Relationship between medicine and the Latin language. Brief history of the Latin language and its role in the development of world culture

For physicians and pharmacists, ancient Greek and Latin are of particular importance. Why do these ancient classical languages continue to this day to play the role of the main source in the formation of new terms? Why the alphabet, phonetics and grammar are used for writing, pronunciation and functioning of modern medical nomenclatures Latin? To answer these questions, you need to familiarize yourself with a brief history of the Latin language.

Latin language belonging to the Italic group Indo-European family languages, is one of the so-called dead languages, like ancient Indian (Sanskrit), ancient Greek, etc. But once it was alive, colloquial. The word ♦Latin comes from the name of the Italian tribe - the Latins, who lived in the LaNish (Lacy) region, located in the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower reaches of the Tiber River. The first community of Latium was the city of Rome, founded according to legend in 754 (753) BC. The language of the inhabitants of Rome was Latin. During the wars of conquest and intensified colonization, other tribes of Latium fell under the rule of Rome, and then all of Italy. Gradually, the Latin language, or the language of the city of Rome, became the means of communication for almost all of united Italy (by the 1st century AD).

Since the era Punic Wars(III-II centuries BC), together with the Roman legions, the Latin language went beyond the borders of Italy. It penetrates into countries with a higher ancient culture (Greece, Carthage, Egypt, Syria, etc.), spreads among the uncultured ancient tribes of Europe: Gauls (Celts), Iberians, Dacians, etc. The territories inhabited by these tribes were conquered by the Romans and became Roman provinces.

Spread in the process of intensive colonization and Romanization by Roman soldiers, merchants, teachers, grammarians, orators, sailors, runaway slaves, etc., implanted by force of arms and decrees, the Latin language becomes the dominant language of the vast Roman Empire - from modern Portugal in the west to modern Romania on. east. In the west of Europe, the Latin language spread quite quickly, without encountering the resistance of tribal languages. But in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (in Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt), he encountered local languages with a longer written tradition, and with a higher culture, in which Greek (Hellenic) culture played a significant role.

Long before Greece (Hellas) fell (146 BC) under the rule of Rome, it stood at a higher level of cultural development. In the 5th century BC, in the so-called classical era, Greek philosophy, art and literature successfully developed. Outstanding works on natural sciences and medicine appeared.

Hippocrates (460 - about 370 BC) is considered the "father" of scientific European medicine. In his works, which have partially survived to our time, the foundations of scientific medical terminology were laid.

Medicinal science as an independent science of drugs, separated from medicine, did not exist in antiquity. A doctor and a pharmacist combined in one person. Hippocrates and his students and followers, the so-called hippocratics, were themselves involved in the manufacture of medicines. Hippocrates even had a special work on this topic called "Ta rhabartaka" or "Partakalis". However, it has not been preserved. In the writings that have come down to us, Hippocrates uses the word partakoha (in the Latinized form pragtaxa - pharmacy) to denote the art of preparing medicines.

In Hippocrates we find a lot of information about the manufacture of various medicines of plant, mineral and animal origin. Some of them, judging by the names, are borrowed from other peoples. So, a number of medicines are called Egyptian (alum, etc.), Carian, Indian. For example, Hippocrates mentions pepper as tikop phragmakop, an Indian medicine. About 236 medicinal plants mentioned by Hippocrates. In the formulation of the beginning of the 20th century, one could find such names of dosage forms that were used by Hippocrates.

A number of plant names known to modern botanists date back to the works of another major ancient scientist - Theophrastus (372-287 BC) - one of the first botanists of antiquity. Of his numerous works, in particular, the essay “On the History of Plants” in 10 books has survived. Another ancient Roman scientist Dioscorides (1st century AD), an ethnic Greek, described about 400 plants. His treatise "Be tepa tesIsa" ("On medicines"), originally written in ancient Greek, has been preserved. In Europe, it became known in Latin translated from Arabic. Until the 16th century, it was widely known and. influenced the development of plant taxonomy.

From the very beginning of their acquaintance with the Greeks (cultural contact with them dates back to the 8th century BC - by the time the Greek colonies were founded in southern Italy), the Romans began to experience the influence of a higher Hellenic culture. Widely taught in Rome Greek language; Greek philosophers, doctors, writers and orators delivered lectures. Educated Romans tended to read and converse in Greek. Throughout its existence, the Greek natural-science and medical culture was poured into the life of the Roman state in a wide stream. In the Latin language, over time, a lot of everyday Greek words took root in a Latinized or unchanged form (pfeg - pepper, buugum - oil, sabshega - armchair, vsb61a - school, etc.) and scientific, special content (aer - air, machipa - machine , pbspora, bzbopa, etc.). At the same time, the formation of Latin words of scientific content was going on, i.e. terms. “The main method of using Greek scientific and philosophical terminology is tracing among the Romans, both word-production - the formation of a new Latin word according to the Greek model, and semantic - communication Latin word those special meanings with which the Greek has acquired. The spread of Greek education led to the expansion of the Latin alphabet through the introduction of the letters y (upsilon) and 2 (zeta) into it to write words of Greek origin.

In the development of the literary Latin language, several periods can be distinguished:

I. The period of preclassical Latin (3rd century - early 1st century BC). By this time, in particular, works in Latin on natural science and medical issues, for example, the work of Cato “Be ge geisa” (“On agriculture”), in which there are many words of a medical nature taken from the spoken language.

I. The classical period (I century BC), whose language - "classical Latin" - is known to us especially well. In this period, the literary Latin language reached perfection in the works of outstanding writers, philosophers, scientists and poets: Cicero, Caesar, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, and others. Particularly noteworthy is the work of the great materialist of antiquity Lucretius "Be gegish pa^yga" ("On the nature of things").

III. Postclassical Latin of the Imperial era (1st and 2nd centuries AD) is marked by a great variety of scientific literature, in particular medical literature. The most famous works of this time are the works of Aulus Cornelius Celas (at the turn of the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD) “On Medicine” and the multi-volume works of the Greek philosopher, scientist and physician Claudius Galen (c. 130-200 years . AD), who wrote in ancient Greek, who worked in Rome.

The writings of Galen, devoted to the scientific and practical issues of anatomy, etiology and treatment of various diseases, the preparation of all kinds of medicines, were the pinnacle of ancient post-Hippocratic medicine and had a significant impact on generations of doctors many centuries later. Galen wrote many books on the manufacture and use of medicines (birc de maiorla mecica). They contain big number property guidelines simple substances(ye zhtrpssht te

EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CARD

Lecture #1

Speciality 060501 "Nursing"

Discipline"Fundamentals of the Latin language with medical terminology"

Topic Alphabet and phonetics of the Latin language

Lesson type Lesson learning new knowledge

Conduct form Lecture

Lesson objectives:

Educational To acquaint students with the history of the Latin language and its role in medicine, To achieve a solid assimilation of the phonetic system and the rules of reading in Latin. Mastering general and relevant professional competencies.

Educational Formation of skills of self-education, self-realization of the personality and development of speech, thinking, memory.

Educational The formation of a holistic worldview and a modern scientific worldview among students, based on the recognition of the priorities of universal values: humanity, mercy, compassion, respect for human life and health.

After studying the topic the student must know:

Latin alphabet;

Features of the phonetic structure of the Latin language;

Reading rules;

Rules for placing stress in words.

Intersubject communications- Russian language, pharmacology, therapy, surgery, anatomy.

1. Organizational part(checking those present, the readiness of students for the lesson, the availability of uniforms, etc.)

Introduction

¾ initial motivation for learning activities:

Knowledge of medical terminology is an essential attribute of the medical profession. The Latin language is undoubtedly one of the disciplines that have great importance in the preparation of future specialists in the field of medicine. Students meet special concepts in Latin from the very first steps in medical science. These are, first of all, the names of organs and parts of the body, chemical compounds and drugs, diseases and methods of their treatment, etc. The initial stage in the study of the subject "Fundamentals of the Latin language with medical terminology" is the study of its phonetic structure, alphabet and reading rules.

¾ updating of basic knowledge:

Repetition of the phonetic system of English and German.

Main part

Plan:

1.Short story Latin language and its role in medicine.

2. Latin alphabet.

3. Pronunciation of vowels.

4. Digraphs and diphthongs.

5. Pronunciation of consonants.

6. Reading letter combinations.

7. Stress, length and brevity of a syllable.

A short history of the Latin language and its role in medicine.

The Latin language is about 3000 years old. The name itself comes from the name of the tribe of the Latins, who lived at that time in Latium (Latium). This is an area in central Italy with the main city of Rome (Roma), founded in the VIII century. BC.

Rome as a result of constant wars (with Macedonia, Greece, Syria, Egypt, Galia, Britain, North Africa) is transformed from a city-state into the capital of a slave empire. Latin has become official language over a large area of Europe from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea to Atlantic Ocean, as well as in North Africa and in parts of Asia from the Mediterranean coast to the Caucasus Mountains and the Euphrates River.

With the conquest of Greece by Rome (2nd century BC), mutual enrichment of Latin and Greek languages and cultures. Simultaneously with colloquial, scientific terminology is developed in Latin, enriched with terms Greek origin. Borrowed Greek medical terminology, founded by doctor Hippocrates; spelling rules.

The Latin language has finally lost the meaning of the spoken language. Mixing with the languages of other peoples, folk Latin gave rise to new languages. This is how roman group living languages: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Moldovan.

Today we call Latin a "dead language" because it ceased to be the language of everyday communication of people. But in speech we meet Latinisms at every step: doctor, lecture, academy, university, institute, nature, history, statue, etc. And since the Russian and Latin languages are “relatives”, there is a similarity of many Russian words with Latin ones: new - novus, house - domus, mother - mater, see - vidēre, no - nullus. In addition, the system of changing words (declension, conjugation) is the same in both Russian and Latin.

Latin proverbs, sayings, sayings enliven our colloquial speech: Alma Mater. Post scriptum. Perpetuum mobile. Homo sapiens. And etc.

Today, Latin and Greek are building material for creating new and improving existing terms. Unlike everyday concepts, the term denotes a briefly and concisely defined concept used in science, technology, and art. Thanks to the Latin language, terminology has become international.

Medical education is impossible without mastering the basics of Latin. The study of Latin is of great importance in the training of a middle-level medical specialist, as it helps to consciously assimilate and understand the medical terms of Latin-Greek origin, which he will meet and use in his practice. Since ancient times, physicians have known the following Latin proverb: Invia est in medicina via sine lingua Latina– An impassable path in medicine without the Latin language. This statement is true even in our time.

Each language has its own terminology - the language of science, where the meaning of words should not change, because in a term, a word denoting an exact scientific concept, the main thing is immutability.

Preservation of scientific Latin terminology attaches particular importance to the study of the Latin language, as necessary in practical work, and not just as a language of one of ancient cultures. Therefore, although the Latin and Greek languages \u200b\u200bare commonly called “dead”, however, for medical workers they are living languages necessary for everyday work.

The terminology of modern medicine is one of the most complex terminological systems. The total number of medical terms is unknown - according to experts, the terminological fund of modern medicine exceeds 500,000 medical terms. If a hundred years ago an educated doctor was well versed in modern terminology, then at present it is almost impossible to master several hundred thousand medical terms. Even just memorizing them has not yet been possible for anyone, therefore, in Latin, as in any other language, one cannot do without the systematics and rules of word formation of terms from certain elements. If you master these rules, you can learn to understand even new terms.

Medical terminology differs in three areas:

1) Anatomical terminology. It is an integral part of medical education, since all anatomical terms are studied in Latin, in parallel at the Department of Anatomy and Latin. Here the two departments are considered from two points of view:

· from the point of view of anatomy, the term is important for a real connection with the object, the anatomical formation, named by this term (where the facet is located, its functions).

From the point of view of the Latin language, the term is important in connection with the language (what stress, ending, phrase).

Therefore, we can say that the anatomist is concerned with the content, and the Latinist with the form of the term.

2) Clinical terminology. This is the terminology used in clinical practice. Most clinical terms are compound words formed from derivational elements. The main role in the assimilation of clinical terminology is played by Greek-Latin term-forming elements - term elements. Mastering the system of Greek-Latin terminological elements is a kind of terminological key to understanding basic medical clinical terminology. The total number of clinical term elements is over 1500, however, they have varying degrees of frequency. The number of the most active term elements is about 600. The core of clinical terminology is 150 term elements, from which the main part of the medical dictionary is formed.

3) Pharmaceutical terminology. She also uses mostly Greek and Latin words or parts of them, from which artificially new terms and names are formed. The names of medicines are formed from standard Latin and Greek elements of words, which makes it possible to obtain information about the principle of its action by the name of the medicine alone, chemical composition, main components and so on.

Over time, doctors and other medical professionals switched to national languages in professional communication, but the dominance still belongs to Greek-Latin elements, words and phrases, primarily due to their universal national character, so the names of diseases, diagnostics and treatments are recognized in any language .

Latin is now used as an international scientific language in a number of biomedical disciplines and nomenclatures that are studied and used by physicians and medical professionals from all over the world. Therefore, it is absolutely obvious that the knowledge of any specialist working in the field of medicine, the principles of education and understanding of Latin medical terminology.

In all medical sciences: in anatomy, histology, embryology, microbiology, microbiology, pathological anatomy and clinical disciplines, as well as in pharmacology, this tradition of nomination has never been interrupted and continues to this day.

But not only in medicine, Latin words have retained their function as an international means for terminology and nomination. Latin and Latinized Greek words and elements of words are used by all languages in all areas of life - from everyday names "BonAqua" and "automatic" to narrow scientific scientific terms "Tomograph", "Synchrophasotron" and socio-political terminology.

The Latin language is also of great general educational importance, as it helps to better and deeper analyze the Russian language, into which many Latin roots have passed, creating a number of new words, for example: communism, presidium, council, quorum, university, etc.

The history of semi-professional and professional healing has several millennia. Some information about the achievements of medicine ancient civilizations in the recognition and treatment of diseases can be gleaned from the Babylonian cuneiform records and from the ancient Indian Vedas, from Egyptian papyri and Chinese hieroglyphic manuscripts. First of all, the ancient Greek medicine owes a lot to the Babylonian-Assyrian and Egyptian cultures, which in ancient times reached the highest degree of independence as a field of professional knowledge, which has a certain natural scientific depth. The writings of ancient Greek doctors contain a body of knowledge accumulated by ancient medicine. The earliest sources that have come down to us are several fragments of medical texts by Alcmaeon of Croton (6th century BC). Over 100 medical writings of that era are collected in the so-called "Hippocratic collection". They are traditionally attributed to the greatest physician of antiquity, Hippocrates.

Although the connection of Greek medicine with the cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia is undeniable, almost no linguistic data can be found in the writings of the collection that would testify to such a connection. All objects and phenomena described in the collection are named, with extremely rare exceptions, Greek words, without any hint of foreign borrowings. Hippocrates and his successors inherited the medical vocabulary used by many generations of folk healers; to a certain extent, it can be judged already by Homer's Iliad. The Homeric epic contains a significant proportion of those anatomical and nosological designations that Hippocrates used and without which modern doctors cannot do. Words for the names of medical objects and phenomena were mainly scooped from the Greek folk speech. There are relatively few special medical words that correspond to the modern concept of the term and are used only by doctors in the Hippocratic Collection. One and the same subject is indicated in it often by different words. The main language richness of the collection is represented by the names of diseases and their symptoms, and the anatomical vocabulary is presented weaker.

From the Hippocratic Collection, often through subsequent latinization, scientific medicine inherited many names, for example: Acromion, Amblyopia, Apophysis, Bronchus, Herpes, Diapedesis, Ileus, Cachexia, Carcinoma, Kyphosis, Coma, Lichen, Lochia, Lordosis, Nephritis, Noma, olecranon, opisthotonus, paresis, perineum, peritoneum, polyp, symphysis, typhus, urethra, cholera, exanthema, ecthyma, ecchymosis, emphysema, epidemic, erythema.

A significant contribution to the biomedical vocabulary was made by the Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle. For example, such names as Alopecia, Aorta, Glaucoma, Diaphragm, Meconium, Leukoma, Nystagmus, Trachea, phalanx, Exophthalmos go back to his works. Aristotle clarified the special meanings of a number of words that already existed in the medical lexicon, for example, he narrowed the content of the word mzninx, mzningos (sheath) to the meaning of "meninx".

With the beginning of the Hellenistic era (late 4th-1st century BC), the center of scientific medicine moved to the capital of one of the Hellenistic monarchies, Alexandria. It was here that the Alexandria Medical School, known all over the world and predetermining the development of medicine for many centuries to come, was established. She became famous for the activities mainly of two outstanding doctors - Herophilus and Erazistrat, who left a noticeable mark in medical, especially anatomical terminology. If in the previous era the medical lexicon was enriched mainly by borrowing words from the spoken language, then the Alexandrians boldly introduce neologisms - artificial, specially created names. Herophilus (about 300-250 BC) is credited with the authorship of such extant terms as Prostate, Diastole and Systole, mzninx pacheia and mzninx leptz (hard and soft meninges. The term dodekadaktylon (duodenal gut), from dodeka (twelve) and daktylos (finger); and in the Latin medieval transmission - duodenum from duodecim (twelve). Herophilus first drew attention to the existence of lymph nodes, but mistook them for glands and therefore called adzn - gland This name lasted in medicine almost until the middle of the 20th century, when it was replaced by the term lymphonodus (lymph node).

However, the error of Herophilus still makes itself felt; term element Aden - is part of such terms as adenopathy, Lymphadenitis, etc.

Erazistratus is the author of such neologisms as, for example, Parenchyma, Plethora, Bulimia, Anastomosis, which have survived to this day, although they have significantly changed their meaning over time. Modern medicine also owes Erazistratus such terms as neura aisthзtika and neura kinзtica (sensory and motor nerves), triglfchines hymenes (tricuspid valve; from tri- three + glphchis, glphchinos point, prong), better known in Latin translation as valvula tricuspidalis, from tri- three + cuspis, cuspidis point, prong.

The Alexandrians did a lot to streamline and normalize the medical language. Herophilus was probably the first scholarly editor of the writings of Hippocrates, who critically analyzed the texts attributed to him, clarified and modernized the exposition.

The entire further path of development of medical terminology was largely oriented, as models, to terms approved, codified, and annotated by Alexandrian doctors. It is they who medical language acquired features of harmony and scientific accuracy, which are noticeable even from the standpoint of modern science.

Until the crisis of the ancient world, the Greek language actually performed the function of the international language of medicine, served as a means of professional understanding for doctors of different ethnic groups.

During this period, the Latin language did not have any influence on the development of biomedical vocabulary, even despite the establishment of Roman domination over Greece (146 BC) and its former possessions. Throughout its history, the Latin language has been strongly influenced by Greek. The insignificant medical and biological knowledge available to the Romans could not compete with Greek medicine and the science of nature, especially the nature of the living. The Latin language was inferior in flexibility to the Greek, which had an amazing ability to clothe new ideas in linguistic forms, to easily create more and more new names through various methods of word formation, especially by adding the foundations of words. Some idea of the original Latin special vocabulary, in particular anatomical, can be drawn from the poem of the poet-philosopher Lucretius Cara "On the Nature of Things". He experienced great difficulty expounding in Latin the natural scientific views of the Greeks. Describing the structure human body, Lucretius used both the words of the literary Latin language and Latinized borrowings from Greek. Some of the names used in the poem are used in modern International Anatomical Nomenclature, such as the Latin words membra (limbs), palatum (palate), or the loanword brachium (shoulder). Like the Greek anatomists, who designated both arteries and veins with the word phleps, phlebos in the general meaning of "vein", Lucretius used the equivalent lat. the word vena, and for the designation of nerves, tendons and ligaments - the word nervus, from the Greek. neuron lived, used for the same purpose by Hippocrates and Herophilus.

References to the authority of Greek doctors, primarily Hippocrates, Herophilus and Erasistratus, are full of pages of the only surviving fully medical work of the Romans “On Medicine”). This work, which was part of an extensive encyclopedic work that has not come down to us, was written in Latin by Aulus Cornelius Celsus in the 1st century BC. n. e. It lay for several centuries in the dust of the monastery library, was brought to light only in 1443, and only then became available to European medicine. Celsus made extensive use of Greek names as the most authoritative and accurate. Quite often he accompanied the existing Latin names with Greek ones. Duplication of native Latin words with Latinized ones, i.e. adapted to the norms of the Latin language by Greek borrowings, is to this day one of the remarkable features of the medical lexicon.

After the second birth of the writings of Celsus in the XV century. his vocabulary (often with clarified or changed meanings of words) is almost completely included in the dictionary of professional medicine, has become an integral part of international anatomical nomenclatures late XIX and the middle of the 20th century. Such names ascend to Celsus, for example, abdomen - stomach, anus - anus, articulus - joint, caecum intestinum - cecum, cartilage - cartilage, cervix - neck, cubitus - elbow, digitus - - finger, fauces - pharynx, femur - thigh, hlimerus - humerus, index - index finger, inguen - groin, intestinum - intestine, jejunum intestinum - jejunum, lien - spleen, manus - hand, maxilla -- upper jaw, medulla. -- brain, occiput -- back of the head, oculus -- eye, omentum -- omentum, patella -- patella, pectus -- chest, pollex -- I finger, pulmo -- lung, radius -- radius, gene -- kidney, scrotum - scrotum, tibia - tibia, tonsilla - tonsil, tunica - shell, uterus - uterus, ventriculus - stomach, vertebra - vertebra, vc. sica is the bladder, vulva is the vulva.

To a much lesser extent, the Latin names of diseases and their symptoms have entered the existing medical terminology. Among them are such as acutus morbus - acute disease, cancer - cancer, cicatrix - scar, delirium - delirium, febris - fever, fractura - fracture, hernia - hernia, pannus - pannus, papula - papule , remissio - remission, scabies - scabies, suppuratio - suppuration, tumor - swelling, swelling, tussis - cough, varix - expansion, swelling of the vein, verruca - wart.

Some contribution to the expansion of medical vocabulary was made by the Roman writer-compiler Pliny the Elder in his essay “ Natural history". He introduced the word tinea (worm) as the name of some skin diseases, Latinized Greek words, for example, the term Paracentesis that has survived to this day.

Greek and Latin - territorially and historically interacting Indo-European languages, therefore, the missing designations were borrowed by Latin from Greek and easily assimilated into it. At the same time, a number of Greekisms completely retained their form, being transcribed using the Latin alphabet, taking into account the characteristics of certain Greek sounds.

Among the Greek words, Latinized in Roman literature and preserved to this day, one can indicate, for example, the following: brachium - shoulder, bronchus - in its original meaning - breathing tube, carpus - wrist, clitoris - clitoris, hepar - - liver, larynx - larynx, meconium - meconium, meninges - meninges, necrosis - necrosis, oesophagus - esophagus, pancreas - pancreas, paralysis - paralysis, perinaeum - perineum, pharynx - pharynx, propolis - bee glue, splen - spleen, splanchna - insides, thorax - chest.

Borrowings took root quite quickly, which was greatly facilitated by the fact that most of the doctors practicing in Rome were Greeks.

Of these, Rufus of Ephesus showed great interest in questions of medical terminology. He wrote for students of anatomy a small textbook "On naming the parts of the human body." Ruf introduced the name "diploe" to refer to the spongy core of the bones. Another Greek physician, Areteus of Cappadocia, is credited with introducing the word Diabetes into the medical lexicon. The names of Eczema and Trachoma are first found in the writings of Dioscorides of Cilicia.

The medical and philosophical interests of Claudius Galen, the most prominent physician practicing in Rome, were invariably intertwined with philological ones. Galen compiled a dictionary and commentary on the writings of Hippocrates. He introduced many new Greek names, clarified the meanings of old ones, revived some Hippocratic designations that were almost forgotten or incomprehensible to his contemporaries. He strove for the composition and internal form of the word to be correctly oriented in relation to the designated object, and anatomical names - in relation to the function performed by the corresponding organ. He considered it especially important that each special word had an unambiguous application and interpretation. Galen's approach, as an embryo, contained the basic requirements that in the science of modern times began to be presented to terms, including medical ones.

Galen reduced the use of the word diaphragma to the single meaning "abdominal obstruction", assigned to the word ganglion, which denoted a tumor-like formation, also the anatomical meaning - "nerve node".

Galen managed to make the name sternon unambiguous - the sternum. He clarified the formal and content aspects of the term anastomФsis. He is the author of the names thalamos - Latin thalamus (visual tubercle of the brain), phleps azygos - Latin vena azygos (unpaired vein), cremaster (muscle that lifts the testicle), peristaltikz kinzsis - peristalsis, etc.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the main heir to late ancient culture, incl. and medicine, became Byzantium. Literature in Greek, or rather, in Middle Greek, continued to develop here. In Byzantium IV-VII centuries. the activities of many famous doctors of the end of antiquity and the early Middle Ages, whose professional and linguistic culture was formed in traditional medical schools, proceeded.

The writings of Oribasius, Nemesius, Aetius of Amidia, Alexander of Traless, Paul of Aegina and some other Byzantine encyclopedic doctors were to a large extent compilations from the works of Galen, Rufai, representatives of the Alexandrian medical school, supplemented by subtle observations and conclusions from their own practice; they largely contributed to the familiarization of subsequent generations of doctors with the established terminology.

The highest achievement of medicine in the era of feudalism is the medicine of the peoples of the Arab East, including Iran and Central Asia. The historical merit of Arabic-speaking medicine is the preservation of the richest heritage of medicine in the ancient world.

In the IX-X centuries. almost all the writings of Hippocrates and Galen were translated into Arabic from Greek. On this basis, the formation of Arabic-language medical literature began. At first, these were mainly compilations of Greek works, but gradually outstanding independent works written by Arab doctors also appear. These include primarily the works of Abu Bakr Razi and especially Ali Ibn-Sina, or Avicenna. Their writings established Arabic medical terminology.

The language of European medicine of that time was extremely colorful and controversial. While the knowledge of the Greek language was the property of individuals, the Latin language was undergoing a qualitative transformation. And earlier, in the Roman period, there were two social dialects that differed from each other: the literary language of the upper, educated strata of Roman society, oriented towards classical Latin, and the spoken language, the so-called folk, or “village” Latin.

In the VIII-IX centuries. colloquial Latin became "dead", i.e. ceased to be understandable for peoples who begin to speak new, national languages of Europe, Romance: French, Italian, Spanish, etc. The basis for their education by the 9th century. served as vernacular Latin. However, "dead" Latin turned out to be a special language: for several centuries it remained a written, bookish language, understandable to all learned and learning Europe.

The introduction of Western European doctors to the Greek heritage could only be carried out through Latin translations of Arabic translated works from Greek.

The first Latin translations from Arabic were made in the 2nd century BC. Konstantin African - a teacher at the Salerno Medical School, which taught in Latin. He completed over 70 translations from Arabic into Latin in the 12th century. Gerard of Cremona, he, in particular, made the first translation of the "Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina, equipped with a detailed dictionary of special expressions. The Latin translation of the "Canon ..." dominated the teaching of medicine in Europe almost until the 17th century.

Medieval "barbarian" Latin differed significantly from Classical Latin. On the one hand, it helped European medicine, as it were, re-create classical terminology; on the other hand, this was seriously hampered by the unsatisfactory quality of the Latin translations. The terminology especially suffered from multiple and multi-stage translations from one language to another. Many translators had poor knowledge of Arabic and medical terminology, and mishandled the Arabic transcription of Greek words. Many errors arose due to the fault of scribes. The specialized vocabulary in Arabic translations from Greek could only be correctly interpreted if the Greek originals were available, but since these were lost, the difficulties of interpretation became almost insurmountable.

It is interesting that, despite the centuries-old predominance of the Arabic language, as well as the contamination of medieval Latin with hundreds of Arabisms, Arabic medicine has left almost no trace in modern medical terminology. Only a few Arabicisms have survived, mainly in the names of medicines; for example: Potassium and alkaloid, dating back to the Arabic word al_qali (vegetable ash), from which the Latin alkali (alkali) is derived; alcohol - from Arabic al_kohl (fine powder of antimony); elixir, from Arabic al-iksir (philosopher's stone); bura - from Arabic buraq.

In the anatomical Latin nomenclature, only one word of Arabic origin nucha has survived, which is now used in the meaning of Vyya - the back of the neck. It goes back to the "Canon ..." of Ibn-Sina, where it meant "spinal cord", and Ibn-Sina called the back of the neck differently. Such a shift in designations can be explained by the mistake of the translator Gerard of Cremona. Latin translations of the "Canon ..." medical vocabulary is also obliged by the neologisms albugineum (protein), ileum (ileum). The Latin neologism retina, which first appeared in the translation of the "Canon ...", is also associated with a misunderstanding of Arabic names by translators. There was no such word in Classical Latin; the similar-sounding Greek word rhztinz (gum) had nothing to do with anatomy. In the Arabic original, the word retina corresponded to the word rescheth. The erroneous identification of it with the Latin word rete (network) was the reason for the translator to create the neologism retina (retina). Strange from an anatomical point of view, the name of the lateral saphenous vein of the arm "vena cephalica" (cephalic vein) is probably also the result of an etymological error of the translator. The Arabic original contained the word al_kifal (external, outer), and the translator identified it with the Greek kephalz (head).

The use of metaphors, especially "family" images, to designate objects is a characteristic feature of Arabic poetry. This can explain the appearance of medieval Latin designations of the hard and soft shells of the brain, unusual for Greek and classical Latin, dura mater and pia mater, which are metaphors. The Latin word mater means "mother", therefore, the true meaning of this designation is the mother of the brain, i.e. the shell acts as a "mother - protector of the brain."

At the same time, pia literally means "kind, gentle", which goes well with the word "mother". Among the Greeks, the meninges were called directly and precisely - mzninx sklzra or mzninx pacheia (hard or dense shell) and mzninx leptz (thin, delicate shell). The Arabs conveyed these concepts with the help of metaphors, and the translator tried to preserve the same images in the Latin transmission.

Starting from the XIV century. the influence of Arabic medicine began to wane, but the development of European medicine was hampered by an incredible terminological confusion: the medical lexicon was a mixture of Latinized Arabisms, Hebraisms (Hebrew words), Arabized Greekisms, miscalculated, often misunderstood by translators. A huge number of synonyms appeared, in the words of A. Vesalius, - "a myriad of names." All this served as a breeding ground for scholastic disputes, in which a strict and consistent definition of terms by means of definitions was not considered necessary. European medical science was threatened by "terminological suffocation".

It became obvious that without clearing the "Augean stables" of terminology, it was impossible to develop medicine. European physicians no longer trusted the Arabized Galen and wished to return to the undistorted Greek originals. There was a resurgence of interest in classical Greek medicine everywhere. This process coincided with the beginning of a new era - the transitional period from the Middle Ages to the new time, known in the history of the countries of Western and Central Europe as the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). Around 1443, the work "On Medicine" by Aulus Cornelius Celsus was found, and in 1478 it was first published in Florence. And European doctors saw what an abyss lies between classical Latin with the terminology of Celsus and medieval Latin. Since then, the language of Celsus' work has long been recognized as a model of terminological accuracy.

A purposeful struggle is unfolding for the linguistic unity of medical terminology, for reducing the number of synonyms, for cleansing from incomprehensible Arabisms and barbarisms. A new Latin is being formed - the Latin of the Renaissance, which claims to be an international scientific language in the European region. Anatomists played an active role in its renewal, since the 16th century. was a century of anatomical discoveries, and the anatomical terminology at that time was confusing. Many prominent anatomists of the Renaissance were forced to become philologists at the same time.

A huge contribution to the anatomical terminology in Latin was made by Andreas Vesalius, the founder of modern anatomy. Taking as a basis the names introduced by Celsus, he gave uniformity to the anatomical terminology, threw out, with extremely rare exceptions, all medieval barbarisms. At the same time, Vesalius reduced Greekisms to a minimum, which to some extent can be explained by his rejection of many provisions of Galenian medicine. This also had a negative side, because. Vesalius replaced some of the short names dating back to classical Greek medicine with verbose Latin terms-descriptions. In some cases, he used the name given by Celsus for a completely different anatomical object. Similar costs of the reforming activity of Vesalius in a number of cases provoked the subsequent return of terminology to Greekisms and barbarisms. The representatives of the French medical school who were less prone to linguistic purism advocated the preservation of Greekisms in medical terminology.

The names introduced by Vesalius that have survived in modern anatomical nomenclature include: atlas - atlas, crista galli - cockscomb, incus - anvil, malleolus - ankle, os ilium - ilium, scapula - shoulder blade. Some terms introduced by the students of Vesalius have also been preserved, for example, Fallopius - tuba uterina - fallopian tube, labyrinthus - labyrinth of the inner ear; R. Colombo - pelvis - pelvis. When creating new terms, some anatomists resorted to metaphorical names. So, Arantius introduced the term cornu Ammonis or hippocampus - ammon's horn or hippocampus (seahorse), and Severinus (about 1643) - caput Medusae - the head of a jellyfish.

The contribution of Renaissance anatomists to the development of a dictionary of anatomical terms was enormous. By the end of the XVIII century. the number of anatomical names exceeded 30,000, while only about 700 were inherited from the ancient Greeks.

Scientific revolution of the 17th century. caused rapid progress in medical science, characterized by the emergence of new scientific disciplines and fundamental scientific areas, which was accompanied by the creation of many new terms. Already from the period late Renaissance there was a gradual adaptation of the language of medicine to the needs of the development of living national languages. So, the French surgeon Ambroise Pare, breaking the tradition, wrote his essays in colloquial French. However, in the XVIII century. Latin was still international language biology and medicine, where scientific papers were published, teaching was conducted, and scientific disputes took place. Latin coexisted harmoniously with the national languages as with their equivalent and equal successors in each separate country. By the middle of the XIX century. the situation is fundamentally changing. Latin finally gives way (in different countries-- in different time) national languages, and now they are becoming a means of written and oral scientific communication, and Latin retains only nominative function, i.e. the function of naming the objects under study in some biomedical classifications (in anatomy, histology, botany, zoology, etc.).

Latin belongs to the group Italian dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the II-I centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or "golden", Latin. He was distinguished by the richest vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific-philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology. high development various literary genres characteristic of this period (Cicero, Caesar, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and others).

This period is followed by post-classical, or "silver", Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally consolidated, the rules of spelling were determined. The last period of the existence of ancient Latin was the so-called late Latin (3rd-6th centuries AD), when the gap between written, bookish, Latin and folk colloquial began to intensify.

As the Romans captured vast territories in the west and east, the Latin language spread among the tribes and peoples subject to Rome. However, the status and role of the Latin language was not the same in different Roman provinces.

In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the II century. BC e. Latin became the official language state language, thereby contributing to the Romanization of the Celtic tribes living in Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland), and by the end of the 1st century. BC e. - tribes of Iberians, Celts and Lusitanians who inhabited the regions of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal).

Starting from 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.

If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its colloquial form spread, almost without encountering the resistance of tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.

Yes and just Latin script, which was used by the ancient Romans and which then formed the basis of the languages of many peoples of the world, goes back to the Greek alphabet. Perhaps it arose at the turn of the IX-VIII centuries. BC e. thanks to the contacts of the Italians with the colony cities of the Greeks in the south of the Apennine Peninsula.

From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and the Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life the ever-increasing influence of the highly developed Greek culture.

Educated Romans tended to read and converse in Greek. Borrowed Greek words were included in colloquial and literary Latin, especially actively after being under the rule of Rome in the II-I centuries. BC e. Greece and Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts and terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.

At the same time, another process also developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, i.e., terms. “The main method of using Greek scientific and philosophical terminology among the Romans is tracing, both word-production - the formation of a new Latin word according to the Greek model, and semantic - communication to the Latin word of those special meanings that the Greek has acquired” (I. M. Troysky).

When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible. The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-forming potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to clothe in linguistic forms newly discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names almost transparent in meaning through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixes.

1. Term and terminology

Word "term"(terminus) is Latin and once meant "limit, border". A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common word, the term has a content or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or a sound complex (pronunciation). Unlike the rest of the common lexicon, which denotes ordinary, everyday, so-called naive ideas, the terms denote special scientific concepts.

2. Special scientific concept. Definition

The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines concept thus: "A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them." The concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is a set of features of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has attributes that make up the content of the concept.

Unlike everyday everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of new scientific discovery, phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a definition that is necessarily attributed to it. A definition (lat. definitio) is a formulation in a concise form of the essence of the concept being terminated, that is, denoted by the term, the concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - "existing", "being" + genesis - "generation", "development") - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the body from its inception to the end of life; Aerophiles (lat. aёr - "air" + philos - "loving") - microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.

As you can see, the definition does not just explain the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what this or that term means is tantamount to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, in textbooks for the first time the introduced concept (term) is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum in the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.

3. System of concepts and terminological system

A special concept (term) does not exist by itself, isolated from other concepts (terms). It is always an element of a certain system of concepts (system of terms).

Terminology- this is a set of terms within a certain professional language, but not a simple set, but a system - a term system. Each term in it occupies its strictly defined place, and all terms together in one way or another, directly or indirectly interconnected or interdependent. Here are some examples of definitions that support this assertion. “Serotonin is a biologically active substance from the group of biogenic amines; found in all tissues, mainly the digestive tract and central nervous system, as well as in platelets; plays the role of a mediator in some synapses and in the development of some allergic reactions. "Nondisjunction of chromosomes - a violation of the process of meiosis, or mitosis, which consists in the departure of homologous chromosomes or chromatids during anaphase to the same pole, can cause chromosomal aberration."

To understand the meaning of a term means to know the place of the concept correlated with it in the system of concepts of a given science.

4. Medical terminology - system of systems

Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminological system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The plan of the content of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body in normal and pathological conditions at various stages of their development; diseases and pathological conditions of a person; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; factors environment that affect positively or negatively on the human body; indicators of hygienic regulation and evaluation; methods of diagnostics, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; operational accesses and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and the sanitary and epidemiological service; devices, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, medical furniture; medicinal products grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicinal products, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.

The macroterminological system consists of many layers. Each layer is an independent sub-term system serving a separate medical, biological, pharmaceutical science or field of knowledge. Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminological system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterminal system. This reflects the dual trend of progress: the further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the XX century. the number of highly specialized subterminal systems has significantly increased, expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases that affect mainly individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, sexual pathology, arthrology, gastroenterology, abdominal surgery, neurosurgery, etc.). Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached an impressive size.

Within the framework of the macroterminal system, the following subsystems play an almost leading role:

1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;

2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical term systems;

3) pharmaceutical terminology.

It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology.

5. Pharmaceutical terminology

Pharmaceutical terminology- these are the names of dosage forms, herbal and chemical origin. Each new drug receives both Russian and Latin names. The latter is used by the doctor when writing a prescription in Latin.

The arsenal of medicines used today in the world, produced in Russia and imported from abroad, has tens of thousands of names. These are the names chemical substances inorganic and organic origin, including synthetic and semi-synthetic, names of medicinal plants, etc.

6. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language

Studying a Latin language course at a medical institute pursues a purely professional goal - to prepare a terminologically competent doctor. However, in order to master any language, it is necessary to improve one's cultural and educational level, to broaden one's horizons. In this regard, Latin aphorisms are useful, sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a concise form, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - “Fortune helps the brave”; Non progredi est regredi - "To not go forward is to go back." Proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - “I carry everything with me” are also interesting; Festina lente - "Hurry slowly", etc. Many aphorisms are separate lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to the scientists of the New Age: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, K. Linnaeus and others.

Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs included in the material of individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook have long become popular expressions. They are used in scientific and fiction, in public speaking. Separate Latin aphorisms and sayings deal with issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - "due" + logos - "teaching") commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - "The good of the patient is the highest law of doctors"; Primum noli nocere! “First of all, do no harm!” (the doctor's first commandment).

In the international vocabulary of many languages of the world, especially European ones, Latinisms occupy a significant place: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertator, audience, communication, credit, discredit, decree, creed, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, cruise, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, gradation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intellect, intellectual, colleague, board, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, conserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, invalid, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.

Only in the last few years on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies, new words for our political life flashed Latin origin: pluralism (pluralis - "multiple"), conversion (conversio - "transformation", "change"), consensus (consensus - "consent", "agreement"), sponsor (sponsor - "trustee"), rotation (rotatio - " circular motion), etc.

Sevastopol state budgetary educational institution vocational education

"Sevastopol Medical College named after Zhenya Deriugina"

"AGREED"

protocol of the methodical cyclic commission

dated ______________20__ №___

CMC Chairman

__________________________

"APPROVE"

Deputy director of academic work

________________ Polstyanko N.N.

"_____" _______________ 2015G.

Methodical development

theoretical lesson

On this topic: « Brief history of the Latin language, its role in medicine and

general humanitarian significance. General information about medical

by discipline:OP.01 Basics of the Latin language with medical

terminology

for the specialty: 34.02.01 "Nursing"

well:I

Uch. year 2015 – 2016

Explanatory note.

Methodological development is intended for teachers to prepare for a theoretical lesson on the topic“A brief history of the Latin language, its role in medicine and its general humanitarian significance. General information about medical

terminology. Subsystems of medical terminology» .

This methodological material has been compiled in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Secondary Vocational Education and the work program of the discipline OP.01 "Fundamentals of the Latin language with medical terminology" contributing to the formation of the following competencies:

OK 1. Understand the essence and social significance of your future profession, show a steady interest in it.

OK 2. Organize own activities, to choose generic methods and ways to perform professional tasks, evaluate their performance and quality.

OK 4. Search and use the information necessary for the effective implementation of professional tasks, professional and personal development.

OK 8. Independently determine the tasks of professional and personal development, engage in self-education, consciously plan and implement advanced training.

Methodological development contains information about the main stages, methods and forms of training necessary for the study of this topic.

Content:

Methodical block

Routing

Topic: A Brief History of the Latin Language, Its Role in Medicine and Humanitarian Importance. General information about medical terminology. Subsystems of medical terminology.

Name of the academic discipline: OP.01 "Fundamentals of the Latin language with medical terminology"

Target: In the first lesson, lay the foundation for understanding and competent written and oral reproduction of anatomical, pharmaceutical and clinical terms.

As a result of mastering the topic, the student should

Know:

The history of the Latin language and Latin writing and their role in Russian and European history and culture.

Have an idea about the genealogical, typological characteristics of the Latin language; periods of development of the Latin language.

Be able to:

Determine the meaning of the Latin language for a medical student.

Formed professional competencies

PC 1.1. Carry out activities to preserve and strengthen the health of the population, the patient and his environment.

PC 1.3. Participate in the prevention of infectious and non-communicable diseases.

PC 2.1. Present information in a way that is understandable to the patient, explain to him the essence of the intervention.

PC 2.6. Maintain approved medical records.

PC 4.5. Work with legal, accounting and reporting and medical documentation.

Scheme of integration links between UD and PM:

Interdisciplinary connections: PM

PM.01. Carrying out preventive measures

Brief history of the Latin language, its role in medicine and general humanitarian significance. General information about medical terminology. Subsystems of medical terminology.

Discipline

OP.02. Human anatomy and physiology

PM.02. Participation in medical diagnostic and rehabilitation processes

OP.07. Pharmacology

PM.03. Provision of pre-hospital medical care in emergency and extreme conditions

Intradisciplinary links: Fundamentals of the Latin language with medical terminology  Morphology of the Latin language; elements of Latin grammar; anatomical, pharmaceutical terminology; construction of clinical terms; chemical nomenclature.

Lesson equipment:

Methodical: Methodical development of a theoretical lesson.

Methods and techniques

Main purpose

Assimilation rate

Motivation

explanatory-illustrative

Organization of the assimilation of information by students, by informing them of educational material and ensuring its successful perception.

Verbal:

conversation, story, discussion, work with study guide, explanation.

Forms theoretical and practical knowledge. Cultivates morality, patience. Develops attention logical thinking.

reproductive

Formation of skills and abilities to use and apply the acquired knowledge.

Solution situational tasks, implementation of practical tasks, work on the algorithm.

Enrich knowledge, form skills, diligence, observation, systematic and accurate work.

Problem statement

Disclosure of various problems in the studied educational material and showing ways to solve them.

Statement of the problem, analysis, establishment of cause-and-effect relationships.

Develops independence of thinking, speed of reaction, promotes the development of creative solutions.

Partial search

Gradual preparation of trainees for self-preparation and problem solving.

Heuristic conversation, work with the book, proofs, comparison, generalization.

Develops independent thinking, creative approach to business.

List of mandatory, normative and additional literature:

p/n

Discipline

/professional module

(if necessary, by sections / MDK)

indicating the specialty

View

classes

Name of educational literature (author(s), place of publication, publisher, year of publication,

number of pages)

Qty

student/

quantity

copies

security,

Availability of an electronic version

Note*

Required Literature

theoretical

Latin language (for medical and pharmaceutical colleges and schools): textbook / Yu. I. Gorodkova - 25th ed., Sr. - M.: KNORUS, 2016. - 256 p. - (Average professional education)

25 / 25

additional literature

Basics of the Latin language with medical terminology

theoretical

Latin: for medical colleges and schools / V. I. Kravchenko. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2015 - 396s. – (Secondary medical education)

25 / 5

Fundamentals of the Latin language with medical terminology: textbook / Yu. F. Panasenko. - M.: GEOTAR - Media, 2015. - 352 p.

25 / 10

Latin language and basics of medical terminology / L.Yu. Smolskaya. - K .: VSI "Medicine", 2011. - 456s.

25 / 1

Time Card theoretically th lesson:

Structural elements of the lesson

Activity

teacher

Activity

students

Organizational part of the lesson

Greetings.

Checks the readiness of students for the lesson, their appearance, the presence of a notebook for lecture notes. Fixes the absent, finds out the reasons.

Greetings.

Check the readiness of the workplace, set up for successful work.

Reporting the topic of the lecture and the detailed plan

Informs the topic and detailed plan of the lesson.

Write down the topic and the detailed plan of the lesson.

The initial motivation for learning activities (cause the student's interest in the perception new topic)

Draws students' attention to the relevance of the topic being studied,

goals and objectives for students, the importance of knowledge of the subject for the successful mastery of the profession as a whole.

Listen, write, ask questions.

Communication and assimilation of a new topic (perception, comprehension, consolidation)

Reveals the content of the topic.

Presents theoretical material on the basis of mutual understanding, asks questions educational msya, answers questions.

Listen to the presentation of the material, write down, ask questions, answer the questions of the teacher.

Reflection (self-assessment and self-control of students)

Asking educational questions msya. Listens and corrects answers. Controls lecture notes educational xia.

Organize the received information.

Answer teacher's questions, use notes

Final part

Information block

Theoretical lesson:

Update:

The Latin language is the basis of the professional terminological and conceptual language of doctors. Knowledge of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology is necessary for the formation of the necessary knowledge base and skills, for mastering a huge and multidisciplinary medical terminology, which will be in demand in subsequent courses in the course of studying special disciplines. In addition, knowledge of medical terms of Greek-Latin origin and the basics Latin grammar makes it much easier for students to read and understand special literature in many foreign languages, as well as the study of these languages themselves. Thus, discipline is also important for scientific work, and for professional activity medical worker.

Motivation:

Mastering competencies in the framework of studying the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology is necessary when mastering theoretical and practical courses of general professional and clinical disciplines.

Lecture text

Latin language (Lingua Latina) - dead language, that is, one that is currently not spoken by any nation. In addition to Latin, there are other dead languages: for example, ancient Greek and Sanskrit. Despite this, the Latin language occupies an important place in the modern education system; it is studied both in higher educational institutions and, in a number of countries, in gymnasiums and schools. This demand for Latin is historically conditioned.

Latin belongs to the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.

The name "Latin" goes back to the tribe of the Latins (one of the tribes of the Apennine Peninsula), who inhabited the small region of Latium, located in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. The center of this area in the VIII century. BC e. became the city of Rome, so the inhabitants of Latium also called themselves "Romans". To the northwest of the Romans lived those who had highly developed civilization the Etruscans, who had a significant impact on the culture of the nascent Roman state. Many Etruscan words entered the Latin language. To which language family refers to the Etruscan language, is still unknown to science (Etruscan inscriptions have not been deciphered). Other languages of Italy, the most important of which are Os and Umbrian, are related to Latin and were gradually replaced by it.

In his historical development The Latin language went through several stages (periods):

1. Archaic Latin period : from the first surviving written monuments to the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. The oldest monuments date back to around the 6th century. BC e., and there are very few of them. This is a fragment of a sacred inscription on fragments of black stone (found in 1899 during excavations of the Roman Forum); an inscription on the so-called Prenestin fibula (a gold clasp found in 1871 in the city of Preneste, not far from Rome); an inscription on an earthenware vessel known as the Duenos inscription. The number of monuments increases significantly, starting from the 3rd century BC. BC e. This is due to the growth of the power of Rome, which at that time conquered most of Italy. The conquest of Greek cities in southern Italy led to the penetration of elements of Greek culture and education into Roman society, which stimulated the emergence literary works and in Latin. The beginning of this process was laid by the captive Greek, later a freedman, Livius Andronicus, who translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Of the Latin authors of this period, we know the names of the playwright and writer Gnaeus Nevius (excerpts from comedies have survived), the epic poet and playwright Quintus Ennius (excerpts from various works have survived); the largest representatives of the archaic period in the region literary language are comedians; Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 254-c. 184 BC), from whom 20 complete comedies and

one in excerpts; Publius Terentius Afr (190-159 BC), from whom all six comedies he wrote have come down to us. In addition, from the middle of the III - beginning of the II century. BC e. Numerous gravestone inscriptions and official documents have come down. All this provides a wealth of material for study. characteristic features archaic Latin.

2. Classical Latin period: from the first speeches of Cicero (81-80 BC), since in his prose the Latin language first acquired the grammatical and lexical norm that made it “classical”, until the death of Augustus in 14 AD. e. This period is represented by a brilliant constellation of authors. In oratory prose, this is, first of all, as already mentioned, Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC); in historical prose Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). Guy Sallust Crispus (86-35 BC), Titus Livius (59 BC - 17 AD); the most famous poets of this period were: Titus Lucretius Car (c. 98-c. 35 BC). Guy Valerius Catullus (c. 87-c. 54 BC), Publius Virgil Maron (70-19 BC), Quintus Horace Flaccus (65 - 8 BC), Publius Ovid Nason ( 43 BC - 18 AD). Thanks to the last three poets, whose heyday coincided with the reign of Augustus, as well as other talented poets of this time (Tibull, Proportions), the era of Augustus was called the golden age of Roman poetry.

In most higher educational institutions In our country, the Latin language of this particular period is being studied - classical Latin.

3. Postclassical Latin period: I-II centuries n. e. The most famous authors of this period: Lucius Annei Seneca (c. 4 BC-5 AD) - philosopher and poet-playwright; Mark Valery Martial (c. 42-c. 102) and Decimus Junius Juvenal (c. 60-after 127) satirical poets: Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55-c. 120) - the most famous of the Roman historians; Apuleius (c. 124-?) - philosopher and writer. The language of these writers is distinguished by a significant originality in the choice of stylistic means, however, the grammatical norms of classical Latin are almost not violated. Therefore, the division into classical and postclassical periods is of literary rather than linguistic significance.

4. Late Latin period: 3rd-6th centuries - the era of the late empire and the emergence after its fall (476) of barbarian states. ancient traditions in the literary work of this period, with rare exceptions, fade away. As a historical source, the work of Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-400) and the not entirely reliable biographies of Roman emperors (Scriptores historiae Augustae) retain their significance. An essential factor in the spiritual life of the period of the late empire is the spread of Christianity and the emergence of Christian literature in Latin - Jerome (c. 348-420), Augustine (354-430), etc. Many morphological and syntactic phenomena already find a place in the works of late Latin authors. preparing the transition to new Romance languages.

The period of formation and flourishing of the classical Latin language was associated with the transformation of Rome into the largest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean, subjugating vast territories in western and southeastern Europe, northern Africa and Asia Minor. In the eastern provinces of the Roman state (in Greece, Asia Minor and on the northern coast of Africa), where by the time of their conquest by the Romans the Greek language and highly developed Greek culture were widespread, the Latin language was not widely used. Otherwise, it was in

western Mediterranean.

By the end of the II century. to i. e. Latin dominates not only throughout Italy, but as the official state language penetrates into the regions of the Iberian Peninsula conquered by the Romans and present-day southern France, where then there was a Roman province - Gallia Narbonensis - Gallia Narbonne. The conquest of the rest of Gaul (in general, this is the territory of modern France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland) was completed in the late 50s. 1st century BC e. as a result of long hostilities under the command of Julius Caesar. In all these territories, the Latin language is spreading, and not only through official institutions, but also as a result of communication between the local population and Roman soldiers, merchants, and settlers. This is how the Romanization of the provinces takes place, i.e., the assimilation of the Latin language and Roman culture by the local population. Romanization goes in two ways: from above, in particular, through the opening of Roman schools for the children of the local nobility, where they taught literary Latin

language and from below, through live communication with native speakers of spoken Latin.

The Latin language in its folk (colloquial) variety - the so-called vulgar (meaning - folk) Latin - was the basis language for new national languages, united under the common name Romance (from Latin Romanus "Roman"). These include the Italian language, which was created on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula as a result of a historical change in the language of Latin, French and Provencal languages, which developed in the former Gaul, Spanish and Portuguese - in the Iberian Peninsula, Retro Romansh - in the territory of the Roman colony of Rezia (in part of present-day Switzerland and north -eastern Italy), Romanian - on the territory of the Roman province of Dacia (present-day Romania), Moldavian and some others.

The importance of the Latin language for the gradual and long-term formation of new Western European languages \u200b\u200bis preserved even after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Throughout the Middle Ages and beyond, Latin was the language of the Catholic Church.

The role of the classical Latin language was exceptional in the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries), when the humanists, who were representatives of the progressive trend in early Western European culture, showed great interest in antiquity and when writers, using the Latin language, sought to imitate ancient models, especially the language of Cicero. For example, it is enough to name the names of Thomas More (1478 - 1535) who wrote in Latin in England, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466 - 1536) - in Holland, Tommaso Campanella (1568 - 1639) - in Italy.

Latin becomes in this period the most important means international cultural and scientific communication. The centuries-old spread of the Latin language necessitated a thorough study of it in schools, dictionaries were compiled, translations were published; it also contributed to the penetration of the corresponding Latin vocabulary into the new Western European languages.

Until the 18th century Latin remained the language of diplomacy and the international language of science. In particular, the first document in the history of Russian-Chinese relations was compiled in Latin - the famous Nerchinsk Treaty of 1689. The Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza (1632 - 1677), the English scientist I. Newton (1643 - 1727), M. .V.Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) and many others.

There was a period in the cultural life of Europe when it was impossible to get an education without knowledge of the Latin language.

At present, the importance of the Latin language, of course, is not so great, nevertheless, it plays a very important role in the education system.

The Latin language, of course, is necessary for a historian, and not only a specialist in ancient history, which goes without saying, but also a student of the Middle Ages, all documents of which are written in Latin.

A lawyer cannot do without studying the Latin language, since Roman law formed the basis of modern Western European law and, through Byzantine law, influenced the oldest sources of Russian law (Russian treaties with Greeks, Russkaya Pravda).

There is no doubt about the need to study the Latin language in medical and veterinary institutes, in the biological and natural faculties of universities.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the Latin language, along with the ancient Greek, and currently serves as a source for the formation of international socio-political and scientific terminology.

Issues under study:

Levels of development:

About Rome and the Latin language.

History of the Latin language and Latin writing, their role in European and Russian history and culture.

Genealogical, typological characteristics of the Latin language.

Periods of development of the Latin language.

The meaning of the Latin language for the medical student.

Control block

Questions to enhance the cognitive activity of students in the study new material:

In what century did the state of Ancient Rome appear?

Which countries were under Roman rule during the Roman Empire?

What two languages are called "classical"?