The current state of rhetoric. Fundamentals of rhetoric: techniques, invention, speech genres, disposition Theoretical foundations of rhetoric

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Introduction

Modern rhetoric, accumulating all the achievements of psychology, text linguistics, sociolinguistics, logic, speech culture, is the science of expedient, effective and harmonizing speech. Currently, the study of rhetoric, as the science of persuasive speech, is becoming mandatory in the system of training professionals in various fields of activity. Which is not surprising: the features of many professional tasks include the ability to convince, the ability to speak well, to use the richness and flexibility of both the native language in general and professional vocabulary in particular. People of "rhetorical" professions - legal, economic, pedagogical, etc. should not only be able to speak correctly, they should be masters of the word.

The complex goal of studying a discipline aimed at educating, educating and developing the personality of a future economist or lawyer in the process of mastering the skills of effective speech behavior in various communication situations is the formation and development of the communicative competence of a specialist - a participant in professional communication in Russian in the field of law, economics, science . As the tasks of the discipline, we consider the following: the formation of business professional communication skills in the field of economics and jurisprudence; formation of the ability to make the best choice language tools necessary to build the text in accordance with the communicative situation and the purpose of communication; formation general idea about professional communications of an economist and a lawyer and about speech as a tool for effective professional communication.

Rhetoric teaches how to communicate, express and develop thoughts logically and expressively, use words, how to use speech activity in personal life and social activities, how to speak to an audience. The study of the discipline "Rhetoric" helps not only to form a conscious attitude to the selection and use of language means in speech practice in accordance with speech tasks, but also contributes to the development of professional significant qualities. The structure of the discipline "Rhetoric" provides for the work of students under the guidance of a teacher and independent work. The material of the discipline is studied during lectures and practical classes.

1. Rhetoric as a special discipline

1.1. History of the origin and development of rhetoric

The word "rhetoric" comes from the Greek rheo - "I speak, pour, flow." The derivative of it rhetor meant "rhetor, orator". This word gave the name to the science of "rhetoric", that is, the skill (art) of oratory. (Note that in the 19th century there were two spellings of the word - “rhetoric” and “rhetoric”. Today, the norm “rhetoric” is adopted). Rhetoric is one of the most ancient philological sciences. It developed in the 4th century BC. e. in Greece. The main content of rhetoric already at that time was the theory of argumentation in public speech.

Science in antiquity was divided into three areas: physics, knowledge about nature; ethics - knowledge about social institutions; logic - knowledge about the word as an instrument of thinking and activity. Education was based on the logical sciences, or organon (method). The organon included the trivium and quadrivium, the seven liberal arts. The trivium included grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric. Grammar is the science of general rules constructing meaningful speech. Poetics, as the science of artistic word- a kind of "language laboratory". Dialectics is the science of methods for discussing and solving problems and the technique of scientific proof. Rhetoric is the science of argumentation in public speech, which is necessary when discussing practical issues. B quadrivium, which completed general education, included mathematical sciences: arithmetic and music, geometry and astronomy.

Thus, in antiquity there was a circle of knowledge obligatory for a cultural free person, including seven free arts, consisting of a natural science quadrium and a humanitarian trivium. That presupposed knowledge of music, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, grammar, dialectics and rhetoric by an educated person. The rest of the knowledge, sciences were considered private and obligatory only for specialists. The origin of rhetoric was declared divine - the legend told how Jupiter, observing the imperfection and rudeness of people, ordered Mercury to give people the art of persuasive speech - rhetoric. Therefore, it is with rhetoric that human civilization begins. We can see the idea of the divine origins of rhetoric in the Christian tradition. Remember "In the beginning was the Word..."?

The most ancient understanding of rhetoric, as the art of persuasion, is associated with the names of Gorgias, Socrates, Plato. The great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC) defined rhetoric as "the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject." The task of rhetoric, according to Aristotle, was to make the moral principles on which social life should be based become more convincing than selfish and material-practical considerations.

As one of the main educational sciences, rhetoric was borrowed by the Romans, adapted to the needs of Roman society and improved as subject in the writings of the philologist Mark Terentius Varron (116-27 BC); orator and statesman Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC); but in particular the first professor of Roman rhetoric, the creator of pedagogical theory, Marcus Fabius Quintilian (35-100 AD). The outstanding rhetorician Quintilian defined rhetoric as "the art of speaking well", emphasizing the importance of the beauty and correctness of the speech of the rhetor...

After the works of Quintilian, and later the Byzantine and Roman scholars Hermogenes of Tarsus (160–225), Affonios of Antioch (4th century), Libanius (314–393), bl. Augustine (354-430), Priscian (VI century) and others, rhetoric developed as a stable system of scientific concepts and at the same time was understood as "the art of decorating speech." The peculiarity of Byzantine and Western European medieval rhetoric is that its main subject is preaching and theological controversy. Medieval rhetoric dealt mainly with homiletics rather than oratorio. Oratorical speech is delivered once. A sermon is a series of teachings in the form of a word or conversation intended for a constant circle of people. The task of homiletics is spiritual and moral education, upbringing and education. Homiletics exists both orally and in writing (catechism is an official confessional document of a denomination, a catechumenical instruction, a book containing the main provisions of the dogma, often presented in the form of questions and answers), which significantly changes the organization and content of speech.

In modern times, an understanding of rhetoric comes as “the art of applying reason to imagination to awaken the will” (F. Bacon), that is, the most important task of the rhetor was seen as inducing the addressee of the speech to action. Accordingly, in the 17th-19th centuries, rhetoric began to be understood as the science of argumentation mainly in written speech: the social significance of oratory at that time was declining, and the importance of written literature - theology, religious and political journalism, philosophy, historical prose, document - was increasing. As a result, private rhetoric is gradually developing, in which the rules for creating specific types of works are formulated - judicial speeches, sermons, letters, business papers, historical, philosophical, scientific essays, etc.

The earliest domestic rhetoric that has come down to us dates back to the beginning of the 17th century. It is assumed that its author is Metropolitan Macarius of Novgorod and Velikolutsk (d. 1663). It is based on a translation of a textbook by the German humanist Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), which was written in Latin and published in Frankfurt in 1557. Melanchthon - Professor Greek and theology, one of the closest associates of Martin Luther (1483–1546). Melanchthon's rhetoric, along with his writings on theology and logic, was one of the most important ideological sources of Protestantism, as it was an instrument of controversy with the Roman Catholics.

The "rhetoric" of Macarius was copied and studied throughout the 17th century. In 1699, a new "Rhetoric" appeared, its authorship is attributed to Mikhail Usachev. At the beginning of the 18th century, a new rhetorical work was created by Feofan Prokopovich, the largest public and church figure of the era of Peter I, who supported his reforms. It is a recording of a lecture course given by the author in Latin in 1706-1707 at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy.

The next important stage in the development of Russian rhetoric was the grammatical and rhetorical works of M.V. Lomonosov (1711–1765). In 1739, the "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry" was published, in 1748 - "A Brief Guide to Eloquence", in 1757 - "Russian Grammar", around 1758 the "Foreword on the Usefulness of Church Books" was written. Obviously, M.V. Lomonosov was also going to write logic, which would be the end of new system trivium. The main feature of the philological works of M.V. Lomonosov is that he consciously and purposefully created the norm of Russian literary language, focusing it on the speech of science, business prose, historical writings, academic and political oratorio, sermons. His philological works had a significant impact on Russian literature.

B early XIX century, Russian rhetoric is experiencing an era of prosperity. Among the manuals on rhetoric, a special place is occupied by the textbooks of Nikolai Fedorovich Koshansky (1784–1831), a classical philologist, translator, teacher of literature at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. "General Rhetoric" (1829) and "Private Rhetoric" (1832). The scientist gives a definition: “Rhetoric, having a thought as an object, shows: 1. where they are drawn from (Invention); 2. how they are put in order (location); 3. as stated (Expression of thoughts)”. Guidelines N.F. Koshansky were focused on classical examples of belles-lettres and gave the skills of understanding classical works and independent literary creativity.

Textbooks of literature by N.F. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakov, A.I. Galich, I.I. Davydov and other authors formed several generations of talented and educated Russian people, to whom we owe the flowering of national culture in the 19th century. In the first half of the 19th century, a number of literary critics, led by Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky, unleashed a propaganda campaign against rhetoric. In the view of the society of that time, fiction and literary criticism were the only kind verbal creativity. As a result, in the second half of the 19th century, rhetoric was excluded from the education system, and its place was taken by the obligatory study of works of art and the opinions of literary critics on various issues of public life.

In the second half of the nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. the works of outstanding masters of academic and legal eloquence F.N. Plevako, P.F. Lesgraft, F.I. Buslaeva, M.P. Pogodin and others. At that time, works on the theory of eloquence by P.S. Porokhovshchikov, A.F. Koni, M.V. Popov. Already in the Soviet period in the 1920s, S.I. Povarnina, A.V. Mirtova, V.G. Hoffmann. The brilliant rhetorical practice of that era is associated with the names of prominent speakers N.I. Bukharin, A.V. Lunacharsky, L.D. Trotsky and others. Unfortunately, after that, the degradation of rhetoric began both in the field of theory and in the field of practice. Political or legal eloquence is not in demand in a totalitarian state, in which there is no competitive litigation and there is a single political party. Only at the philological faculties was rhetoric studied, but in a highly distorted, truncated form (for example, as part of courses in lecturing or speech culture). Rhetoric was understood as a negative phenomenon, eloquence was equated with rhetoric. Perhaps even today, for some, rhetoric is a synonym for idle talk, the ability to manipulate people with the help of beautiful words. Let us recall the words of the French scientist A. Pelisse, who taught that rhetoric is like a beautiful woman who can be both a goddess and a courtesan. It is in our power to leave her a goddess. The art of rhetoric can also be used for unseemly purposes, but many great deeds begin with a word spoken on time and to the point. The ability to convince, negotiate, manage people is necessary for a modern specialist.

The events of the second half of the 20th century sharply confronted science and philosophy with the problem of manipulating consciousness in the mass media. One of the responses to this challenge was neo-rhetoric or argumentation theory after the Second World War. Today, Internet communication has been added to propaganda and the media. Totalitarian consciousness is not a specific property of Soviet Bolshevism or German National Socialism, but a general pattern of the entire modern democratic and humanistic civilization, which is ideologically controlled by mass communication. Understanding the technical cuisine of the mass media gives a person the possibility of at least relative independence from the totalitarian propaganda of building communism or the “universal values” of a democratic “open society”. Modern rhetoric is not just a technical discipline that teaches the ability to build persuasive statements, but a tool for self-defense against a totalitarian consciousness. Our time uses the same methods of thought and methods of substantiating ideas, the same technique of misleading as two thousand years ago, although the forms and style are changing and the tools of verbal influence are being improved.

Each era gives its own idea of rhetoric, its goals and objectives. Above, we indicated this on the example of antiquity, the Middle Ages, the New Age. Today, the generally accepted traditional is the definition of rhetoric as the science of the methods of persuasion, the speech impact on a person, the science of the expedient word. The subject of rhetoric is not limited to oratory, it combines monologic and dialogic genres. The subject and tasks of rhetoric can also be determined based on its literary or logical understanding. New ideas about the discipline are reflected in a number of modern definitions of rhetoric. In line with the logical direction, rhetoric is the science of methods of persuasion, various forms of predominantly linguistic influence on the audience, taking into account the characteristics of the latter and in order to obtain the desired effect (A. K. Avelichev); the science of the conditions and forms of effective communication (S. I. Gindin); persuasive communication (J. Koppershmidt); science of speech actions. In line with the literary direction, it is a philological discipline that studies the ways of constructing artistic and expressive speech, primarily prose and oral; close contact with poetics and stylistics (V. N. Toporov).

With free will and reason, we are responsible for our actions, which we must first consider and discuss in order to foresee the spiritual and physical consequences. We live and act in society, making decisions through consultation. We consult about what is possible, about which there are different opinions, and we convince each other by means of arguments that are expressed in words. To persuade means to justify the proposed ideas in such a way that those participating in the discussion agree with the arguments and join them.

The science of rhetoric studies those verbal techniques and forms of persuasion that allow you to reasonably evaluate the argument and make your own decision. Argumentation is contained in both scientific and philosophical, and even in works of art. Most often, oratory, sermon, journalism, and mass information fall into the category of rhetorical. Rhetoric studies any works of the word that contain argumentation. Rhetoric seeks to answer the question: how to create an utterance in a certain way given conditions? Rhetoric summarizes the experience of the art of argumentation and reflects the real norms of the culture of the word that have developed historically.

General rhetoric contains: the doctrine of the rhetor; the doctrine of argumentation (that is, the relationship of arguments to the audience to which they are addressed and which decides on their acceptability); the doctrine of rhetorical construction, that is, the creation of a word work. The rhetorical construction is the doctrine of the "inner word" or "inner utterance". The statement is considered in rhetoric at the following levels: general design (semantics), verbal construction (syntactics), verbal embodiment (pragmatics - the relationship of the word as means of expression to the recipient of the speech). This is manifested in the classical division of general rhetoric into: invention (invention), arrangement (disposition) and expression (elocution). AT scientific literature there is another division of general rhetoric, which, according to some researchers, contains the following sections:

1. rhetorical canon;

2. public speaking (oratorio);

3. dispute management;

4. conducting a conversation;

5. rhetoric of everyday communication;

6. ethno-rhetoric.

The rhetorical canon is a system of special signs and rules that answer the following questions: what to say? in what order? how (what words)? The rhetorical canon traces the path from thought to word, describing three stages: the invention of content, the arrangement of inventions in the right order, and verbal expression.

Oratorio, or theory and practice of public speech.

The theory and art of arguing - teaches you to behave with dignity in a dispute, to be able to direct it so that it becomes a work to achieve the truth.

Conversation is the study of the reasons why people do not understand each other, the success factors, strategies and tactics of conversation.

The rhetoric of everyday communication (sometimes referred to as private rhetoric) provides knowledge about the speech behavior of people in their everyday, everyday, "home" life. It gives answers to the questions: how do friendships, friendships, family relationships arise and die? What role do the features of speech behavior play in their formation and development?

Ethno-rhetoric studies national and cultural differences in people's speech behavior. Rhetorical knowledge will help to avoid situations of misunderstanding between people of different nationalities both in the field of business communication and in areas related to spiritual values. Why do Americans believe that Russian business people do not state their position clearly and definitely when negotiating, why do the Japanese see Russians as being too categorical in their judgments, etc.

Private rhetoric contains the doctrine of specific genera and types of literature:

1. letters on dormitory and literary subjects;

2. documents and business correspondence;

3. dialogues, mostly literary, but giving an idea of the rules for constructing and conducting a discussion;

4. narrative (historical) prose;

5. oral word in the form of political, legal, economic, academic oratorics, preaching (spiritual), pedagogical and propaganda speech;

6. scientific and philosophical prose.

In other words: private rhetoricians study special areas, which they call areas of "increased speech responsibility", in which a person's responsibility for his speech behavior, for the ability or inability to master the word is extremely high. These are jurisprudence, administrative and organizational activities (in including in the field of economics), diplomacy, medicine, pedagogy, The study of rhetoric implies a perfect knowledge of the Russian literary language (a form of argumentation) and systematic education - knowledge of history, philosophy, law, fiction(the content of the argument). To learn how to build written and oral public speech, it is necessary: to understand how the argumentation works, to know the theory; read and understand classical works, develop the ability to understand the structure of the work and the intention of its author; exercise in building various kinds of oral and written statements, learn the skills of independent creative work with the word; speak and write in public.

So, modern rhetoric is the theory and skill of effective (expedient, influencing, harmonizing) speech. At the same time, in order for speech to be effective, modern rhetoric puts forward the formula: thought + feeling + word.

Absolutely no need to argue the value of rhetorical skills in human life, the gift of absolute conviction is the gift of supreme power over people, power over their minds and hearts. The ability to convince is the way to fulfill all desires. Can this art be learned? Let us recall the words of Mark Tullius Cicero, a brilliant orator, ancient Roman politician and philosopher: "Poets are born - they become speakers." Of course, for someone oratory available more, for someone less, but the result in any case depends on perseverance and effort. The first speech of Demosthenes was met with ridicule and insults, the frail and tongue-tied orator, it seemed, did not deserve another. However, his perseverance, fortitude and energy led to the fact that Demosthenes became the greatest political orator, went down in ancient history as a person who, in any case, was able to persuade fellow citizens to his side by persuasion.

Poets are born, speakers become.

Mark Tullius Cicero

Modern business interaction is closely connected with public speech. The ability to speak clearly, beautifully and convincingly from ancient times was considered a sign of every educated person. The great Roman orator Mark Tullius Cicero believed that "an orator is one who will state any question with knowledge of the matter, harmoniously and gracefully, with dignity in execution." Of course, not every one of us who speaks in the presence of the public (and the orator literally means "speaking" - lat. orare-"to speak"), may be called a speaker, but it is considered to be a speaker by right. Therefore, everyone before whom the need arises to speak publicly needs to work on preparing and delivering his own speech. This is taught by a special science - rhetoric.

One of the first definitions of the concept of "rhetoric" that has come down to us belongs to Aristotle. In his treatise "Rhetoric" he defined that "rhetoric is the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject." It was precisely this view of rhetoric as the science of the effectiveness of speech impact on the audience that other Greek rhetoricians and teachers of rhetoric adhered to: Isocrates, Plato, Demosthenes, Hesiod, Gorgias Leontynsky, and others. M. later adhered to a similar understanding. T. Cicero.

Rhetoric as a science studies the laws and rules of speech behavior in different genres and conditions of communication.

Rhetoric as an art involves the skill of public speaking, the improvement of speech abilities, and how academic discipline it helps to learn how to express your thoughts intelligently and effectively and thus influence the audience. The education of a person who thinks, speaks and writes, which is the ultimate goal of any educational system. It is rhetoric that is designed to form students' ability to think logically, to master all kinds and types of written and oral literature and all forms of reasoned speech as a means of effective speech impact on fellow citizens.

Preparing and delivering a speech requires the exertion of all the intellectual powers of the speaker. What needs to be done to make the performance successful? How to make actions more rational? What is the sequence of these actions?

The ancient rhetoricians thought about this. They studied the way of turning thoughts into words, described it and prescribed the rules of passage. Since this path was developed in the ancient period, which is considered classical for the development of rhetoric, it has been called the classical rhetorical canon. Canon is a model, rule, position of some direction, teaching.

This sample shows that a speaker needs to go through five stages to achieve a goal.

Stage I - invention (lat. invention- invention) - the invention of the content of speech. At this stage, the speaker creates overall plan future speech, thinks about the subject he is going to talk about, singles out the most important thing in the topic, selects and systematizes materials, chooses methods of evidence.

Stage II - disposition (lat. dispositio- location) - the location of the invented in the proper order. At this stage, the speaker thinks about the order of thoughts in the speech, draws up a plan, thinks about how to start and end the speech.

Stage III - elocution (lat. elocutio- verbal expression) - speech design of the text. The stage at which the speaker expresses own thoughts in specific words and sentences, takes care not only of the correctness, clarity, appropriateness of the use of language units, but also decorates speech using figures and paths.

Stage IV - memorio (lat. memorio- memorization) - memorizing speech and preparing it for pronunciation. At this stage, the speaker prepares the text for pronunciation, selects auxiliary techniques, memorizes the text and rehearses.

Stage V - accio (lat. action pronunciation - pronunciation of a speech. At the last stage, the speaker comes into contact with the audience, applies all the prepared techniques, plays out a speech using facial expressions, gestures, body movements, establishes and maintains contact with the audience.

The classical rhetorical canon is the path that the speaker must go through in order to prepare and deliver a speech. Its passage can be compared to climbing stairs.

The classical rhetorical canon is a tool left to us by ancient orators. The development of speech based on the canon helps to make the process of working on a speech rational and productive.

Rhetoric aims to influence people. The expressiveness of speech is the most important communicative quality that ensures at the rhetorical level the achievement of the influence of the statement, its effectiveness. Figurative and expressive means, sometimes called "colors of eloquence", are considered in rhetoric from the point of view of persuasive impact on listeners. If the speaker managed to create a vivid picture, then this means that the information associated with it will be fixed in the minds of the listeners; this does not yet mean convincing, but it does mean creating fertile ground for persuasion.

Among the means of expressiveness of speech, tropes and figures are distinguished. Trope- an ego word or expression used in a figurative sense. These meanings are always invented by the speaker, always original and unusual, as they deviate from the usual use of words in speech. Distinguish the transfer of meaning by similarity, adjacency of signs or by quantitative characteristics.

figures- these are special ways of organizing statements, deviation from the standard in the arrangement of words and expressions; repetitions, omissions, permutation of words. To understand the difference between them, one must keep in mind that the tropes always refer to one word that is not used in its direct meaning, and the figures are an unusual use of a group of words.

The most important place among the trails is occupied metaphor- transfer of the name from one reality to another based on the similarity of features. This is one of the most effective rhetorical means, designed for a long-term impact, it allows you to create a capacious image based on bright, often unexpected, bold associations. Metaphor is common in all genres of speech, designed to influence the emotions and imagination of listeners. The metaphor is based on analogies: 1) with the struggle - strike, win a battle, put to flight;, 2) game - make a move, win a game, stake, save trump cards; 3) sports - pull the rope, put on both shoulder blades; 4) hunting - to lead into a trap, lead on a false trail etc. The metaphor is typical for political speech (for example: "We cannot participate in this kind of clowning" (about presidential elections)).

A kind of metaphor is personification - endowing inanimate objects with the signs and properties of a person: "I whistle, and obediently, timidly, bloodied villainy will creep in to me, and will lick my hand ..." (A. Pushkin).

Epithet- a figurative definition, which is usually expressed by a word in a figurative sense - an adjective, an adverb, a noun-application (for example: golden autumn, tear-stained windows, emerald eyes, a tramp-wind).

Comparison - comparison of two concepts, in which their similarity is found on some basis. Traditionally, comparison is formed with the help of comparative unions (as, as if, exactly, as if, as if, as ... and): "The heavens are falling to the ground, like a curtain fringe ..." (B. Pasternak).

Hyperbola is based on the exaggeration of the properties, qualities, characteristics, dimensions of an object in order to create an expressive image (for example: "Inflation reaches cosmic proportions").

Paraphrase(paraphrase) - a modified name of an object, phenomenon or person, replacing them with a description essential features or an indication of their characteristic features (for example: king of beasts(instead of "lion"), Themis(instead of "jurisprudence"), temple of Melpomene(instead of "theater")). Paraphrases make speech more vivid, memorable, give the statement an additional expressive tone.

Oxymoron - a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that are opposite to each other, logically excluding one another: ordinary miracle, hateful love, gray-haired youth.

Ellipsis - omission of elements of the statement, easily restored in this context or situation: "Instead of bread - a stone, instead of teaching - a mallet."

Antithesis- opposition of concepts, thoughts, images, which serves to enhance expressiveness (for example: "The supply of these goods is increasing, but the demand for them is falling").

Gradation - the arrangement of words in the order of increase or decrease in their semantic and emotional meaning: "I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry ..." (S. Yesenin); "Days, months, years passed, but everything remained the same." In gradations, 3-4 words are usually used to avoid reducing the effect.

Anaphora- an oratorical technique consisting in the repetition at the beginning of phrases of the same sounds, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures. There is not just a repetition of words, but an increase in their expressiveness.

Parallelism - the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech (for example: "I was ready to love the whole world - no one understood me: and I learned to hate ... I spoke the truth - they did not believe me: I began to deceive ..." (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is noticeably enhanced, revealing an exceptional effect on the interlocutor.

Rhetorical question- a statement in the form of a question that does not require an answer, often expressing some kind of feeling: indignation, joy, surprise, etc. (for example: "Who is not affected by novelty?"; "To live - or drag out a miserable existence?"; "Will there be any sense in reforms?"). A rhetorical question is sometimes advisable to complete the reasoning, enumeration of facts, arguments.

One of the most important and popular figures of speech is period. This is a structurally organized rhythmic utterance, consisting of two proportionate parts - ascending and descending. Due to the lightness and elegance of the form, the ease of perception of the content contained in it, the period became widespread in journalistic speech and in oratory.

Aleksandrov D. N. Rhetoric: textbook. allowance for universities. M.: Flinta; Nauka, 2002, p. 15.
ancient rhetoric. M., 1978. S. 12.

1 Subject and tasks of rhetoric is the science of the theory, skill and laws of the art of eloquence. The ratio of rhetoric and philosophy - without philosophical reflection it is impossible to solve any issue, any problem, any task. Solving a problem in a global, philosophical way means giving it a universal meaning, raising it to a higher moral and spiritual level, and increasing the value of speech. The relationship between rhetoric and logic - logic is the science of laws right thinking. The logical chain of narrative and evidence must be impeccably accurate so that people believe you unconditionally. For the listener to believe you, you need the exact sequence and impeccability of the evidence. The connection of ethics and aesthetics with rhetoric - Ethics is the science of the laws of morality and morality of society. Aesthetics is the science of the laws of beauty. The use of psychology methods in rhetoric is a science that studies the laws of human mental activity. It is necessary to know and study the laws of the psyche, the laws of human mental behavior, everything that is connected with the nervous activity of a person, his state of mind.

2 Homiletics as a branch of rhetoric- church theology, eloquence, which inherited the basic principles of ancient science. The foundations of ancient Russian eloquence were folk traditions. There are texts that testify to the high culture of oral speech “The Golden Word of Svyatoslav” (The Tale of Igor’s Campaign), “Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh” (Teaching to His Children), etc. Old Russian works before the Mongol invasion testify that ancient Russian eloquence was characterized by: to the book word, wise speech, verbal skill.

3 Why do we need a target setting in speech- it facilitates the perception of speech. The speaker must clearly understand why, for what purpose he is making a speech, what kind of reaction the listeners are trying to achieve. If the speaker does not think about the purpose of the speech, he will not succeed in preparing and delivering it. What is meant in rhetoric by the composition of speech - it means the construction of a speech, the ratio of its individual parts and the relationship of each part to the entire speech as a whole.

Basic rules and techniques of composition - 1. Intersecting storylines; they are in contact: for example, the lines of the Bolkonsky, Rostov, Bezukhov families

2. Temporary transfer of the scene; the narrative does not begin at the beginning, but with the outcome of the hero’s life, for example, “Mtsyri”

3. Framing the text with documents (notes, correspondence)

4. Techniques of poetic creativity

5. A story within a story

The main ways of preparing a speech - 1. Writing a text.2. Speech based on text. 3. Speech without notes. 4. Speech impromptu.

4 What refers to the concept of "Culture of speech"- it is understood as a set of such qualities that have the best impact on the addressee, taking into account the specific situation and in accordance with the task. These include: 1. Richness (variety) of speech; 2. Her purity.3. expressiveness. 4. Clarity and understandability. 5. Accuracy and correctness.

5 Purpose and features of entertainment speeches- it does not contain any other purpose than that contained in itself. It itself should entertain and amuse the listener. It has a joke and a serious thought, truth and fiction. It is imbued with the unity of a coherent narrative, or consists of anecdotes. There is a lot of personal humor in it, irony, mocking seriousness, caricature of exaggeration.

The purpose of informational speech - it awakens curiosity and gives a new idea about the subject. It can be a narrative, a description, an explanation. Informational speech must meet the following requirements:

1. There should be nothing controversial in it;

2. It should cause inquisitiveness;

3. It must satisfy the needs of the listener

4. The message must be relevant.

Features of persuasive speech - it proves or refutes any position with logical arguments. In these speeches, by his favorite methods - logical or otherwise - the speaker convinces him to agree with him on a controversial issue. Such speech seeks to define a way of thinking and behavior, but it does not call for immediate action. What is a call to action or campaign speech - it makes the listener feel the need to do what the speaker asks. You can call for a new action, for the continuation or termination of the former. A call to action can be direct or indirect.

6 Division of oral-colloquial styles- they are divided into: literary and colloquial - this is the speech of educated people in educational institutions, in business production communication, in cultural institutions; colloquial and everyday - this is speech at home, on vacation., on the street; here there are not strict turns of speech and words that go beyond the boundaries of the norm of the literary language; oratory - a strict version of oral-public speech: at conferences, meetings, lectures, reports, messages, etc.; this style is within the literary norm.

7 Oratorship and the concept of oratorical ethics- assessment by listeners of the linguistic rhetorical skill of the speaker or interlocutor, which manifested itself in the speech. His errors in stress, orthoepy, choice of words, formation of case forms, etc. annoy the listener; the primitive level of speech is disappointing. On the other hand, skill, wit, appropriate allusion, bright artistic image cause respect for the speaker and therefore for his speech. If the purpose of the speech is to convince the listeners, then the result of this conviction is the main criterion for the skill of the speaker. Ethics is the doctrine of morality, a system of norms of moral behavior. Etiquette is an established, socially accepted order of conduct, reflected in speech forms. Etiquette is ethical only when it reflects the spiritual richness of the individual.

8 Language used by a person in everyday communication, is not only a historically established form of culture that unites human society, but also a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of the language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules for its use. The words human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main characters in the language. Other units of the language are also signs. A sign is a substitute for an object for the purposes of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke in the mind of the interlocutor the image of an object or concept. The sign has the following properties: the sign must be material, accessible to perception; the sign is directed to the meaning; the content of the sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of the thing is exhausted by its material properties; the content and form of the sign are determined by distinctive features; a sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system. The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements of the culture of speech. Firstly, the speaker (writer) must take care that the signs of his speech (sounding words or signs of writing) are convenient for perception: they are quite clearly audible, visible. Secondly, it is necessary that speech signs express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech. Thirdly, it must be borne in mind that the interlocutor may be less aware of the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which, only in the opinion of the speaker, is already contained in the spoken words. Fourthly, it is important to ensure that the sounds of oral speech and the letters of the letter are quite clearly distinguished from each other. Fifth, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, keep in mind the associative links of words.

9 The question, is a certain language variety (idioms) a language or dialect, refers to one of the difficult problems linguistics, and the consequences of such a decision can go far beyond its limits. If a strict choice in the designation of a particular variety of language is better to avoid, linguists usually use the term idiom (or "intermediate" designation "language/dialect"). There is no single understanding of the problem of "language or dialect" and, accordingly, common criteria for its solution. Therefore, arguing that a certain idiom is precisely a language or a dialect, it is necessary to specify on the basis of what criteria this conclusion is made. This means that the question "are two (closely related) idioms dialects or different languages?”, as a rule, you cannot answer simply “yes” or “no” without specifying what is meant. Among the criteria that can guide the solution of the problem, two main groups can be distinguished - sociolinguistic and structural. The following wording options are possible: language/idiom A is a dialect of language B (Moldovan as a dialect of Romanian, Malay as a dialect of Indonesian, Urdu as a dialect of Hindi, Balkan-Gagauz as a dialect of Gagauz, Galician as a dialect of Portuguese); language/idiom B is a dialect of language A (Indonesian as a dialect of Malay); languages/idioms A and B, without being related as dialects/variants of each other, are dialects/variants of the single language C (Moldovan and Romanian, Malay and Indonesian, Urdu and Hindi, Balkan-Gagauz and Gagauz, Galician and Portuguese, Tajik, Farsi and donate).

10 The term koine(Greek ????? " mutual language") was originally applied only to the common Greek language, which developed in the 4th-3rd centuries BC and served as the unified language of the business, scientific and fiction literature of Greece until the 2nd-3rd centuries AD. In modern sociolinguistics, Koine is understood as such a means of everyday communication that connects people who speak different regional or social variants of a given language.The role of Koine can be supra-dialect forms of the language - a kind of interdialects that combine the features of different territorial dialects - or one of the languages functioning in a given area. Koine is especially relevant when describing the linguistic life of large cities, in which masses of people with different speech skills mix. Intergroup communication in the city requires the development of a means of communication that would be understandable to everyone. This is how urban Koine appear, serving the needs of everyday, mainly oral, communication different groups urban population. In addition to the urban Koine, the Koine of the area is distinguished, that is, a certain territory in which it is distributed given language(or languages). Thus, in the multilingual Republic of Mali (Africa), the Bamana language, which has a supra-dialectal form, is used as Koine [Vinogradov 1990]. The concept of Koine is sometimes applied to written forms of the language, such as Latin, which was used as the language of science in medieval Europe.

11 The founder of the approach to personnel management based on competencies can be considered McClelland (McClelland, 1973). Psychologist McClelland has worked at Harvard University since the late 1960s. He laid the foundation for the definition of competencies as some of the factors affecting the effectiveness professional activity. In 1973, he wrote an article published in the American Psychologist titled: "Testing Competence, Not Intelligence." The essence of the methodology proposed by McClelland was to compare the most successful employees with the less successful ones in order to determine the performance factors. The task was to understand exactly what psychological and behavioral characteristics are the reasons for success in this professional activity. However, the competence-based approach gained wide popularity with the publication of Boyatzis (Boyatzis, 1982) The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective Performance. So, the classic definition: competence - (from the Latin competo - I achieve; I correspond, I approach). It has several meanings: 1) the scope of powers granted by law, charter or other act to a specific body or official; 2) Knowledge, experience in a particular area. For our understanding, the following definition is important: competence is the personal ability of a specialist to solve a certain class of professional tasks. We will also understand the formally described requirements for personal, professional and other qualities of the head of the sales department as competence. A set of competencies; the presence of knowledge and experience necessary for effective activity in a given subject area is called competence.

Competencies can be divided into:

* corporate competencies - necessary for all employees of the company,

* managerial competencies - necessary for company leaders (all or only a certain level),

* special (specific) competencies that are necessary only for a certain category of employees (for example: sales managers). In order to determine which competencies are important for a particular position, it is necessary:

* firstly, understanding the company's strategy;

* secondly, knowledge of the specifics of this position;

* thirdly, the so-called competence dictionary, from which you can choose those competencies that are directly related to the professional activity in question.

12 The subject of business negotiations(what is agreed upon) become, as a rule, elements of professional activity, problems of mutual interest, relationships with partners, etc. In the negotiation process, speech actions are implemented, which can be reinforced or accompanied by non-verbal ones (gestures, facial expressions, looks, movements, etc.). Any business contacts are related to the achievement of goals, the solution of specific tasks, i.e. with the implementation of the communicative setting of communication. Participants in business communication, having a real status (professional, social, cultural), in the negotiation process play roles determined by the nature of the communicative situation. As a rule, the negotiation process involves relations in the subject-subject system. Each of the participants in the negotiations is guided by their intentions, motives, goals. Successful Completion negotiations is, first of all, the development of a joint decision, joint plans for further actions, since the most common goal of partners in the negotiation process is the exchange of views and information, followed by the establishment of new ties and relationships or the confirmation of old ones. AT special occasions the goal of negotiations is to resolve the conflict. Motives, goals, role settings, negotiation conditions dictate a set of etiquette and speech formulas, specific speech and language means of formalizing the subject content of the conversation. Without special communication skills and abilities, i.e. skills and communication skills, even an excellent specialist in his field will not be able to support business conversation, hold a business meeting, take part in a discussion, defend your point of view. This means that a business person, apart from professional competence(knowledge and skills in setting tasks and performing technological actions in a certain area) must master communicative competence, i.e. knowledge of the psychological, subject (content) and language components necessary for understanding the negotiating partner and (or) generating one's own program of behavior, including independent speech works. The implementation of communicative competence is associated with the parameters of typical communicative situations that structure any sphere of communication: domestic, educational, industrial, etc. Situations related to the commercial negotiation process will be discussed below.

13 The concept of language proficiency until recently, was not recognized by linguists as a term, it was used intuitively, without any attempts to formalize it or even explication. It somehow went without saying that one can speak of language proficiency if a given individual is able to understand statements in a given language and build texts (oral and written) on it. Yu.D. Apresyan, who was one of the first in Soviet linguistics to clearly formulate the above task, made an attempt to “divide” the concept of “language proficiency” into components. In his opinion, to speak a language means (a) to be able to express a given meaning in different (ideally, in all possible ways in a given language) ways (the ability to paraphrase), (b) to be able to extract meaning from what was said in a given language, in particular, to distinguish statements that are outwardly similar, but different in meaning (distinguishing homonymy) and find a common meaning in outwardly different statements (possession of synonymy), (c) be able to distinguish linguistically correct sentences from incorrect ones 1 . Meanwhile, much remains unclear in the problematics, which must unconditionally be attributed, if not to proper-linguistic, then to socio- or psycholinguistic. One of these problems is the ratio of linguistic and non-linguistic in a skill that is commonly called “language proficiency”. Qualifying this skill as a communicative, or sociolinguistic, competence and listing the factors essential for the process speech communication(as is done in the works cited above), we only admit that this skill is complex and its purely linguistic interpretation is insufficient for an adequate description of real linguistic life. But is language proficiency a kind of amorphous skill, or can certain components or levels be identified in it that are in certain relationships with each other? We tend to answer yes to the second part of the question: there are several levels of language proficiency depending on what kind of information about the language and its use is meant.

14 Lexical norms of speech- these are the rules for the use of words in speech, i.e. the accuracy of the choice of the word in accordance with the meaning of the statement and the appropriateness of its use in the public sense and generally accepted combinations. When determining lexical norms, the following linguistic factors should be taken into account: 1. The presence of lexical categories in the language: word polysemy, homonymy, paronymy, synonymy, antonymy. The consequence of a careless attitude to polysemantic words is the inaccuracy of the expression of thought, as well as the unlawful, excessive expansion of the meanings of known words. Homonymy should be distinguished from ambiguity, which, if used incorrectly, can lead to ambiguity and ambiguity of the statement. Incorrect use of paronyms leads to a violation of the meaning of speech. Synonyms are conceptual (close, not quite identical in meaning) and stylistic (identical in meaning, but having a different stylistic coloring). The presence of synonyms ensures the expressiveness of speech and at the same time obliges all speakers and writers to be attentive to the choice of a word from a number of close, similar ones. Antonyms are used as a technique to create contrasting images, to sharply contrast signs, phenomena, etc. Therefore, the correct use of them in speech is of great importance.

15 Language norms(norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for using language tools in certain period development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). The following types of norms are distinguished in the literary language:) norms of written and oral forms of speech; norms of written speech; oral language norms. The norms common to oral and written speech include: lexical norms; grammatical norms; stylistic norms. Special norms of written speech are: spelling norms; punctuation rules. Only to oral speech are applicable: pronunciation norms; stress norms; intonation rules. Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or context-inappropriate inflectional form (the analyzed image, the reigning order, the victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. In these phrases, a morphological error was made - the gender of nouns was incorrectly formed. Syntactic rules prescribe correct construction basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include the rules of word agreement and syntactic control, correlating parts of a sentence with each other using grammatical forms of words in order for the sentence to be a competent and meaningful statement. Violation syntactic norms is present in the following examples: when reading it, a question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Having married his brother, none of the children were born alive.

16 Rhetoric is subdivided general, specific, thematic. She studies ethos, pathos, logos. Explores one type of speech in combination with the style of this type of speech (private literature). Thematic rhetoric explores the rules for combining types of literature around one topic (for America). In addition, there is a division of rhetoric into theoretical and applied. Theoretical - in a deductive way explores the laws of speech, which are then verified by the facts of history and rhetorical practice. Practical - explores the rule of the use of speech, which is tested in practice and due to cases of successful or unsuccessful speech. Laws of rhetoric. Ex 1. If the dialogue is conducted in one form of literature, and the topic is discussed by a large number of people and for a long time, then speech devastation (entropy) occurs. Etc. 2. If the dialogue is conducted in different types of literature, and the topic varies, then there is an enrichment of the content. Ex 3. Layers of meaning in metologich. statements have a certain order - the image of the author, the general content of speech, the figurative content of speech, the emotional content of speech, the logical content, the compositional content, then stylistically it is impossible to build a speech with a different content structure.

The rule of homilectics: a full understanding of the text is possible only when the speech is conducted from the image of the author, or vice versa.

Rule of rhetoric - individual use of the laws of rhetoric, depending on the goal of the speaker

Dialectics - when the main goal of speech is the search for truth (Socrates)

Eristics is the assertion of one's position in society, regardless of the truth.

Sophistry - the goal of speech is the assertion of one's position or an advantageous, convenient point of view, which does not contain truth, but with the application of the rules of dialectics.

Oratorio Rhetorical analysis and rhetorical sketch of speech Rhetorical canon and modern eloquence. Stages of the classical rhetorical canon. "Common place" (Top - as a semantic verb). Topeka. The semantic scheme of speech. How ideas are propagated. The classic pattern of speech is reasoning (hriya). The structure of a strict hriya. Features of the structure of hriya and its use. Rhetorical analysis - allows you to understand how the finished speech is arranged, that is, to trace the path from thought to word. For this, such a concept as a rhetorical canon is used. Stages of the classical rhetorical canon Invention - invention (to find something to say). Disposition - the location of the invention. Elocution is the verbal formulation of thought. Memorio - remembering. Actio hypocrisis - utterance (performance) of speech. Invention involves understanding speech, dividing it into a number of subtopics. That is, at the first stage (invention), all wealth, the presence of ideas, is recorded. For this, there are so-called "common places" (tops - semantic models of speech development). Top - a system of concepts that suggests ways of thinking about any speech. Disposition involves the regrouping of ideas and their construction in the order in which they would fulfill the main task of speech. Invention - the search for ideas, content, meaning of future speech. According to Lomonosov, ideas are divided into simple and complex in structure. In order to develop the idea semantic model "tops" "common places": genus, species, part, whole, definition, similarities, differences, cause, effect, comparison. The totality of "common places" - a topic - reflects the general laws of thinking or semantic model, according to which any rhetor or speaker creates a speech. Topeka allows you to develop any idea without stress.

17 Conducting business conversations. It should be noted that in last years However paradoxical it may sound, not a single new fundamental principle of conducting business conversations has been discovered, although significant progress has been made in the development of techniques and tactics for conducting them. From experience in this area, we will highlight five basic principles that are universal and can be applied in any situation. The first principle is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. If you can't do it, if your partner doesn't listen to you, why would you say anything at all? (Beginning of a conversation). The second principle is to arouse interest in your interlocutor. When a partner shows a desire for a conversation, because he is sure that your suggestions will be useful to him, this means that he will be happy to listen to you (Transmission of information). The third principle is the principle of detailed justification. On the basis of the interest aroused, it is necessary to convince the partner that he will act reasonably, agreeing with your ideas and proposals, since their implementation will benefit him and his enterprise (Argumentation). The fourth principle is to identify the interests and eliminate the doubts of your partner. If the partner behaves cautiously and does not see the possibility of applying your ideas and proposals in his enterprise, although he understands their expediency, you must find out and distinguish between his desires (neutralization, refutation of comments). The fifth principle - the main one - is to transform the partner's interests into the final decision (Decision Making). Along with these five principles, here are a few tips to keep in mind for business conversations. Their universal nature is based on such a simple fact that in any conversation you must skillfully adapt to your partner in this moment, regardless of the business or personal relationship involved.

18 An example of changing stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialect and vernacular words, for example, bully, whiner, background, pandemonium, hype. As Professor Yu.A. Belchikov, "the Russian literary language is characterized by intensive interaction with vernacular (constant replenishment of mainly vocabulary and phraseology, expressive, synonymous means) ... A well-known part of borrowings from the colloquial language is organically included in the lexical and phraseological composition of literary speech, in its stylistic structure, becoming the property of not only colloquial, but also bookish speech "(Belchikov Yu.A. Stylistics and culture of speech. M .: Izd-vo URAO, 2000. P. 104-105). Each new generation relies on already existing texts, stable turns of speech, ways of thinking. From the language of these texts, it selects the most suitable words and turns of speech, takes from what was worked out by previous generations what is relevant for itself, introducing its own in order to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations refuse what seems archaic, not consonant with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitudes towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new perspectives of comprehension (Belchikov Yu.A. Decree. soch., p. 106). In every historical epoch, the norm is complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions. Wrote about this back in 1909 V.I. Chernyshev: "In the language of any particular era for its contemporaries, there is a lot of obscurity: forming, but not formed, dying out, but not extinct, re-entering, but not established" (Chernyshev V.I. Purity and correctness of Russian speech // Selected works. T 1. M.: 1970. P. 41).

19 Focused Controversy , - when the arguing all the time have in mind a controversial thesis, and everything they say or what they cite as evidence serves to refute or defend this thesis. In a word, the dispute revolves around one center, one focus, without departing from it to the sides. A formless dispute has no such focus. It began because of some one thesis. During the exchange of objections, they seized on some argument or private thought and began to argue about it, forgetting about the first thesis. Then they moved on to the third thought, to the fourth, nowhere completing the dispute, but turning it into a series of separate fights. Towards the end of the argument, they ask: “Why did we actually start the argument,” and they can’t always remember it. Such a dispute can be called shapeless. This is the lowest of these types of dispute. A simple and complex dispute. You can argue together, one on one. It will be a simple, single dispute. But often the dispute is between several persons, each of whom enters into a dispute either from the side of the defense of the thesis, or from the side of the attack (complex dispute). An argument with many participants can "get better" by itself - especially an oral argument - only in those cases when all participants in it have good mental discipline, the ability to grasp the essence of what is being said, and an understanding of the essence of the problem of the dispute. In other cases, a dispute manager is needed - a "chairman of the meeting", etc. Disputes with listeners and without listeners. Sometimes this difference has a huge, decisive influence not only on the nature of the dispute, but also on its outcome. The presence of listeners, even if they do not express their approval or disapproval in any other way, even if they are completely silent, usually affects the disputants. Especially for people who are proud, impressionable, nervous. Victory in front of listeners is more flattering to vanity, defeat becomes more annoying and unpleasant. Hence the greater persistence in opinions, the greater ardor among others, the greater propensity to resort to various subterfuges and tricks, and so on. Oral and written dispute. In an oral dispute, especially if it is conducted in front of listeners, "external" and psychological conditions often play a very important role. Here, for example, suggestion is of great importance: an impressive manner of holding and speaking, self-confidence, aplomb, etc. A timid, shy person, especially not accustomed to arguing in front of numerous outsiders, will always lose in comparison with a self-confident or even sometimes arrogant person (under other conditions, of course, approximately similar). Then a huge advantage in oral dispute gets the speed of thinking. Whoever thinks more quickly, "doesn't climb into his pocket for a word", is resourceful, with the same mind and stock of knowledge, he will always defeat the enemy in an oral dispute. The ability to speak aptly and witty, etc., also has a great advantage in oral disputes with listeners. All these external advantages are either completely destroyed in a written dispute, or smoothed out, and the internal logical side of the dispute can come to the fore more.

20 Argument(lat. argumentum from the verb arguo - I show, I find out, I prove - an argument, proof, conclusion) we will call a fragment of a statement containing a rationale for a thought, the acceptability of which seems doubtful. A rhetorical argument consists of: (1) position and (2) justification. Consider an example: (1) "But is it really possible to find truth? - One must think that it is possible if the mind cannot live without it, but it seems to live, and, of course, does not want to admit that it is deprived of life" . Justification - a set of arguments, formulations of thoughts, through which the rhetor seeks to make the situation acceptable to the audience: ... if the mind cannot live without truth, but it seems to live, and, of course, does not want to recognize itself as deprived of life. The position of the argument is the formulation of a thought that is put forward by a rhetorician, but presented to a dubious audience: But can one really find the truth? - One must think that it is possible. From the point of view of structure and content, a rhetorical argument includes three components: scheme, top, reduction. The schema is the logical form of that particular argument. The construction of the scheme is subject to the rules of logic, and the scheme is a kind of logical backbone of the argument, which allows not only to judge the structure of a complex thought, but also to determine its correctness. Common place or top - a position that is recognized as true or correct and on the basis of which a particular justification seems convincing. The top is contained or implied in the premises of the argument. The first top of the above argument: the mind lives by the truth. This position is not proved and does not follow from anywhere, but it seems obvious to the audience to which St. Philaret is addressing. Argumentation can be dogmatic and dialectical. Dogmatic reasoning proceeds from provisions that are accepted as postulates and are considered self-evident and universal; these are the basic principles of scientific theory. Dialectical argumentation comes from premises that are convincing to the audience and are drawn from a variety of sources. Dialectical argumentation is fundamentally designed for a private audience.

21 The concept of "classification" is most often used simultaneously both in the meaning of the process and in the meaning of the result, i.e. is understood as a grouping and as a schema obtained as a result of it. To distinguish between the classification process and its result, it is proposed to use two terms: "classification" and "classification". Classification of documents is the process of ordering or classifying documents into classes in order to reflect the relationship between them and to compile a classification scheme. Classification is one of the methods of knowledge. Without it, it is impossible to study the variety of existing types of documents, systematize them, and establish differences between the types of documents distinguished by various characteristics. A correctly compiled complex classification reflects the patterns of development of documents, reveals the links between them, helps to navigate in any of their multitude, and serves as the basis for their ordering in document systems. It is important for the theory of document management and practical document and communication activities. To classify documents means to carry out a multi-stage, hierarchical and dichotomous division of them into genera, species, subspecies, varieties. A genus (class) is a set (set) of documents that have a certain common feature that distinguishes this set from other objects. As a classification division, various features can be taken, depending on the purpose of the classification. If we want to divide documents according to form, this will be one classification, if according to their content, another, and so on. The class is always based on the most important feature of the document that meets the purpose of the classification. A class that includes others will be a genus in relation to them, and the classes included in it, in relation to it, will be species. The same class can be a genus in relation to a lower class and a species in relation to a higher one. Thus, the class "cinema-photo-phonodocuments" is a species in relation to the class "documents" and a genus in relation to the class "film-documents", "photo-documents" and "phono-documents". The genus (class) is the first level of division, which is revealed with the help of document division divisions. View is the second level of division. In this case, the generic concept of "document" is divided into specific concepts, i.e. on types of documents. Each link of the species classification can be called a type of document according to one or another attribute (by the nature of sign means, intended for human perception, method of documentation, material carrier, etc.). The third level of division is subspecies. It is followed by variety, and so on, until the final place of a particular document (individual) in this classification is determined. Hierarchy is the arrangement of documents in order from highest to lowest.

Accordingly, the hierarchical arrangement of documents is as follows: document --> publication --> non-periodical publication --> book. Dichotomy is the sequential division of documents of one class into two opposite types, subspecies, varieties, etc.

1 Subject and tasks of rhetoric is the science of the theory, skill and laws of the art of eloquence. The ratio of rhetoric and philosophy - without philosophical reflection it is impossible to solve any issue, any problem, any task. Solving a problem in a global, philosophical way means giving it a universal meaning, raising it to a higher moral and spiritual level, and increasing the value of speech. The ratio of rhetoric and logic - logic is the science of the laws of correct thinking. The logical chain of narrative and evidence must be impeccably accurate so that people believe you unconditionally. For the listener to believe you, you need the exact sequence and impeccability of the evidence. The connection of ethics and aesthetics with rhetoric - Ethics is the science of the laws of morality and morality of society. Aesthetics is the science of the laws of beauty. The use of psychology methods in rhetoric is a science that studies the laws of human mental activity. It is necessary to know and study the laws of the psyche, the laws of human mental behavior, everything that is connected with the nervous activity of a person, his state of mind.

Basic rules and techniques of composition - 1. Intersecting storylines; they are in contact: for example, the lines of the Bolkonsky, Rostov, Bezukhov families

2. Temporary transfer of the scene; the narrative does not begin at the beginning, but with the outcome of the hero’s life, for example, “Mtsyri”

3. Framing the text with documents (notes, correspondence)

4. Techniques of poetic creativity

5. A story within a story

The main ways of preparing a speech - 1. Writing a text.2. Speech based on text. 3. Speech without notes. 4. Speech impromptu.

The purpose of informational speech is to awaken curiosity and give a new idea about the subject. It can be a narrative, a description, an explanation. Informational speech must meet the following requirements:

1. There should be nothing controversial in it;

2. It should cause inquisitiveness;

3. It must satisfy the needs of the listener

4. The message must be relevant.

7 Oratorship and the concept of oratorical ethics- assessment by the audience of the linguistic rhetorical skill of the speaker or interlocutor, which manifested itself in the speech. His errors in stress, orthoepy, choice of words, formation of case forms, etc. annoy the listener; the primitive level of speech is disappointing. On the other hand, mastery, wit, appropriate allusion, vivid artistic image evoke respect for the speaker and, consequently, for his speech. If the purpose of the speech is to convince the listeners, then the result of this conviction is the main criterion for the skill of the speaker. Ethics is the doctrine of morality, a system of norms of moral behavior. Etiquette is an established, socially accepted order of conduct, reflected in speech forms. Etiquette is ethical only when it reflects the spiritual richness of the individual.

8 Language used by a person in everyday communication, is not only a historically established form of culture that unites human society, but also a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of the language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules for its use. The words of the human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main characters in the language. Other units of the language are also signs. A sign is a substitute for an object for the purposes of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke in the mind of the interlocutor the image of an object or concept. The sign has the following properties: the sign must be material, accessible to perception; the sign is directed to the meaning; the content of the sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of the thing is exhausted by its material properties; the content and form of the sign are determined by distinctive features; a sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system. The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements of the culture of speech. Firstly, the speaker (writer) must take care that the signs of his speech (sounding words or signs of writing) are convenient for perception: they are quite clearly audible, visible. Secondly, it is necessary that speech signs express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech. Thirdly, it must be borne in mind that the interlocutor may be less aware of the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which, only in the opinion of the speaker, is already contained in the spoken words. Fourthly, it is important to ensure that the sounds of oral speech and the letters of the letter are quite clearly distinguished from each other. Fifth, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, keep in mind the associative links of words.

9 The question, is a certain linguistic variety (idiom) a language or a dialect, refers to one of the complex problems of linguistics, and the consequences of such a decision can go far beyond its limits. If a strict choice in the designation of a particular variety of language is better to avoid, linguists usually use the term idiom (or "intermediate" designation "language/dialect"). There is no single understanding of the problem of "language or dialect" and, accordingly, common criteria for its solution. Therefore, arguing that a certain idiom is precisely a language or a dialect, it is necessary to specify on the basis of what criteria this conclusion is made. This means that the question "Are two (closely related) idioms dialects or different languages?" cannot usually be answered with a simple "yes" or "no" without specifying what is meant. Among the criteria that can guide the solution of the problem, two main groups can be distinguished - sociolinguistic and structural. The following wording options are possible: language/idiom A is a dialect of language B (Moldovan as a dialect of Romanian, Malay as a dialect of Indonesian, Urdu as a dialect of Hindi, Balkan-Gagauz as a dialect of Gagauz, Galician as a dialect of Portuguese); language/idiom B is a dialect of language A (Indonesian as a dialect of Malay); languages/idioms A and B, without being related as dialects/variants of each other, are dialects/variants of the single language C (Moldovan and Romanian, Malay and Indonesian, Urdu and Hindi, Balkan-Gagauz and Gagauz, Galician and Portuguese, Tajik, Farsi and donate).

10 The term koine(Greek κοινη "common language") was originally applied only to the common Greek language, which developed in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. and served as the unified language of business, scientific and fiction literature in Greece until the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e. In modern sociolinguistics, Koine is understood as a means of everyday communication that connects people who speak different regional or social variants of a given language. The role of Koine can be played by supra-dialectal forms of the language - a kind of inter-dialects that combine the features of different territorial dialects - or one of the languages functioning in a given area. The concept of Koine is especially relevant when describing the language life of large cities, in which masses of people with different speech skills mix. Intergroup communication in the city requires the development of such a means of communication that would be understandable to everyone. This is how urban koine appeared, serving the needs of everyday, mainly oral, communication of different groups of the urban population. In addition to the urban Koine, the Koine of the area, i.e., a certain territory in which a given language (or languages) is spoken, is distinguished. Thus, in the multilingual Republic of Mali (Africa), the Bamana language, which has a supra-dialectal form, is used as Koine [Vinogradov 1990]. The concept of Koine is sometimes applied to written forms of the language, such as Latin, which was used as the language of science in medieval Europe.

Fundamentals of rhetoric (about the personality of the speaker, types of speech, laws of modern rhetoric, methods of attracting attention, stages of working on speech in classical rhetoric)

Fundamentals of Eristics

7.1. Fundamentals of rhetoric

The most important thing that most students gain from public speaking exercises is increased self-confidence, increased confidence in their ability to do something. And what could be more important than this for achieving success in almost any business?

D. Carnegie

Rhetoric is the theory and art of eloquence, persuasive verbal communication.

Rhetoric arose in antiquity, and at the same time its two directions were identified: logical and literary.

For logical rhetoric the main thing is the persuasiveness of speech, its effectiveness, i.e. achievement of truth, goodness, justice. The most prominent representative of the logical direction was Aristotle (384-322 BC). The founder of logic perfectly understood its limits and noted that logic is suitable for educated people, but powerless before the crowd. Therefore, he developed the foundations of logical rhetoric. “... if we have even the most accurate knowledge, it is still not easy to convince some people by speaking on the basis of this knowledge, because [to evaluate] speech based on knowledge is a matter of education, but here [in front of the crowd] it is impossible. Here we must certainly conduct evidence and reasoning in a public way ... regarding the appeal to the crowd.

The main thing for literary rhetoric- artistry, embellishment of speech, compliance with the canons of aesthetics; persuasiveness remains an important feature of speech, but fades into the background. The most prominent representative of literary rhetoric is the opponent of Aristotle, a student of Gorgias and other sophists - Isocrates (436-338 BC).

During the Hellenistic and Middle Ages, rhetoric as a whole began to be identified with literary rhetoric. In the 18th century, during the Enlightenment, when the position of reason and logic became strong, rhetoric became associated with idle talk and dogma, and interest in it was lost. Only in the last 30-40 years has a logically oriented neorhetoric.

About the personality of the speaker

Rhetorical skill is closely related to the general culture of a person, his erudition, worldview and psychotype. Erudition is the basis for rich material for the content of speech. Erudite people are distinguished by a constant desire for new knowledge, to expand the scope of their interests.

In relation to the worldview, four types of speaker can be distinguished:

1) sophistical;

2) dialectical (Socratic);

3) dogmatic;

4) immature.

1) Sophists[see paragraph 1.9] believed that there are no objective truths, “man is the measure of all things”, and the main task of the speaker is to convince the audience that it is beneficial and interesting to him no matter what ways. Therefore, the speech of the sophists: a) manipulative and monologue, the addressee for them is a passive object of influence, and not an active subject; b) agonal(from Greek. agon- struggle, competition), i.e. aimed not at truth, but at the victory of one and the defeat of the other.

2) The word " dialectical» here means a focus on dialogue for a joint approach to the truth. Socrates, the main opponent of the sophists, believed that objective truths exist, and the main task of the orator is not victory and not a struggle, but the awakening of thought, a joint approach to the truth through dialogical communication with the addressee. Socrates often began his dialogues: “I know that I don’t know anything ... and yet I want to think and search with you.” Therefore, Socratic speech: a) dialogical, she is looking for an interlocutor in the listener; b) harmonizing, i.e. it is aimed at uniting the efforts of the participants in the conversation for the sake of achieving truth, a common goal, and agreement.

3) dogmatists, unlike Socrates, they firmly know what truth is and how to translate it into reality. Dogmatism, as shown by the founder of critical rationalism K. Popper, follows from the classical rationalism of R. Descartes. The ideal of classical rationalism was the construction of an unshakable objective scientific picture of the world. The dogmatic idea of the inviolability and objectivity of knowledge has always been the basis for totalitarian speech. The dogmatic type of orator is embodied by Stalin and Hitler. Dogmatists express themselves simply and vividly, which is why quite often they lead crowds of people who renounce their own thinking and feeling. Dogmatists rely on their charisma, short-sightedness of the audience, instilling fear, aggressive feelings, violence. Dogmatic speech: a) monologue; b) intolerant of dissent.

4) Immature type of speaker are people who are personally immature, speaking to the public because they were told to speak, or in order to stand out in some way, but they do not quite satisfactorily know what they are talking about. Naturally, many of the students may feel like immature speakers. Such students can be advised to believe in themselves, work on themselves, improve their intellectual, personal level. As N. Zabolotsky called:

Don't let your soul be lazy!

So as not to crush water in a mortar,

The soul must work

And day and night, and day and night!

And speaking more specifically, novice speakers should: firstly, select topics that would be of interest to themselves and the audience; secondly, prepare well for the performance.

The goal of any speech is to convince the hearers, and this goal is achieved if the listeners trust the speaker. Therefore, of all four types of orators, the second type is the most reasonable, humane and democratic. The Socratic understanding of oratory was adhered to by Plutarch, Aristotle and Cicero. Plutarch said: “one single word, one nod of a person who inspires confidence in himself weighs more than other lengthy arguments.” Aristotle believed that the main goal of rhetoric is to achieve happiness, goodness, truth, justice, etc. Aristotle in the Rhetoric wrote: “There are three reasons that arouse confidence in the speaker, because there are just so many things that we believe in without evidence - this is reason, virtue and goodwill. If, therefore, the listeners think that the speaker has all these qualities, they will certainly feel confidence in him. Cicero urged orators to fight for the happiness of the people. The Socratic type of speaker in the long run inspires people more confidence than the sophistical and dogmatic. This is evidenced by the fact that philosophers trust Socrates more than sophists.

It is legitimate to divide speakers according to psychological types of personality.

In accordance with psychotypes according to K.G. Jung, speakers are divided into extroverts and introverts.

extroverts(directed outward) - directed to the outside world, sociable, impulsive, optimistic, quickly reacting to external irritations, quickly, but, unfortunately, often superficially thinking.

introverts(directed inward) - in-depth, calm, shy, slow but deep thinking, rarely showing their emotions.

Extrovert speakers can write something right off the bat. Introverts need time to collect their thoughts. With equal public speaking skills, extroverts are more confident as speakers than introverts.

S.F. Ivanova divided orators into four types.

Rational-intuitive type. It includes sanguine people - people who are mentally and physically active, quickly reacting to ongoing events, with an analytical mindset, with pronounced facial expressions and movements); they think over a detailed plan of performance, but they are also concerned about the brightness, emotionality, and figurativeness of the performance. They easily start new business, but do not always bring them to the end.

emotional-intuitive type. It includes choleric people. These people speak passionately and enthusiastically, but they often lack logical coherence in their speech.

philosophical type. Most often they are mentally stable, with a measured pace of speech and a weak emotional expression of phlegmatic. They are researchers who are willing and able to engage the audience in reflection.

Lyrical, artistic-figurative type. Most often, these are melancholic people with their characteristic deep emotionality, a kind of lyricism, and inner excitement.

Whatever the psychotype of the speaker, his worldview and erudition, the speaker automatically takes the status of a more authoritative person than the listeners, and rhetoric puts forward a number of general requirements for the speaker. These include: charm, confidence, artistry, friendliness, sincerity, objectivity, interest, enthusiasm, openness. The attention of listeners depends on such factors as the authority, appearance, charisma of the speaker. First of all, in this regard, one should be or at least look self-confident, positive, democratic, spiritually strong, gallant and externally and internally attractive person. It is very important to equate yourself with others and talk to them as if they are close. A positive and democratic speaker is more likely to succeed with an interlocutor than an authoritarian speaker who behaves in accordance with the speech model "I'm here to talk, you are here to listen."

Types of speech

Types of speech actions depending on the purpose of the speaker

The main purpose of public speaking is to convince the audience to accept the position of the speaker. In rhetoric, the following speech goals and corresponding types of speech are also distinguished.

speaker's purpose	Type of speech
Inform, inform without expressing controversial opinions	Informational
Express your opinion	argumentative, persuasive
Encourage to action	Agitating, inspiring
Discuss the problem and find the truth	Heuristic
Express an assessment of an event, phenomenon	evaluating
To give pleasure to yourself and your interlocutors by the very process of communication, to express and excite emotions	Hedonistic, entertaining, poetic

Each type of speech has its own specifics, should be based on its own tactics. Styles should not be confused.

Laws of modern rhetoric

The Law of Harmonizing Dialogue- effective speech influence is possible only with the dialogical interaction of participants in the speech situation.

The law of advancement and orientation of the addressee. The speaker in the introduction should show the audience the goal, the main intermediate stages in achieving the goal, and in the process of presenting the main part of the speech, show progress towards the goal.

The law of emotionality, expressiveness. Only if the speaker himself emotionally experiences what he reports, he will be able not to leave the audience indifferent. Speech becomes expressive through the use of metaphors and techniques of non-verbal (facial expressions, gestures, posture) and paraverbal communication (intonation, timbre, tempo, rhythm, voice height). Expressive speech is the basis for maintaining the attention of listeners.

The law of pleasure. Creating a game setting, riddles, paradoxes, puns, play on words, provocations.

To establish a dialogue, it is necessary to adhere to the following principles of harmonizing dialogue:

1) attention to the addressee (the topic and speech should suit the audience). To do this, you must know or at least assume about the interests of the audience and the level of its theoretical preparation (uncritically or critically thinking audience, high or low level of education). For an audience with a low level of education, simple expressions should be chosen. For an audience with a high level of education, you should find means to confirm your competence in the matter);

2) the principle of intimization (proximity of content) of speech to life and the interests of the audience;

3) concreteness, figurativeness and colloquial style of speech.

It is believed that the audience can only listen attentively for 15 minutes, after which they get tired and distracted. It is necessary to use techniques to attract attention.

Techniques for attracting attention

Appeal to the interests of the audience;

Appeal to the personality of the speaker;

Appeal to weather, climatic, geographical conditions;

Appeal to the speech of the previous speaker;

Appeal to events;

visual information,

Questions to the audience, including rhetorical questions, requests;

Statement and reminder of the purpose of the speech;

Presentation of a paradoxical situation;

The unusualness of the performance (if all the speakers are standing at the pulpit, then stand next to the pulpit or move around the stage a little).

Appeal;

Acceptance of empathy, complicity;

Change of intonation, timbre and speed of speech,

Humorous remark.

Pose. Posture says a lot about a person, his self-confidence, status. It is very important for a speaker to develop the habit of holding himself straight and relaxed. Calls should be made by submitting the body forward.

Gestures a speaker in front of the public should be above the waist, mostly above the waist, and palms pointing down. Elbows should not be pressed to the body.

facial expressions should express positive emotions. The speaker shares with the audience not only his knowledge, but also his emotions.

In ancient rhetoric, a classical scheme was established, according to which a five-part division of the rhetorical process was proposed - the path from thought to a sounding public word.