Man strives for knowledge throughout his life. Study foreign languages has always received special attention. Once the main methodology for studying foreign languages ​​were considered classes with native teachers (remember tutors in tsarist Russia) or reading fiction / scientific literature, of course, with a dictionary. By the way, the latter is still actively used by students of medical faculties studying Latin. In this article, we will try to consider the ways of mastering a foreign language, which are currently actively used in specialized courses. So…

Grammar and translation of languages

This method is sometimes also called " Grammar-translational", That is, we translate correctly. Previously, there was a conventional wisdom that language proficiency is nothing more than knowledge of grammar and the ability to use a dictionary at the right time. Of course, this one is very effective, however, it is, so to speak, not quite “alive”. The fact is that the ability to read and write correctly is not yet a guarantee that in real life you will be able to gain knowledge in this way. As a rule, students who learn, for example, English with the help of this method, in the classroom, they first read a simple text, then translate it into their native language, and then back. The problem is that sometimes the texts are quite absurd - they simply cannot be applied to certain life situations.

"Silent way" - unique methodology for learning foreign languages

“Silent way” translated into Russian sounds like “the way of silence” or “the method of silence” - a method that has proven itself very positively in the 60s of the last century. Its essence is this: absolutely every person has the ability to learn languages ​​- it is so inherent in nature itself. Consequently, every person is able to learn a foreign language on their own, without anyone's help. The teacher, in no case interfering in the process and imposing his opinion on the student, demonstrates by his own example how to pronounce words. In teaching sounds, the teacher can use the visualization method by drawing multi-colored tables in which each color or symbol stands for a sound. This is how he introduces students to words.

Which methodology for studying foreign words is the best?

In one small article, of course, it is impossible to describe in detail all the advantages of the currently existing methods for studying a particular language. We will only give a few of the most common methods that are actively used today for mastering a foreign language.

• "Total-physical response" - a method of physical response. All that a student needs to do to get the most effective result is to "pass the information received through himself." In this case, the trainee replenishes his passive baggage with certain knowledge during the first twenty lessons. Only after all the necessary skills have been obtained, the necessary literature has been read, when the student’s hearing begins to adequately perceive foreign speech, he will be “allowed” to react. However, he should respond only with actions, but not with a voice.
• "Sugesto pedia" is a method of complete immersion in the language environment. One of the most common methods of studying foreign languages, it boils down to the fact that the student communicates daily with native speakers. The ideal option would be to travel to the country whose language a person intends to master.
• "Audio-lingual method" - audio-linguistic method. With the advent of records and audio cassettes, it became possible for a person to repeatedly listen to records with foreign words and sentences. The student repeats what he heard as many times as he needs to remember and easily pronounce what he heard. Thus, repetitions form the basis of this method.
• And finally, communicative methodology for studying foreign languages. It is a kind of symbiosis of various methods that are harmoniously combined with each other. It is believed that this is the most modern and most effective way to learn a foreign language at a fairly good level. In addition, this technique is suitable for almost everyone - both beginners and those who already have basic knowledge language.

Now you can do it in different ways. The first one is choose one of the many language courses . They differ in direction, teaching methods, the number of people in groups and the level of their initial training. In addition, some courses focus on in-depth study foreign language in relation to a certain field of activity (business, law, exact sciences, etc.).

Many countries require applicants who wish to work or study in their territory to pass special tests for knowledge of a foreign language (for example, in English it is called TOEFL). These may include grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and listening comprehension questions. In order to pass this test, you must score a certain number of points. Therefore, if the goal of language learning is also to pass the test, then it is necessary to choose courses focused on preparing for it.

As a rule, training in the courses takes place in the form of classroom studies with certain homework assignments. The advantage of language courses can be considered the availability of a training program and qualified teachers. However, if a person has missed several classes or has not mastered a certain topic for himself, then it can sometimes be quite difficult to catch up.

Learn a foreign language on your own Reading books and newspapers in the original will help. In this case, it will be possible not only to replenish your vocabulary, but also to see new turns and grammatical constructions that have appeared in the language. Watching TV shows and movies in a foreign language will also help you improve your reading comprehension and pronunciation skills.

A dictionary will help you learn a foreign language

You can study a foreign language at home with the help of a teacher (tutor). The advantage of this method is that the schedule of classes and their duration can be planned individually. In addition, the tutor will be able to stay longer on topics that are difficult for a person learning a language. The disadvantages include more high cost learning versus courses. Also, it cannot be ruled out that the tutor will be insufficiently qualified.

Language learning is on the rise by integrating into the language environment. To this end, many travel companies organize trips abroad to study at special language schools. This method can bring great practical benefits. However, one should not forget about the costs that will have to be incurred.

Lingvo Plus" src="/images/pic15.jpg">

A dozen successful negotiations with foreign businessmen and two packs of A-4 format translated technical documentation, not counting the many contracts and letters, commercial offers, give me the right to talk about the high efficiency of a proven way to learn any foreign language.

The surest way suggests a strong, burning desire to learn the language. In the absence of desire in a person, the method does not work, however, like any other methods.

The essence of the method is as follows.. Let's say you do not know a language, for example, English or French at all, but burn with a flame of desire to learn it. Where to begin? First of all, you need to decide on the pronunciation. Whether it's English, whether it's French or Chinese, you first need to learn the basic letter combinations of the language and work out their pronunciation, familiarize yourself with the exceptions to the rules. This is the base. At this stage, it is advisable to resort to the help of a tutor and take several lessons from him to practice the pronunciation of all letter combinations of a foreign language.

After that, it's up to you and the little ones. Take any book in a foreign language of interest to you (you can buy it either in a bookstore for an expensive price, or in a second-hand store for a cheap price), a good and convenient (not too large on the outer perimeter) dictionary of thousands of 50 words (more is possible, but dictionaries less than 10 thousand words I do not recommend), sit in a secluded place and read aloud a foreign text for 15-20 minutes.

To get started, you need to earn minimum vocabulary, which in the future will serve as the basis for written and oral communication with foreign contingents. Therefore, it is necessary to read a foreign book in the following way: read one foreign word, find its translation in the dictionary, get acquainted with the transcription (if any) and the translation of the word, work out the pronunciation and enter the word into the memory database, repeating it and its translation aloud 3-4 times in a row. Move on to the next word. Then we read the whole sentence in a foreign language aloud, we make a translation. Also listen. All aloud. Let's move on to the next offer. And so 15-20 minutes. Then a break.

At first, it will be insanely difficult to pronounce all the words and their translations, translations of the text aloud, the jaw will ache. But the game is worth the candle. In this way, you will not only work out pronunciation, but also throw in the "piggy bank" of your brain the initial minimum of a foreign vocabulary, remember the spelling of words visually, which will then greatly help with grammar.

Personally, in one summer in the 10th grade, I turned from a chronic three-year student in English into a leading straight-A student. Mom bought me a 100-page tabloid novel in English for a couple of rubles in a second-hand store. I read it diligently along with a dictionary, diligently saying everything out loud, like a parrot, 3-4 times. The result was obvious: five in language at school and successful delivery entrance exam to the university on the budget; the trust of the superiors at work, expressed in shifting all the translation activities of the company onto my shoulders. The most important thing in this method is to start working on yourself + a strong desire.

In addition to self-study of English language, by reading foreign books aloud, there are several other, alternative and effective ways learning a foreign language.

First of all, it is, of course, direct communication with representatives of foreign culture. Communicating with native speakers of a foreign language - native foreigners - "natives", you grasp the features of speech and pronunciation of words by ear, intuitively understand the meaning of a particular word, phrase, based on the facial expressions and gestures of the interlocutor, the environment and the nuances of the situation.

It usually takes about 3 months to study a foreign language “from scratch” abroad. At the end of the year, the student becomes a "language pro".

Learning a foreign language according to special programs recorded on CDs guarantees good results with regular effort. Personally, I like EnglishPlatinum 2000 the most out of the great variety of programs sold. It offers excerpts from real English-language films which need to be understood by ear, translated and written from dictation. A handy dictionary allows you to study the written spelling and oral pronunciation of words and their combinations. The grammar section describes the rules in an accessible way English grammar. You can record your speech on the voice recorder and check it in the program for compliance with English speech.

In the last place I put learning a foreign language with a teacher. After all, if a student does not have a real desire to learn a foreign language, a tutor will not help him. Anything that goes in one ear in class will immediately fly out of the other at the end of the lesson. The help of a tutor is good in two cases: when a person is just starting to learn a language and he needs the help of a professional in practicing pronunciation and linking letter combinations of the language with their pronunciation, or when a person already knows the language well enough, but he needs to hone it, improve it, make it perfect then he needs the help of a professional translator.

Learning a language is not as difficult as it might seem. The most important - sincerely want to learn a foreign language and to know why you are wasting a lot of time on this (im)useless activity. If the goal does not motivate and does not cause a burning desire to work and work on yourself, then maybe it’s better not to waste your time and nerves in vain?

Educational institution Gomel State University

them. F. Skorina

Topic: "Methods of language research"

Completed by: student of group A-13

Feoktistova Daria Vladimirovna

Checked by: Osipova Tamara Anatolyevna

Gomel 2014

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...2

1. Understanding methodology, methodology, method, technique in linguistics…………5

2. General methods of language research…………………………………………...6

3. Private methods of language research…………………………………………….8

References………………………………………………………………13

Introduction

Methods and principles of linguistic analysis of different sides, aspects of the language are different. The selection of one or another aspect of the language is often inseparable from the method of its linguistic consideration. At the same time, the language itself is defined as a complex and historically mobile phenomenon, which is reflected in the model of language description that was developed within the framework of traditional (classical) linguistics, which invariably includes such sections as phonetics, lexicology, morphology, syntax, etc. .d. Each of these sections has its own subject of study and at the same time forms part of a single science of language. The very structure of classical linguistics as a science clearly indicates that, when describing linguistic phenomena, scientists proceeded from the belief that language is a certain system.

Understanding language as a system becomes the most important methodological principle of linguistics of the 20th century. Therefore, as one of the main tasks of linguistic research, analysis, a task is put forward related to an adequate description and interpretation of the relationships in which the components of the language system are located among themselves. However, the language system is complex, and its complexity lies primarily in its multi-layered nature, that is, in the fact that it consists of a number of subsystems that are singled out on the basis of the so-called stratification principle. These subsystems form the levels of the language. According to the ideas prevailing in modern linguistics, it is only with the help of the concept of level that it is possible to correctly reflect such an essential feature of the language as its articulate character and the discreteness of its elements. Despite this, the question of the number of levels in a language does not have an unambiguous solution. Many agree, however, that there are four of them: 1) phonetic-phonological, 2) morphemic, 3) lexico-semantic, and 4) syntactic.

The method is often understood as the general methodology of sciences, the philosophical method of cognition, which formulates the basic principles of the theory of cognition as a whole. For us, such a general scientific, philosophical method is the dialectical method, according to which matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary; matter and consciousness form a unity; motion is a way, a form of the existence of matter, therefore the material world must be studied, learned in motion; phenomena of the world around us are interconnected and so on. These and other principles of the dialectical method constitute the philosophical basis of any science oriented towards materialistic dialectics, including linguistics. On the other hand, the method refers to a method of obtaining specific scientific knowledge. Consequently, the linguistic method is the means, the method by which we obtain information about the language, we learn the language. The combination of such methods constitutes a system of special methods. The most general definition of the method: "... The totality of methods and operations of cognition and practical transformation of reality." To obtain effective results with the help of special methods of language learning, it is necessary to use these methods correctly, to master them well. The rules, the sequence of using linguistic methods, as well as the techniques that make up them, is the methodology of linguistic analysis.

Methods and methodology of linguistic analysis are closely related to the aspect and concept of scientific research.

The concept of methodology, methodology, method, technique in linguistics

Methodology (Greek methodos “path of research”, logos “teaching”) in linguistics is the doctrine of the principles of the study of languages. Methodology determines the approach to the object of linguistics, the method of constructing scientific knowledge, the general orientation and nature of linguistic research. Methodology largely determines the scientific results of a study. The methodology is divided into three levels:

1. general philosophical methodology (related to worldview);

2. general scientific methodology, including methods and principles applied in groups of sciences;

3. private methodology, including the methods of any science.

Differences in the philosophical positions of researchers have led to a significant variety of methodological trends in linguistics. For example, the understanding of the term "methodology" itself in Marxist linguistics differs from its understanding in a number of other areas, in which this term is more often used only in the sense of a set of private methods and techniques for studying a language.

Methodology determines different views on language: In dialectical materialistic linguistics, it is believed that language has a material nature, exists objectively, regardless of its reflection in human mind. This approach to understanding the nature and essence of language is fundamentally different from the idealistic understanding of language as a manifestation of the “spirit of the people” (Humboldtianism), as a phenomenon based on its mental (theories of W. Wundt, H. Steinthal, N. Chomsky). Dialectical materialism believes that it is wrong to deny the possibility of knowing the world (in contrast to agnosticism, which adheres to the approach that we do not know reality, but complexes of sensations, beyond which there is no way out).

Methods (Greek method "path of research") in linguistics: 1. generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, techniques, language research methods associated with a particular linguistic theory and general methodology - the so-called general methods; 2. separate techniques, methods, operations based on certain theoretical principles, as a technical means, a tool for studying one or another aspect of the language - private methods.

Each general method singles out exactly those aspects of the language as an object of study that are recognized as the most important in a given theory of language, for example, the historical aspect in comparative historical linguistics, the structural aspect in structural linguistics, etc. In this sense, the subject of research is created by the method. Any major stage in the development of linguistics is characterized by a change in views on the language, a change in linguistic theory, accompanied by a radical change in methods, the desire to create a new generalized method. At the same time, unlike the old views on the language and replacing them with new ones, the methods inherited from the previous stage do not disappear completely, but retain their meaning at the new stage as more private, but with this main method. Thus, modern linguistics has several common scientific methods dating back to different eras. Modern linguistics is characterized by the linguistic refraction of general scientific methods (mathematical analysis - a quantitative method, a statistical method; a systematic approach - a comparative method, etc.).

In the meaning of the research method, the term reception can be used (as a synonym for the term method). Techniques can be called private methods, that is, a technique can be used in several methods. For example: the reception of transformations (transformations) is a part of the descriptive and historical-comparative methods, which exists as a set of certain research rules within the framework of specific methods.

The term technique is also used synonymously with the terms method and technique. The term can also mean a collection of methods. However, more often this term means the practical application of a particular method or technique.

General methods of language research

General methods of studying languages ​​are always associated with a particular linguistic theory. The main general linguistic methods are

1. descriptive;

2.taxonomic (structural);

3. comparative-historical;

4. comparative.

The main goal of linguistics is the description of linguistic facts. The descriptive method is a system of research techniques used to establish the facts or phenomena of one language and their characteristics at a given stage of its development. This method was also used by scientists in antiquity to create normative and descriptive grammars (5th century BC, Panini's grammar, a description of the morphology of Sanskrit), and modern linguists (descriptive, that is, descriptive linguistics, which arose in the USA in the 20th century to describe structures of the languages ​​of the American Indian tribes - B. Block, J. Trager, Z. Harris, etc.). The descriptive method allows you to accumulate a large amount of factual material, which is then classified and interpreted. The main technique of this method is observation with the allocation of language units and their reduction into classes. The observation technique is complemented by others, in particular, the description technique. The content of this technique is the repetitive actions of writing the results of observation of the facts of a language - fixing the observed signs of linguistic phenomena, the conditions in which these signs appear, the dependences of one sign on another, their identities and differences, etc. In the 20th century, the descriptive method was deepened and improved through the introduction of a linguistic experiment into the practice of linguistic research. This is a particular linguistic method within the descriptive one. It consists in the fact that a certain element is removed from the composition of a structure, or an element is inserted, or a structure is transformed, or a given element is replaced by another element. This makes it possible to observe semantic differences, etc., to reveal the hidden nature of phenomena.

The taxonomic (structural) method emerged in the 20th century. In linguistics in the 20th century, a new direction appeared - structuralism with the concept of the systemic integrity of the language. This concept required the location of the facts of the language in the same time plane, abstraction from their historical development, so the descriptive method was taken as the basis. But the method of structural linguistics differs from the traditional descriptive method (in the presence of a common feature - timelessness) in that it describes the language system, which is derived from the linguistic material by complex inferences. The descriptive method deals with actually observed linguistic phenomena. The content of the taxonomic method is “comparison of similar (similar) phenomena in the same or in different languages ​​as the basis for the classification of linguistic facts and the languages ​​themselves” (Akhmanova O.S., “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms”). Therefore, the taxonomic method is also called the classification method. Private methods within the framework of the taxonomic method: distributional analysis, analysis by NS (direct components), transformational analysis, component analysis.

The comparative historical method is a system of research techniques used in the study of related languages ​​to restore the picture of the historical past of these languages ​​in order to reveal the patterns of their development, starting from the base language (protolanguage). Unlike the descriptive method, which analyzes the language at a certain time slice (that is, from a synchronous point of view), the comparative historical method is a method of diachronic (historical) description of related languages. Comparison of the state of languages ​​in different periods helps to recreate their history, including the most ancient periods, and restore the parent language. When studying related languages ​​using the comparative historical method, scientists select the elements of the language that are the most stable: in the field of morphology - a system of declension and conjugation, which, as a rule, are not borrowed; elements of the sound system; in the field of vocabulary, this is the most stable vocabulary fund, which is present in all languages ​​without exception. But in general, lexical facts must be handled with care, since words easily pass from one language to another. The language units selected for analysis must be identical in origin (they may not coincide materially and semantically, for example, the sounds [g] and [g] regularly correspond to each other, in particular, in the root morphemes of different Indo-European languages: Russian iron - lit. gelezis, Russian yellow - lit. geltas, etc.). To establish the genetic identity of language units, data from related languages ​​and dialectology are used. In addition, the comparative historical method involves the reconstruction of the most ancient forms (protoforms): gold ← zolto, etc., as well as the chronologization of language processes (the establishment of absolute and relative chronology). Private methods within the framework of the comparative historical method: external reconstruction (that is, involving the facts of related languages) and relative chronology.

The comparative (comparative-comparative, typological) method aims to characterize the phenomena of comparable related or unrelated languages, establishing the common and different in similar phenomena. The comparative historical method is aimed at studying related languages, while the comparative one studies both related and unrelated languages, and two languages ​​are more often compared, while the comparative historical method requires taking into account all related languages. The comparative method differs from the descriptive method in that it is built on a comparison of facts. different languages. Comparative study makes it possible to detect the structural features of different languages, to establish the type of structure according to certain features: phonetic, morphological, syntactic, therefore it is also called typological. The application of this method led to the emergence of a special branch in linguistics - linguistic typology. The typological study of languages ​​has led to the creation of typological classifications. The most common typological classification is morphological; there are syntactic and other classifications. Linguistic typology also reveals linguistic universals.

Private Methods

Particular methods are used within the framework of general linguistic methods and complement them in one way or another. Let's take a closer look at the following private methods:

distributional analysis;

component analysis;

analysis by direct components (HC);

transformation method.

The method of distributive analysis (DA) aims to classify linguistic units of one level or another according to their syntagmatic properties, in particular, according to their distribution relative to each other in the speech stream. It turns out in what environment a linguistic unit can be. The totality of all possible environments of a given unit constitutes its distribution (from Latin distributio - “distribution”). The principles of DA were originally developed and applied in the American school of descriptive linguistics. Phonetic (phonological) elements lend themselves most easily to such an analysis, since their number in the language is small and strictly limited. For example, analyzing the compatibility of deaf and voiced consonants, we see that the deaf are combined with the deaf, voiced - with voiced: quarrel, stop, sing; landless, hut, here. But: in, in '- voiced, but combined with the deaf: yours, kvass, light, etc.

YES to morpheme elements:

Tel-chik (-shik) -ets -un

Learn + - - -

To love + - - -

Appreciate + - - -

Fly - + - (+)

Thus, the following distribution classes can be distinguished: write, read; teach, love, appreciate, etc.

YES in syntax: as a result of symbolic notation, many specific statements of the text are reduced to a set of typical pattern patterns (formulas). For example, for verbal sentences:

With them. Ch. - The child is sleeping.

With them. Ch. From wine - The postman delivers letters.

S. im. Ch. Inf. - My brother loves to sing

etc. The technique of substitution (substitution) is used: the verb loves can act not only as part of an utterance with a distributive formula C im. Ch. Inf., but also as part of a statement with the formula With them. Ch. From wine: Brother loves singing.

YES in vocabulary (YES of semantics) consists in the fact that the semantics of a word is studied in the course of observing its use in the text, in its connection with other words. For example: the object of study is a group of modern English words “common names of persons”: baby “baby”, boy “boy”, child “child”, children “children”, chap “small”, citizen “citizen”, enemy “enemy” , fellow "guy", friend "friend", girl "girl", gentlemen "gentleman", lad "guy", lady "lady", man "man", mate "comrade" people "people", person "person , person", stranger "stranger", women "woman", youth "young man". This group is a high-frequency zone of the lexical system of the language, which is expressed in the variety of compatibility of the analyzed words. The material was selected from the works of art by English authors of the 20th century (all phrases: to play with the child, etc., about 65 thousand units). High indicators of the frequency of combination with words that have the value of a person's qualifications, with verbs of feeling, verbs of speech, verbs of movement. For example, pairs of words woman - girl, woman - boy, man - woman, girl - boy, etc.

The semantics of words can also be studied using the method of component analysis. This analysis is based on the recognition that the meaning of each word is decomposable into its constituent components. Such an analysis can be carried out on the material of one language, as well as on the material of different languages ​​(with their comparative study). For example, according to A. Kroeber, a representative of the American school of ethnolinguistics, the semantic content of kinship terms in various languages can be described by all possible combinations of the main features:

generation sign;

gender sign;

a sign of the sex of the person of reference ("ego");

the sex of a person who can be simultaneously a relative of the "ego" and another person;

consanguinity (as opposed to legal kinship;

a sign of linearity of kinship;

age within one generation;

life or death of a relative.

With the help of component analysis, it is possible to describe the meanings of many words quite clearly and clearly. The word uncle, for example, denotes a male relative who is the brother or husband of the sister of one of the parents. But (this is the limitation of the method of component analysis, as well as other methods), according to the dictionary, uncle is generally “an adult man” (in common parlance) or, even more broadly, “in an address to someone.”

The syntax of a language can also be studied using the method by direct components (NC). It was developed within the framework of American descriptive linguistics.

NS is one, two or more components from which one or another structure is directly formed. Syntactic analysis consists mainly of identifying successive layers of NNs, of describing the relationships that exist between NNs, and those relationships that cannot be reduced to relations between NNs. Analysis of the National Assembly can also be written in symbols: adjective - A, noun - N, verb - V, any group of components - P.

The little boy threw a rubber ball.

The method of analysis by NS is used in research practice even now, but its possibilities are quite limited. Its disadvantages are: 1) it is impossible to fix obvious differences in the syntactic structure of sentences; 2) non-distinguishing between active and passive structures; 3) cumbersomeness, etc. Therefore, within the same descriptive linguistics, they began to develop a new method of parsing, which was called the transformation method. This method itself is considered a continuation of distributive procedures at the syntactic level and is associated with the names of American linguists Z. Harris and N. Chomsky.

The entire syntactic system of the language is divided into subsystems, one of which is considered the original, nuclear, the rest are derivatives. At the same time, the nuclear subsystem is characterized as a set of elementary types of sentences: any somewhat complex syntactic type is a transform of one or more nuclear types. The nuclear sentence is also included in the class of simple sentence transforms. Nuclear sentence - with a verb in the indicative mood, present tense, active voice, affirmative form, not containing modal and emphatic words. For example:

nuclear proposal

(1) The professor is examining a patient.

(2) Does the professor examine the patient?

(3) The professor does not examine the patient.

(4) The patient is examined by the professor.

(5) The professor will examine the patient.

(6) The patient will be examined by a professor.

(7) Who will examine the patient?

(8) Who examined the patient?

(9) Who examines the patient?

(10) Examination of a patient by a professor.

(11) A professor examining a patient.

(12) Patient examined by professor

All transforms of this sentence form its paradigm, and phrases are also included in it.

The method of transformational analysis is also applicable to phrases: writer's invitation → writer invited

→ the writer was invited

Thus, the task of the transformational method is to reduce the various sentences and their types to a minimum (to identify the main types of sentences, their meanings).

Bibliography

Literature

1. Reader according to the methodology of the Russian language. Russian language as a subject of teaching / Comp. A.V.Tekuchev. - M., 1982.

2. Lvov M.R. Dictionary-reference book on the methodology of the Russian language. - M., 1997.

3. Fundamentals of the methodology of the Russian language in grades 4-8: A guide for teachers / Ed. A.V.Tekucheva, M.M.Razumovskaya, T.A.Ladyzhenskaya. - 2nd ed. - M., 1983.