcasting Union; deals with all matters of radio broadcasting in Europe, including standardization.

EIA(Electronic Industries Association)- Electronic Industrial Association of the United States, develops standards for electrical

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throne equipment.

ECC(Error Correction Code)- error correction code.

FAQ(Frequently Asked Questions)- a list of frequently asked questions on a particular topic. Compiled either by an individual or by a group of people, usually experts in the field. Russian version - FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions and answers to them).

Freeware- a way of distributing software, in which any user can freely copy and use the program.

frequency range- frequency bandwidth.

full duplex- full duplex.

G9- 9-pin DIN connector.

HDR-2- two-pin digital output connector on the CD-ROM case.

HDCD(High Definition Compatible Digital)- CD audio format (from Pacific Microsonic) with a higher bit depth (from 20 bits) than CD-DA. The CD-DA format and service sectors are used to record data processing instructions in audio sectors. A special hardware player must be used. With insufficient processor power, the player sometimes does not have time to process the audio stream correctly.

HF Modulator- RF modulator.

HF signal- RF signal.

Hi end- audio or video equipment of the highest class.

hi-fi(high fidelity)- high quality. In audio and video technology, a concept related to the quality of sound recording and playback, the upper class of household-level equipment.

IA-SIG(Interactive Audio Special Interest Group- a group on special areas of interactive audio) an open organization of leading manufacturers of computer and, in general, interactive audio.

IEC(International Electrotechnical Commission)- International Electrotechnical Commission. An organization that develops guidelines for recording and reproducing information.

IEE-1394(aka firewire)- an interface that provides high-speed exchange between various computer devices.

ISO(International Standards Organization)- international

non-profit organization that develops and disseminates scientific and technological standards. Works under the auspices of the UN.

Jack- a coaxial connector or just a connector.

LED(Light Emitting Diode)- Light-emitting diode.

Loudness- loudness; a fixed or adjustable boost in bass and treble at low volume levels to compensate for the drop in human hearing sensitivity at these frequencies at reduced volume.

MIDI(Musical Instrument Digital Interface)- a specification that includes a standard for software and hardware. Designed to organize a local network of electronic instruments.

Mini DINconnector- round 6-pin connector. Used, for example, in PS/2 keyboards and PS/2 mice. Thinner than DIN connector.

MASH(Multi Stage Noise Shaping)- a method of encoding a digital audio signal with the transformation of the sampling noise spectrum. Developed by Matsushita.

MD(minidisc)- "minidisk", a system of magneto-optical sound recording.

mixer- mixer, mixer, mixing console.

MP3(MPEG-1 layer3) - a method of compressing audio information and characterized by a high degree of compression. It is based on the exclusion from the sound of "extra" (redundant) information that is not distinguishable by the human ear.

MPC- standard for 4-pin connector. The flat plug plate is inserted into the socket. It has a latch on it. It should be inserted so that the red wire goes to the right channel, white - to the left. It is used, for example, for internal analog and digital connectors of sound cards.

MPEG(Moving Pictures Expert Group- a group of experts in the field of moving images) - a set of standards for encoding and compressing audio and video information in digital form.

MPX(Multiplex)- the designation of a filter that suppresses the frequency of the pilot tone (19 kHz) at the input of the tape recorder when recording from a stereo tuner about a system with a pilot tone.

noise filter- noise suppression filter.

Obstruction- obstruction.

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off-line- operating mode "offline", autonomous, independent, "out of line".

on-line- mode of operation "online", in real time.

PCM(Pulse Code Modulation)- pulse code modulation (PCM). The simplest and most common method of signals and uses the recording of the absolute values ​​of the amplitudes. The downside is large digitization noise for small signal values.

Pitch(pitch) - the pitch of the note.

pitch shift- a shift in tone by several octaves.

pitch shifter- a device designed to shift the pitch.

RealAudio, RealVideo- a format developed and used in the transmission of audio and video information in real time.

RCA(Radio Corporation of America)- a two-pin coaxial connector used to transmit audio and video signals. The central contact (about 3 mm in diameter) is longer than the outer contact (about 9 mm in diameter). A variation of RCA, when the outer contact has cutouts, is called a tulip. If 2 RCA connectors are used to transmit stereo sound, then the left channel transmits white, and the right channel transmits red.

RDS(Radio Data System)- a system for transmitting data simultaneously with an audio signal, by the codes of which a radio receiver with an appropriate decoder can be controlled (for example, displaying a program being played, receiving a “creeping line” on a display).

RMF(Rich Music Format)- music file format for interactive applications. The file has the RMF extension and contains 3 types of information: compressed samples, MIDI-like playback control, instructions for interactivity (unparalleled). The format is cross-platform. May contain MIDI files.

sample rate- sampling frequency.

S/N(Signal/Noise)- signal-to-noise ratio.

SPDIF(Sony/Philips Digital InterFace)- a digital interface developed by Sony and Philips for household equipment. It is a simplified version of the AES/EBU interface. This format allows lossless transmission of digital audio signals over coaxial or special optical cables. Uses an unbalanced connection.

SRC(Sampling Rate Converter)- digitizing frequency converter. An integral part of many audio controllers. Normally, the SPDIF output port only allows the transfer of files digitized at 48 kHz. SRC "prepares" such streams for it. Also, the need for SRC appears when the internal paths of the controller operate only at a frequency of 48 kHz. Some SRCs oversample with pseudo-noise mixing (losing dynamic range).

stereo mini-phone jack(briefly mini-jack) - a socket for a stereo mini-phone plug.

stereo mini-phone plug- 1/8" (3.5 mm) stereo/audio jack. The pin is divided by insulating gaskets into 3 parts. The contact closest to the base is common (ground), the middle one is the left channel, the far one is the right channel.

stereo phone jack- stereo phone plug socket.

stereo phone plug- 1/4" stereo/audio plug. The device is similar to the stereo mini-phone plug. It is typical for high-quality headphones, microphones and other equipment. For Hi-Fi class devices, it is gold-plated.

subwoofer- speaker system designed to reproduce low (up to 200 Hz) frequencies. Plays sound effects in a home theater system.

Surround sound- surround sound.

TTL(Transistor-Transistor Logic) - one of two types of digital logic devices (along with CMOS).

unbalanced output- unbalanced (unbalanced) output.

USB-columns- speakers with USB interface and built-in DAC. They allow you to play sound files without a sound card and, theoretically, reduce interference.

Variable bitrate- variable bit rate.

Volume- volume, volume.

VST is a plug-in format developed by Steinberg.

WAV(short for Waveform) is a metaformat for Windows sound files encoded using Waveform methods. The applied method is written in the header of the file,

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along with its parameters (frequency, bit depth). That is why WAV is not a format, but a metaformat, as it allows the use of any codec. It has been used since the first versions of Windows OS.

wave form(waveform, signal) - a class of analog signal encoding methods that do not use any additional information about the nature of the signal. Therefore, they are distinguished by ease of implementation and versatility. This class includes PCM, DPCM, ADPCM.

wave shape(waveform) - the waveform of the elementary signal reproduced by the generator. The most famous waveforms: sawtooth (sawtooth), pulse (pulsing), square (square), triangle (triangular), sine (sinusoidal), noise / random (noise / random).

WMA(Windows Media Audio) is a sound coding (compression) technology for computer programs.

Woofer- large speaker acoustic system designed to reproduce low frequencies.

wow and flutter- detonation of (reproduced) sound due to slow (Wow) and fast (Flutter) speed fluctuations in recording and playback devices.

XLR- the designation of a three-pin connector, commonly used in professional video equipment. Often referred to as the Canon connector.

XRCD(Extended Resolution CD) is JVC's CD audio format similar to HDCD.

Annex 2

Glossary of Linguistic Speech Processing

Acoustic component of sound(from Greek. akustikos- auditory) - the physical parameters of a sound wave perceived by ear. Acoustically, the sound of speech is an oscillatory movement transmitted by the air. The physical parameters of the sound wave can be measured. They correlate with the audible properties of the sound. It can be high and low (tone, voice pitch), strong and weak (loudness, sound intensity), high timbre and low, etc.

Acoustic parameters(from Greek. akustikos- auditory) - the physical properties of a sound wave related to auditory perception, for example, the acoustic side of speech sounds.

Acoustic(from Greek. akustikos- auditory) - pertaining to auditory perception.

Allophone(from Greek. alios- different, different and phone sound) - a sound that has changed some of its characteristics in the flow of speech under the influence of surrounding sounds.

allusion- allusion to famous historical, a legendary or everyday fact that creates a generalized subtext, a reference in the text to other events, as a rule, known to all carriers from experience - from the so-called background knowledge.

Anaphoric connections in the text- relations between parts of the text (between words, statements), in which the meaning of one word, statement includes a reference to another word, statement (examination 13).

Anaphoric use of pronouns- the use of pronouns (for example, he, she, it, they, this, etc.), the meaning of which is clear only in a certain context.

Articulatory focus sound - the main place of sound formation in the articulatory tract (the place of greatest tension in the articulatory tract during sound production). It is one of the characteristics of consonant sounds as sounds that are quite compact in articulatory movements.

Articulatory characteristics (signs) of sound- characteristics due to the work of the organs of speech. For Russian vowels, this is rise, row, labialization, for consonants - deafness and sonority, place and method of formation, hardness and softness.

Articulation(from lat. articulatio, articulare articulate) - the movement of the organs of speech. Each speech sound has its own articulatory characteristics and therefore differs from other sounds. Speech is a continuous change of articulations. One speech posture is replaced by another, and this is achieved by moving the tongue from front to back, from top to bottom, movements of the lips, etc.

Authentication- the procedure for checking the correctness of the registration information entered by the user (for example, to enter the system).

Authenticity- the identity of one (text) to another.

Affricate(from lat. Affricata- lapped) - consonant sounds that have a complex, heterogeneous in time, articulation-

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torsional nature: in their production, a single complex of articulatory movements combines the phases of the bow, the opening of the bow, and the gap characteristic of fricative consonants. Therefore, affricates are sometimes also called stop-fricative consonants.

Lateral (lateral) sound- one of the types of consonants according to the method of formation, the articulatory characteristic of sound. When such a sound is formed, the front part of the tongue is tightly pressed against the palate, but the air stream does not overcome the barrier, but freely exits through the lowered lateral edges of the tongue.

swear words, swear- rude, offensive words, swearing.

Literal- exactly corresponding to something, literal, for example: literal reproduction; about the meaning, meaning of the word: direct, non-portable.

Pronunciation option- (or pronunciation, phonetic variant) - differences in the sound of words and phrases, which are determined by different pronunciation of sounds, different sound composition, a change in the place of stress, or a combination of these types of differences.

Velarization (velar consonant)(from lat. Velum- veil) - a type of additional articulation, when the back of the back of the tongue approaches the soft palate. This configuration of the articulatory tract is characteristic of back lingual consonants, which is why they are sometimes called velar consonants. As a result of velarization, consonants (not back-lingual) acquire a specific timbre coloration.

Verbal (verbal) form of information- such a form in which information is given in the form of a chain of interrelated statements; hidden verbal form - information is expressed verbally, indirectly, not directly, implied.

Explosion- a push of air perceived by a person, which is formed during a very fast, almost instantaneous opening of the bow. Characteristic for pronouncing stop-explosive consonant sounds.

statement- a unit of speech, a message that has semantic integrity. Sometimes this term is used instead of the term "offer". But a sentence, as a unit of language, has a formal side, and as a unit of speech, a substantive side. The statement is considered only the content side of the sentence.

Pitch- the height of sounds perceived by a person depends on the frequency of vibrations vocal cords, which in turn depends on the degree of their tension. In Russian, due to the rise and fall of the voice (i.e., change in tone), intonation changes.

glide- (from English. slide- slip) - in Russian phonetics, a sound that occurs in the intermediate section of the transition from a consonant to a vowel.

Vocal cords- elastic formations located on the right and left sides of the larynx and stretched from front to back. The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis. The voice (tone) arises as a result of periodic vibrations of the vocal cords under the pressure of the air leaving the lungs, while the vocal cords come closer and stretch.

The grammatical structure of the word- a set of grammatical features that make it possible to attribute a word to a certain part of speech.

lip articulation- one of the types of articulation of consonants. When a labial sound is formed, an obstruction to the path of the air stream is created with the help of the lips.

Definition- definition, interpretation of the concept, words.

Dialect (dialect)(from Greek. dialektos- dialect, dialect) - a kind of national language used by a limited number of people connected by a territorial (territorial dialect), social (social dialect), professional (professional dialect) community.

Distribution(from lat. distributus- distributed) - a description of the possibilities and limitations in the compatibility of phonetic units of different levels with each other.

differential sign- such an articulatory or acoustic feature of a phoneme that allows you to distinguish opposing phonemes from each other.

Long (double) consonant- for all consonants, except for plosives, this is a longer than usual pronunciation of a sound. Explosive sounds are perceived as long (double) when pronounced with more tension than usual, as well as with a longer duration of the bow (shutter).

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Longitude, duration of the sound(quantitative characteristic) - the time of the sound.

Trembling sound (vibrant)- one of the types of consonants according to the method of formation, the articulatory characteristic of sound. When such a sound is formed, the air jet encounters an obstacle-vibrator in the form of a trembling tip of the tongue, lightly touching the palate once or several times.

closed vowels- vowel sounds of the upper rise, i.e. such sounds, during the articulation of which the back of the tongue occupies the highest position in the oral cavity.

The sound of speech- the smallest, indivisible unit of sounding speech. It is considered from the acoustic, articulatory and semantic sides.

sound Air vibration perceived by the human auditory system.

Sounding speech (fluid speech)- concrete speaking, flowing in time and clothed in a sound form. In sounding speech, intonation-indivisible units (syntagms), rhythmic units (phonetic words), pronunciation units (syllables) and minimal units (sounds) are distinguished.

Sign, symbol- the combination of a certain meaning and a certain way of expressing it, which are called in semiotics the signifier and the signifier. A linguistic sign is a unit of language or a combination of units of language that replaces or points to some extra-linguistic entity - an object, property, relationship, event, state of affairs, etc.

Meaning- the content of a language sign for all members of a given language community for the duration of the agreement to use this sign as a means of communication.

idiomatic- property of language units, consisting in the indecomposability of their values ​​into the values ​​of their constituent units.

implication- in logic: an operation that forms a complex statement from two statements, by means of a logical connective, corresponding in meaning to the union “if, .. then”.

Invective vocabulary- (1) invective and (2) non-invective vocabulary: (1) implies the intention to offend or humiliate the addressee or a third party, (2) is expressive (contains a negative assessment and / or emotionally expressive

component), but does not imply such an intention. The first group includes words and expressions, the use of which in communication violates the norms of public morality. These can be both non-literary words taken from jargons, dialects or vernacular, as well as completely literary ones. However, the use literary words such as a scoundrel, a scoundrel in relation to a specific communicative situation is contrary to the norms of public morality to no lesser extent. Invective in the narrow sense of the word can be defined as a way of existence of verbal aggression, perceived in a given social (sub)group as harsh or taboo.

Articulation index- a parameter related to the assessment of speech recognition problems, perceived directly, proposed by French and Steinberg. They assumed that speech intelligibility is proportional to the average difference between peak speech levels and masking noise (interference noise) levels in 20 frequency bands selected based on their equal contribution to speech intelligibility. In the frequency range from approximately 200 to 6,000 Hz. The speech levels in each of these bands have a dynamic range of about 30 dB. To calculate the articulation index, categories of conditional equivalent speech levels are used, differing by 6 dB.

Integral feature- such an articulatory or acoustic feature of a phoneme that does not participate in its opposition to other phonemes.

Interpretation- interpretation, disclosure of the meaning, content of something.

Intonation- a characteristic of sounding speech, which is created by such speech means as tone (voice pitch), speech tempo, its intensity (loudness), and timbre. Intonation is an essential feature of a sentence, one of the means of its grammatical design (finished, unfinished intonation); modality, purposefulness (intonation of the message, question, motivation); expressions of syntactic relations between parts of a sentence (intonation of enumeration, comparison, explanation, etc.); indications of its emotional coloring (exclamation intonation).

Infinitive (indefinite form) of the verb(from lat. infinitus- unlimited, indefinite) - non-conjugated form of the verb

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goal, denoting an action outside its connection with the subject, regardless of the person, number, time, mood, and having only constant morphological features: appearance, recurrence, transitivity.

Information(linguistic) - the content of language units and the speech products they form.

irony, ironic words, ironic usage- subtle, hidden mockery, words. It consists in the use of the name (or the whole statement) in a sense that is directly opposite to the literal one. Irony is revealed on the basis of context or background knowledge, excluding the possibility of a literal understanding of what was said (written).

historicisms- words, expressions that have gone out of active use due to the fact that the concepts they denote have disappeared or become irrelevant; are passive vocabulary.

Pun- a play on words, an intentional combination in one context of two meanings of the same word or the use of similarities in sound different words in order to create, as a rule, a comic effect.

Qualitative reduction- a type of reduction, a change in the quality of a vowel sound in unstressed syllables, i.e., the loss of their characteristic articulatory features. As a result of such a reduction, sounds cease to be distinguished and lose their meaningful function. Qualitative reduction is opposed to quantitative reduction.

Coarticulation(from lat. coarticulare- articulate together) - the production of articulatory movements necessary to generate several consecutive sounds at the same time.

Communicative intention, communicative attitude- the goal of the speaker, writer.

The communicative function of language- the ability of the language system to produce means of information transmission - speech messages.

Connotation- evaluative, emotional or stylistic coloring of a word or expression, complements the objective meaning of a word or expression with an associative-figurative representation, the connotation depends on the cultural and national outlook.

continuity speech (from lat. continens- continuous) - one of the main features of sounding speech, which consists in the fact that the process of articulation in the intervals between pauses proceeds continuously, while the articulatory organs enter into complex and sometimes parallel interactions with each other.

Context(from lat. contextus- close connection, connection) - a semantic segment of written speech (text), which makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of an individual word included in it; conditions for the use of a given language unit in speech (language environment, and in a broad sense also the situation of speech communication).

Correlation(from late lat. correlation- ratio) - mutual correspondence, interconnection and interdependence of any elements. Correlation is the main system-forming factor for the language system, which determines its openness and integrity.

Winged words, expressions- stable sayings that entered the language from certain literary, journalistic, scientific sources or created on their basis, entered into speech from the media, as well as statements of real historical figures that have become widespread and well known.

A culture of speech- mastering the rules literary language in his oral and written form. Allows you to use in any communication situation language tools with maximum effect while observing the ethics of communication; the field of linguistics, which is designed to solve the problems of speech norms, to develop recommendations for the skillful use of the language.

Labialization(from lat. labrum- lip) - the active work of the lips when pronouncing a vowel sound. The shape of the lips and their movements affect the sound quality.

Vocabulary, lexical structure of the language- side of the language, represented by lexical units, words and phraseological units in their lexical meaning.

Lexicology(from Greek. lexicos- verbal, vocabulary and logos doctrine) - a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary language composition, whose unit is the word.

Literary language- the form of the historical existence of the national language, taken by its speakers as exemplary; historically established system of common

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language elements, speech means that have undergone a long cultural processing in texts (written and oral) of authoritative masters of the word, in oral communication of educated native speakers of the national language. This is the language of official business documents, schooling, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form. The main features of the national literary language are its tendencies towards universality or nationality and normativity. In addition to the literary language, there are dialects, vernacular, social and professional jargons.

Swear words, swear words, swear words- indecent swearing.

Matisms- curse words.

Metaphor, metaphorical- figurative comparison, assimilation of one object, phenomenon, to another, figurative comparison in general.

Morpheme(from Greek. morphe- forms) - the minimum significant part of the word. Morphemes are divided into root and non-root (affixes). Morphemes include roots, prefixes, formative and derivational suffixes, postfixes and endings.

Non-invective vocabulary- vocabulary that is expressive (contains a negative assessment and / or an emotionally expressive component), but does not contain, does not imply the intention to offend or humiliate the addressee. It is important to remember that the use of literary words such as scoundrel, scoundrel in relation to a specific communicative situation, as well as the use of invective vocabulary, is contrary to the norms of public morality.

Neutral vocabulary- Vocabulary that is not stylistically marked is not supplied with special marks in dictionaries.

obscene words- this is the use of words that at the time of publication of the article by most readers are considered indecent, unworthy of being printed, although, perhaps, they can be pronounced in a certain situation. In Russian practice, obscenity is associated primarily with sexual concepts - rude names for the genitals, sexual intercourse, sexual deviations, and so on.

Nomination- naming, naming as process or re

Native speaker- a person who speaks a particular language, recognizing it as his native language.

Nasal (nasal) sound- one of the types of consonants according to the method of formation, the articulatory characteristic of certain sounds. When such a sound is formed, the organs of speech create a barrier, but the air stream does not overcome it, but freely passes through the nose.

Everyday vocabulary, everyday language- everyday, familiar, existing in everyday life.

Occasionalisms, occasional words- individual neologisms.

Homonyms- words that coincide in various characteristics, of which sound is decisive, but completely different in lexical meaning.

Homophones(from Greek. homos- the same and phone- sound) - words that are pronounced the same, but differ in spelling.

Organs of articulation (organs of speech, speech apparatus)- various parts of the human body involved in the formation of speech sounds. Among them, active (moving) organs of speech are distinguished, which are, for example, the tongue and lips, and passive, motionless, serving as a support for active organs, for example, teeth and hard palate. The air stream is formed by the diaphragm, lungs, bronchi, trachea.

Insult- this is a humiliation of the honor and dignity of another person, expressed in an indecent form. Unlike slanderous information, which must be deliberately false, the truthfulness or falsity of information disseminated by insult does not matter.

In practice, it is customary to single out certain categories of words in the literary language and colloquial speech, the use of which in relation to a certain person (primarily a physical person), as a rule, is offensive.

Palatal articulation(from the medical term lat. palatum- hard palate) - articulation of sound using the hard palate as a passive organ of articulation.

Paronymy, paronyms- single-root words of one part of speech, having similarities in sound, differing in their meanings.

Pause(lat. pause from the Greek pause- termination) - temporary

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stopping the sound, breaking the flow of speech, performing various functions.

Figurative meaning- derived lexical meaning of a word associated with the main lexical meaning (metonymic, metaphorical, functional commonality or associative links).

perceptual function(from lat. perception- perception) - the ability of the sound of a language to identify language units - words and morphemes.

Subtext form of information submission- one in which information is not contained in the text itself, but is easily "extracted" from it by the listener.

Prosody(from Greek. prosodikos- related to stress) - phonetic properties of speech, which, as a rule, need larger than sound segments (segments) of the speech stream for their implementation. Synonymous with the term supersegment characteristics.

vernacular- a kind of language that uses means that go beyond the norms of the literary language. It does not have strict rules. Unlike dialects, the use of vernaculars is not territorially limited.

Speech recognition (speech recognition)- the process of analyzing human speech with the aim of isolating individual phonemes, words of sentences and, ultimately, translating an analog signal into a connected text.

Reduction(from lat. reduco- take back) - a change in the articulatory characteristics of vowels, caused by their unstressedness. There are quantitative reduction (in which the time of pronouncing the sound is reduced) and qualitative reduction (in which the sound loses its characteristic articulation characteristics).

Resonator - physical body or some volume of air, limited by the shape and size of the reservoir in which this air is located, giving rise to the phenomenon of resonance.

Speech acoustics- a section of general acoustics that studies the physical structure of a speech signal, the related physiology of speech production and speech perception.

Speech- an individual and specific result of the functioning of the language. It must be distinguished from language, which is more abstract, being a system of purely linguistic relations.

Rhythm(speech) - regular repetition of similar and commensurate speech units.

The rhythm of speech- the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables perceived by a person in a speech stream. The specially ordered alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables is the basis of poetic rhythm.

Rhythmic structure, rhythm words - a description of the structure of a phonetic word as a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhetoric(from Greek. rhetorike - oratory) - the theory of eloquence, the rules for constructing expressive speech in all areas of speech activity.

Rhetorical question- a sentence that is interrogative in structure, but, like a declarative sentence, conveys information about something. Information in a rhetorical question is always associated with the expression of various expressive and emotional meanings.

Intelligence- texts containing a description (and assessment) of certain events or their individual components. They can be factual and evaluative, true and false.

Segmentation- segmentation of the speech flow according to certain principles.

Semantics(from Greek. semanticos- denoting) - a section of linguistics that studies the meaning of lexical units (words and expressions) and the change in these meanings.

speech synthesis (speech synthesis)- the process of creating sounds that imitate the human voice.

Word- the basic unit of the language, lexical unit. Expresses the concept of an object, process, phenomenon, their properties or relationships between them. It has a set of features: phonetic formality, grammatical formality and phraseological meaning.

phrase- a syntactic unit, which is a combination of two or more significant words based on a subordinate connection.

Meaning, meaning- the content of the sign expression; thought contained in words (signs, expressions).

Bow, shutter- the actions of the organs of speech, aimed at completely blocking the path of the air stream. As a result of overcoming the bow, bow-explosive ones are formed, as well as

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stop-slotted (affricates) consonants.

Sonorant consonant(from lat. sonus- sound) - voiced consonant sounds, in which there are more voices (tones) than noise. Sonorant consonants, unlike other voiced ones, do not have a pair among voiceless consonants, that is, they are unpaired voiced consonants.

Sociolinguistics- a linguistic discipline that studies the features of the functioning of the language in society.

Speech style- a set of linguistic features (lexical, grammatical, phonetic) characteristic of different situations of communication, for example, in the world of science (scientific style of speech), in business circles ( formal business style speech), in everyday life (conversational style of speech), etc.

taboo words- words prohibited for use in a public place and in public speech; speaker oriented.

Text(from lat. textum- connection, connection) - a statement reproduced in writing or in print.

Timbre, timbre coloring of speech- a specific, human-perceived characteristic of sounding speech, which depends partly on the physical parameters of the speech apparatus (low, hoarse timbre, high shrill voice, etc.), is partially regulated by the speaker due to special changes in the state of the speech organs (mainly due to different emotional state at the moment of speech).

Speech rate(from ital. tempo, which comes from lat. tempus- time) - the speed of pronouncing speech units of different sizes (most often syllables, sometimes sounds or words). The rate of speech can be calculated in two ways: by the number of syllables or sounds, or words spoken per unit of time (for example, in 1 second), or by the average duration (longitude) of the sound of a speech unit (at a certain segment of the sound of speech).

Term(from lat. terminus- limit, border, border sign) - a word or phrase that accurately names any concept used in science, technology, art. A distinction is made between general terms and highly specialized terms.

Tone(from Greek. tonos- tension, tension):

vowel sounds, tone (along with noise) is involved in the formation of voiced consonants;

Voice height. The pitch of sounds perceived by a person, which depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords, which, in turn, depends on the degree of their tension. In Russian, due to the rise and fall of the voice (i.e., change in tone), intonation changes.

Transcription(from lat. trans- preposition through and scribo, scriptum write) - a special way of recording speech in full accordance with its sound. For the Russian language, two transcription systems are used: based on the Latin alphabet and based on the Russian alphabet (Cyrillic). The transcription of spoken speech is usually enclosed in square brackets - .

Language universals- patterns of language structure common to all or most languages ​​of the world.

derogatory words- words formed with the help of special suffixes have a contemptuous tinge.

Folklore(from English. folk- people) - folk art (poetry, music, dances, carving, etc.).

Phonation(from Greek. phone- sound) - the process of producing sounds.

Phoneme(from Greek. phone- sound) - the shortest sound unit that serves to distinguish words and their forms, in other words, the sound of speech in a position where its articulatory characteristics are fully manifested.

Phonetics(from Greek. phonetic)- a section of linguistics that studies articulatory, acoustic properties human speech.

Phonetic system- description of the sound side of speech as one of the language systems.

Phonetic (sound) laws- regular phonetic (sound) changes in the modern language or in the history of the language. The sound laws operating in the language determine the phonetic system of the language. Linguistic phonetic laws, unlike mathematical or natural ones, are absolute only for a particular language in a certain period of its development. Language laws have exceptions, since the sequence of their manifestation depends on the conditions for their implementation in the language.

phonetic word- an independent word of the language with prima

BASICS OF JUDICIAL SPEECH

ATTACHMENT 1

service words that are addressed to him, united by one stress.

Quote- an exact verbatim excerpt from some text, statement. According to the rules of Russian punctuation, quotations are enclosed in quotation marks; when quoting, the source of the quotation (author, work) is indicated. Quoting can be direct or indirect. In direct quoting, the author, work, and then the quotation itself are indicated. When quoting indirectly, the author may not be directly indicated, and the quotation is introduced into the text with the following phrases “as the classic said”, “as well said in such and such a work”, etc. Indirect anonymous (without the name of the author) quoting is possible only in case when the quotation is well known to all educated native speakers of the Russian language and represents either the so-called popular expression or an aphorism.

pitch frequency- the basic frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise- the sound created by an air stream when overcoming obstacles formed by articulating organs (organs of speech). Noise can be impulsive (a noise impulse - an explosion - occurs when the bow is suddenly opened) and turbulent (air jet friction noise caused by the narrowing of the articulating organs that form a narrow gap in the path of the air jet).

Fricative (or fricative) sound- one of the types of consonants according to the method of formation, the articulatory characteristic of sound. When such a sound is formed, the obstacle in the path of the air jet is a gap formed by the organs of speech (for example, lips), through which air passes with force. Such sounds are sometimes called sustained because they can be drawn.

Euphemism- a word or expression that replaces another, inconvenient for a given situation or rude, obscene.

Language(physical) - a human organ located in the mouth, which is also used to produce sounding speech (articulation).

Language unit- language unit: sound, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence. It should not be confused with the concept of a lexical unit.

Language norm (norm of speech)- how it is customary to speak and pi

sit in this society at this time. She is the regulator of the correctness of the literary language and its stability. The norm determines what is right and what is wrong, recommends some language means and modes of expression as "legitimate" and rejects others.

Linguistics, linguistics, linguistics- the science of language. Traditionally, the following division of linguistics has developed:

discipline about internal structure language (phonetics and phonology, grammar, subdivided into syntax and morphology, lexicology, semantics, stylistics, etc.);

disciplines about historical development language;

disciplines about the functioning of language in society;

disciplines dealing with the structure and functioning of the language, which are, as it were, at the intersection of sciences (psychology and linguistics);

applied linguistic disciplines, for example, experimental phonetics.