1 . The word "statistics" (from lat. status- state) in the Middle Ages meant the political state of the state. This term was introduced into science in the 18th century. German scientist Gottfried Achenwahl. Actually, as a science, statistics arose in the second half of the 17th century. although statistical accounting existed already in ancient times. Two schools stood at the origins of statistical science - the German descriptive (school of state studies) and the English school of political arithmetic.

Statistical observation is the first stage of any statistical research, representing, scientifically organizational according to a single program, accounting for the facts characterizing the phenomena and processes of social life. However, not every collection of information is a statistical observation. One can speak of statistical observation only when statistical regularities are studied, i.e. those that appear only in a mass process, in large numbers units of a collection. Statistical observation is massive and systematic.

Statistical observation- this is mass (it covers a large number of cases of manifestation of the phenomenon under study in order to obtain truthful statistical data), systematic (carried out according to a developed plan, including questions of methodology, organization of collection and control of the reliability of information), systematic (carried out systematically, either continuously or regularly), scientifically organized (to improve the reliability of the data, which depends on the observation program, the content of the questionnaires, the quality of the preparation of instructions) observation of the phenomena and processes of socio-economic life, which consists in the collection and registration of individual characteristics for each unit of the population.

Mass character statistical observation It manifests itself in the fact that during the observation it is necessary to obtain data from the maximum possible number of studied units of the population. The mass coverage of the population makes it possible to obtain the most accurate data characterizing the socio-economic phenomenon under study, to identify the existing patterns and relationships.

The regularity of the statistical observation is that. That any study is carried out according to a predetermined plan, which includes a number of issues related to preparatory work, direct collection of the necessary information and data processing.

The main purpose of statistical observation is to collect statistical information and socio-economic phenomena and processes to obtain generalizing characteristics.

3. Basic requirements for statistical observation:

completeness of statistical data;

reliability and accuracy of data;

uniformity and comparability of collected data. The reliability of statistical data is ensured by many conditions: the competence of the employee involved in systematic observation, the perfection of the tools (forms, instructions), the interest or readiness of the object, etc. reliability includes both the correspondence of the data to reality and the technical accuracy or validity of the measurement.

The completeness of statistical data is ensured by the spatial coverage of the units of the studied population. Also, completeness should be understood as the coverage of the most significant aspects of the phenomenon, since each phenomenon or set under study is quite complex and has different characteristics. When studying the dynamics of a phenomenon, completeness implies obtaining data for the longest possible periods. This is extremely important for assessing emerging trends, establishing cause-and-effect relationships, and predicting changes in an object over time.

Each phenomenon, set, studied in time or space, must be comparable. To do this, it is necessary to use uniform cost estimates, uniform territorial boundaries, i.e. strictly observe unity in methodology

4. Errors of statistical observation

Information obtained in the course of statistical observation may not correspond to reality, and the calculated values of the indicators may not correspond to the actual values.

The discrepancy between the calculated value and the actual value is called observation error.

Depending on the causes of occurrence, there are registration errors and representativeness errors. Registration errors are typical for both continuous and non-continuous observations, while representativeness errors are characteristic only for non-continuous observations. Registration errors, like representativeness errors, can be random and systematic.

Registration errors- represent the deviations between the value of the indicator obtained in the course of statistical observation and its actual value. Registration errors are random (the result of random factors - the lines are mixed up, for example) and systematic (they appear constantly).

Representativeness errors- occur when the selected population does not accurately reproduce the original population. They are characteristic of discontinuous observation and consist in the deviation of the value of the indicator of the studied part of the population from its value in the general population.

Random bugs are the result of random factors.

Systematic errors- always have the same direction to increase or decrease the indicator for each unit of observation, as a result of which the value of the indicator for the population as a whole will include the accumulated error.

Control methods:

Counting (arithmetic) - checking the correctness of the arithmetic calculation.

Logical - based on the semantic relationship between features.

5. Statistical accuracy observations- this is the degree of correspondence of the value of any indicator, determined from the materials of statistical observation, to its actual value. The discrepancy between the calculated and actual values of the studied quantities is called the observation error. Depending on the causes of occurrence, registration errors and representativeness errors are distinguished.

Accuracy of data is the main requirement of observation.

Statistical observation is the first stage of statistical research. The main task of statistical observation is to obtain reliable information to identify patterns in the development of phenomena and processes.

Statistical observation - this is a systematic, scientifically organized and, as a rule, systematic collection of data on the phenomena and processes of social life by registering pre-planned essential features in order to obtain further generalizing characteristics of these phenomena and processes

Statistical observation should be:

Massive (observation should cover a large number of cases of manifestation of the phenomenon under study)
credible(correspondence of statistical observation data to the actual situation)
Systematic (observation should be carried out systematically, either continuously or periodically)

Stages of statistical observation:

program and methodological preparation of the observation;
organizational preparation for monitoring;
collection of statistical observation data;
quality control of statistical observation data;
development of conclusions and proposals for improving statistical observation

Requirements for statistical information:

Reliability of data - compliance of primary data with the actual values of the studied quantities
Comparability of data - is ensured by the unity of the juices of observation, its program, data recording methods

The discrepancies between the established statistical observation and the actual values of the studied quantities are called observation errors.

Observation errors:

1. registration errors

a) random

b) systematic

c) deliberate

d) unintentional

2) representativeness errors

a) random

b) systematic

Registration errors:

arise due to incorrect ascertainment of facts in the process of observation, or erroneous recording of them, or both. They are random and systematic, intentional or unintentional.

a) Random mistakes called errors that are formed due to various random causes. With a sufficiently large number of observations, as a result of the operation of the law big numbers these errors more or less cancel each other out.

b) Systematic errors arise under the influence of certain constant causes acting in the same direction (in the direction of exaggerating or underestimating the magnitude of the data, which leads to serious distortions of the overall results of statistical observation).

in) Deliberate mistakes called errors, the cause of which is the deliberate distortion of data.

G) Unintentional mistakes are called errors that are random, unintentional in nature (for example, malfunctions measuring instruments)

Representativeness errors:

occur in the absence of observation. They can be random or systematic, intentional or unintentional.

a) Random errors arise due to the fact that the set of units of observation selected on the basis of the principle of randomness does not fully reproduce the set as a whole. The magnitude of this error can be estimated.

b) Systematic errors arise as a result of violation of the principle of random selection of those units of the studied population that should be subjected to observation. The size of these errors, as a rule, cannot be quantified.

Verification of the reliability, objectivity and accuracy of statistical observation data in practice can be implemented through the implementation control.

Types of control:

1. Syntactic – this is a check of the availability of the necessary details and records provided for in the instructions, the correctness of the document, as well as the completeness of the material and the coverage of all units of observation

2. Logical – is based on knowledge of the relationships between indicators in order to identify the logical compatibility of answers

3. countable - consists in checking the correctness of summing up the results contained in the observation form and various calculations (definitions of relative, average values, etc.)

Program-methodological and organizational issues of statistical observation

Statistical observation must be carried out according to a strictly defined plan, including program-methodological and organizational issues.

Statistical observation plan:

Program and methodological issues

Determination of the purpose and objectives of statistical observation;

Establishment of the object and unit of observation, reporting unit or survey unit;

Determining the time of statistical observation;

Development of a program of statistical observation and its approbation;

Development of the main and auxiliary monitoring tools;

Choice of the type, form and method of observation most appropriate to the objectives of the study

Organizational matters

Development of organizational plans for statistical observation;

Indication of monitoring bodies;

Determination of the place of observation;

Establishing the time of observation;

Implementation in some cases of trial observation;

Selection, training and placement of personnel;

Indication of the timing and procedure for receiving, handing over observation materials

When organizing statistical observation, it is necessary first of all to determine its object and unit.

Object of observation - it is a certain integral set of interconnected units of observation, limited in space and time, about which statistical information should be collected

Unit of observation - this is an integral indivisible element of the object of observation, which is the basis for accounting and the carrier of a certain range of features, the presence (or absence) of which in each unit of the studied population must be recorded in the process of statistical observation

To cognize the object and the unit of observation, it is necessary to single out their individual qualitative properties, features, features, i.e., the most important features that can be recorded and measured in the process of statistical observation. To do this, a monitoring program is being developed.

Surveillance program - it is a set of features to be observed and recorded, where each feature is logically related to the purpose and objectives of the study

In order for the observation program to become the key to conducting statistical research at a high quality level, the program and its development are required a number of requirements.

Requirements for the monitoring program:

the observation program must include the most significant features that provide information necessary to solve the main tasks of the study and which cannot be obtained otherwise than with the help of this statistical observation
each question of the program must provide an accurate and objective answer
questions in the form must be put in a certain sequence, so that for control purposes it is easy to carry out a logical comparison of the answers received to them
the monitoring program should be coordinated with the subsequent processing of statistical data
for each relatively large and complex statistical observation, instructions are needed as an integral addition to the observation program
the observation program should be developed collectively with the involvement of specialists from relevant branches of knowledge
the program should include control questions that serve the purpose of verifying and clarifying the information collected

To carry out statistical observation, a monitoring toolkit, which includes a form and instructions.

Observation Form– this is a specially marked sheet (sheets) of paper, which contains a list of program questions, free spaces for recording answers to them, as well as for recording ciphers (codes) of answers

Mandatory elements of the form:

1. title part

are indicated:

ü the name of the statistical observation;

the monitoring body;

ü who and when approved the form, sometimes the number assigned to it in common system observation forms carried out by this statistical body

2. address part

are indicated:

The exact address of the unit or set of observation units, their subordination

Statistical formulary systems:

individual (card)

blank card– designed to record in it the answers to the questions of the monitoring program about only one unit of observation

payroll

Blank list– designed to register answers to the questions of the observation program of several observation units

The statistical observation form can have various forms of expression: a form, a census form, a questionnaire, a reporting form, a questionnaire, etc.

The wording of the questions on the observation form is extremely important. Questions should be formulated as concisely, clearly and specifically as possible so that their understanding does not cause difficulties and so that there is no possibility of different interpretations of them.

Sometimes in the form after the question, some options for possible answers to it are immediately given. The list of possible answers to the question is called statistical clue. If an exhaustive list of possible answers to a question is given, the clue is called complete, if only some of the possible answers are indicated - incomplete.

However, no matter how clear the questions of the form may seem, instructions are usually given for it.

Instruction- this is a set of written instructions and explanations on program-methodological and partly on organizational issues of statistical observation.

The instruction may be presented as a separate document (often a brochure) or set out in an observation form. The instruction should be written briefly, simply, explanations and instructions should be clear and precise.

In order to successfully conduct statistical observation, its organizational plan is being developed.

organizational plan is the document in which the decision is fixed critical issues preparation and conduct of statistical observation, indicating the specific timing of the planned activities and the persons (organizations) responsible for their implementation

The organizational plan specifies:

The goals and objectives of observation pursued by statistical observation;

The object of observation (its definition, description is given, distinctive features are indicated);

Monitoring bodies that prepare and conduct monitoring and are responsible for this work;

Time and timing of observation;

Place of observation (this is the place where the registration of the observed facts should be made, where the observation forms are filled out;

Organizational form, type and method of statistical observation;

Preparatory work for observation (including training of personnel for observation);

The order of conducting the observation;

The procedure for receiving and handing over observation materials;

The procedure for obtaining and submitting preliminary and final results, etc.

When organizing statistical observation, it is necessary to resolve the issue of the place and time of this observation, including the choice of the season, the establishment of the period (period) of observation, and in some cases the so-called critical moment.

Place of observation is the place where data is recorded and statistical forms are completed.

Observation time- this is the time to which the collected data refer, characterizing the object of observation in a state that best meets the goals and objectives of the study.

Observation period– this is a calendar period of time during which the collection, verification of statistical data and their registration in statistical forms is carried out.

The observation period is determined by many factors, the most important of which are the following:

Features of the object of observation (its size, state at one time or another, etc.);

The scope and complexity of the surveillance program;

Type of observation by source of information;

Availability of personnel who can be involved in the observation, their number and degree of qualification.

The observation period, as a rule, is indicated by indicating the date (sometimes the hour) of the beginning and end of the observation.

In some observations, in particular in censuses, it is necessary to establish the critical moment of observation.

Critical moment of observation- this is the point in time as of which information about the units of observation is recorded

In practice, they usually strive to ensure that the process of registering information is not too far from the critical moment.

Organizational forms, types and methods of statistical observation

Statistical observation is classified according to various criteria: organizational forms, types and methods of its implementation.

2.1. The concept of statistical observation. Forms of observation. Types of observation according to the frequency of conducting, the degree of coverage of population units and methods of obtaining information

Statistical observation is the first stage of statistical research, which is the collection of data on socio-economic phenomena and processes organized according to a single program by registering their essential features in order to obtain primary statistical information.

There are forms of organization of statistical observation (reporting and specially organized observation); types of statistical observation by the time of registration of facts (current, periodic, one-time) and by coverage of units of observation (continuous and non-continuous observation); allocate sources for obtaining primary data (direct observation, documentary method, survey) and methods of data collection (expeditionary, self-registration, correspondent). The organization of statistical observation involves the solution of the following program and methodological issues:

concretization of the purpose and formulation of the tasks of statistical research;
drawing up an observation program and a program for developing the received statistical information;
restriction of the surveyed population (establishing its scope);
creation of a statistical basis (for sample observation of the sampling frame), determination of its unit and unit of observation;
the choice of the method of observation, for selective observation - the establishment of the optimal percentage of selection;
formation of a sample population;
collection and editing of primary information, including logical and arithmetic methods of control, based on the relationship between the related items of the questionnaire and the allowable values of statistical features provided by the respondents.

The organizational plan for statistical observation contains not only methodological, but also practical instructions for collecting and processing data. Knowing the general solution to a problem is not enough. It is necessary to take into account the qualifications of the personnel, the cost of various operations and their possible effectiveness, since in practice one must always take into account the limited budget of the survey and the timing of its implementation. The choice of the method of statistical observation is ambiguous.

The main factors to be considered in determining it are the following:

material and labor resources available to the organizer;
the composition of the statistical problems to be solved;
number of observation units;
the required accuracy of the results.

For example, methods of statistical observation in the study of entrepreneurship differ depending on the type of enterprises and the indicators observed. For small enterprises, selective methods of observation are used to a greater extent, for large and medium-sized enterprises - continuous methods; for individual enterprises operating without forming a legal entity - methods of assessment based on indirect data.

The number of observed indicators is more significant for large and medium enterprises and limited for small enterprises. For individual enterprises operating without forming a legal entity, a small number of the most important indicators are assessed. General economic indicators (values of production and sales, investments, etc.) and business activity indicators of enterprises are more suitable for sampling methods of observation, while output and sales indicators certain types production is preferably observed in continuous mode.

At present, to monitor the state of the country's economy and its individual sectors, the following system is envisaged for the formation of an information base of state statistics: once every 5-10 years, continuous surveys - economic censuses, in the intervals between which periodic sample surveys will be carried out on a wide range of problems.

State statistical observations are the collection of statistical data on socio-economic and demographic phenomena and processes in society based on state statistical methodology. The state statistical methodology includes a system of statistical indicators, methods for calculating them, reporting and statistical documentation, the procedure for collecting, processing and summarizing statistical data. State statistical observations are carried out on the basis of data from primary accounting documents or by interviewing legal entities, their representative offices and branches, citizens, including those engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity, about their activities, including the development, replication and distribution of reporting and statistical documentation required for conducting state statistical observations. State statistical observations can be federal and regional. State federal statistical observation is carried out by the federal executive body in the field of statistical activity and its territorial bodies using information received free of charge within the framework of the Federal Statistical Work Program. The federal program of statistical work includes a list of measures for conducting official statistical accounting, information about the performers and the timing of its implementation. The federal program of statistical work is annually approved by the Government of the Russian Federation and financed from the federal budget. State regional statistical observations are carried out by bodies state power subjects of the Russian Federation, local governments, as well as unitary enterprises established by the federal executive body in the field of statistical activity or its territorial bodies. Statistical information obtained during official statistical accounting is the basis for the development of state forecasts and programs for the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation.

2.2.Requirements for statistical data. The concept of observation error. Types of observation errors

In international practice, the concept of the quality of statistical data is established in terms of their adaptation to the needs of users. The components of such a definition of quality, along with comparability and reliability, are: relevance, timeliness, accessibility, interpretability. Based on practical need, reliability is usually described in terms of errors. To prevent errors of observation, their types and causes of occurrence are identified. Observation errors are divided into two types: registration errors and representativeness errors.

Mistakes registration- these are errors that are possible regardless of the type of observation, they can be random in nature and systematic (tendentious) in nature. Deliberate errors occur due to the deliberate distortion of data. Unintentional errors are usually random in nature and may be the result of low skill workers.

Mistakes representativeness inherent only in selective observation. The reason for their occurrence is that the sample population does not accurately reflect the composition of the entire studied population.

Comparability of statistical data is considered in different aspects:

comparability within one observation;
comparability of data from different observations;
comparability with data from past studies.

The reasons for the differences can be caused by organizational and methodological factors to change the data collection methodology, registration time, etc.

2.3. Tasks of statistical groupings. Grouping types. The concept of simple and multidimensional groupings. Distribution ranks

Grouping is the division of the total population into homogeneous groups of units. In accordance with the nature of the tasks to be solved, there are three types of groupings: typological; structural (variational); analytical (factorial). Typological grouping is the division of a heterogeneous population into groups of the same quality (private populations), which differ in the type of phenomena. Structural grouping is intended to study the composition of a homogeneous population according to some varying feature. Analytical grouping is a means of studying the relationship between features.

Grouping can be carried out on one or more grounds. If groups are formed on the same basis, the grouping is called simple. A grouping in which the population is divided into groups according to two or more features taken in combination is called combinational. The basis of the grouping can serve as a non-quantitative (attributive) and quantitative trait. Attributive signs express the properties of the phenomenon in the form of their name. Hence, the choice of a grouping attribute sometimes predetermines the number of groups. Thus, when grouping the population according to sex, only two groups are possible, but when studying the occupational composition of workers, several groups can be formed, taking into account different professions.

On the whole, the attributive nature of the attribute does not remove the question of the number of distinguished groups, since with an abundance of values of attributive variants, an excessive fragmentation of the phenomenon under study is created. The differentiation of groups and subgroups according to quantitative grouping characteristics, as a rule, is associated with the formation of intervals according to these characteristics. Only when a discrete attribute changes within small limits does the grouping coincide with the value of the attribute (for example, families - by the number of members, etc.). Group intervals are the quantitative values of the trait, on the basis of which the studied phenomena are divided into groups. The difference between the upper and lower limits of the interval is its value. Intervals are equal (when their value is the same in all groups) or unequal (when their value varies from one group to another).

Equal intervals are used in those cases where the change in the attribute occurs within relatively narrow boundaries and is more or less uniform. They make it possible to apply mathematical methods of analysis more widely. Unequal intervals are sometimes applied as progressively increasing or decreasing. Their use in the study of socio-economic phenomena is determined by the fact that for most of them, the quantitative change in the size of a feature is of different importance in the higher and lower groups. Thus, the difference in turnover is 10 thousand rubles. for small shops it is essential, but for large ones it is insignificant.

And, finally, grouping intervals can be closed (indicating the lower and upper boundaries) and open (indicating one of the boundaries). Open intervals apply only to extreme groups.

To achieve uniformity in the processing of statistical data, classifications are often used in statistical practice. Classification is considered as a kind of typological grouping, which is a systematized distribution of phenomena and objects into certain groups, classes, categories based on their similarities and differences. Currently, in order to group objects characterized by a large number of features, multidimensional grouping methods or multidimensional classification methods are widely used.

In essence, the principle of similarity and difference of units of the population, implemented in the typological grouping, is preserved here. Similarity is the homogeneity of units in groups, difference is their significant divergence in groups. In other words, firstly, objects that are similar to each other in some respect are combined into one class, and, secondly, the degree of similarity among themselves for objects belonging to the same class must be greater than the degree of similarity among themselves for objects, belonging to different classes. In the typological grouping, the concepts of "similarity" and "degree of similarity" are not formalized, on the contrary, in the procedures of multidimensional classification they are formalized and expressed by a number of functional relationships. In the case of multidimensional classification, when distributing units into homogeneous groups, all grouping characteristics are simultaneously used, i.e., a polythetic approach to the formation of groups is implemented. Objects are grouped into one class according to the chosen type of their similarity measures (connection coefficients, distance indicators, similarity coefficients).

The systematization of statistical observation materials can be represented in the form of distribution series. The distribution series is called the ordered differentiation (distribution) of population units into groups according to the studied varying attribute. The distribution series is a simple (i.e., based on one grouping feature) structural grouping. Depending on the type of attribute underlying the grouping, there are attributive and variation series distribution. Distribution based on descriptive features, i.e., features that do not have a numerical expression, forms an attributive series of distribution. For example, the distribution of economic entities by organizational and legal forms, by types economic activity, by form of ownership. Based on the results of the 2002 population census, distribution series were published characterizing the national composition of the population, the number of immigrants by individual countries, the number of foreign citizens who have citizenship of the main countries of the CIS and other countries. Distribution series formed by quantitative attribute, is called the variation series.

2.4. Summary tasks. The concept of a statistical indicator. Absolute indicators, their types. Relative indicators, their types

Statistical summary is a generalization (combination) of the values of the characteristics of the units of the population based on the construction of the indicators necessary for the analysis. The attribute reflects the qualitative content of the indicator. The indicator acts as a measure that characterizes in a generalized form certain properties of the object under study.

Due to the complexity of the phenomena studied by statistics, it is necessary to clearly define the functions and rules for constructing indicators, which, to a certain extent, will eliminate uncertainty when choosing the type of indicators for solving various kinds of specific problems. From these positions, it is expedient to classify indicators, which is carried out for a number of reasons. So, according to the method of generalizing the initial data, the indicators are divided into two groups: absolute values (volumetric, quantitative, extensive); relative and average values (derivative, qualitative, intensive). Absolute values are indicators that express the volumes, sizes and levels of social phenomena and processes. Relative value is an indicator that is a measure of the ratio of two compared statistical characteristics.

The comparison can be made in time, in space or with planned data; there can be a comparison of a part and a whole, separate parts of a whole among themselves. Accordingly, there are the following types relative values: relative values of dynamics, spatial comparison, plan task, plan fulfillment, structure, coordination, intensity. The relative values of the dynamics, the target and the implementation of the plan are interconnected by the following relationship: the relative value of the dynamics is equal to the product of the relative values of the target and the implementation of the plan.

In cases where the plan is given as a relative value compared to the level of the previous period, its implementation is determined from the ratio of the relative value of the dynamics to the relative value of the target.

2.5. Characteristics of the structure of the population. Generalizing indicators of structural differences

Statistical analysis of the structure includes the study of structural shifts in dynamics and the assessment of differences in the structure of two populations. The solution of these problems is carried out with the help of generalizing indicators of structural changes. The simplest and most common indicators of structural shifts include the linear coefficient of absolute structural shifts, the quadratic coefficient of absolute structural shifts, and the difference index. The calculation of these characteristics is based on the relative indicators of the structure of the population of units - shares or specific gravity. The linear coefficient of absolute structural shifts and the quadratic coefficient of absolute structural shifts show by how many points the compared specific gravity. In the absence of differences in the composition of the population, these indicators are equal to zero. There is no upper limit of change. The index of differences varies from zero to one: the closer its values are to one, the more significant are the changes in the population structure.

2.6. The concept of systems of statistical indicators

The complexity and interconnection of the phenomena studied by statistics determine not only the diversity of indicators, but also the need for their joint use in the form of objectively isolated systems. There are systems of indicators that are logically interconnected according to the goal of the study, a system of indicators that are connected by a rigidly determined relationship or a stochastic relationship, a system of indicators that have a hierarchical structure.

2.7. Presentation of statistical data: tables, graphs

The most common and effective form of presentation of statistical data are tables and graphs.

There are types of tables that contain data on the population as a whole, or a list of all units of the population, as well as tables in which the object of study is divided into groups according to one or several characteristics. Graphs are distinguished for the following reasons:

according to the method of construction and tasks of the image;
in the form of a graphic image.

According to the method of constructing graphics, they are divided into diagrams and statistical maps. The most common way graphic image data are of various types of diagrams: comparison diagrams, structural diagrams, dynamics diagrams. Statistical maps (cartograms and cartograms) are used to display indicators that characterize the location of the phenomenon under study in a certain area.

According to the shape of the graphic image, the following types of statistical graphs are distinguished: planar; linear; voluminous.

The availability of software tools allows you to use various options for diagrams. So, for example, the Excel program contains the following types of standard charts: histogram (bar chart in the form of rectangles elongated vertically, displays the values of various categories of population units); bar chart (a bar chart in the form of rectangles arranged horizontally also reflects the values of various categories of units); dot (allows you to compare pairs of values); broken line graph with markers marking data points (line chart); circular (displays the contribution of each value to the total amount); circular (similar to circular, but can display multiple data series); exchange (displays a data set of three values: the highest rate, the lowest rate, the closing rate); bubble (displays a set of three values on the plane, but the third value displays the size of the bubble); a histogram in the form of cylinders, cones, etc. The Excel program also provides for the construction of graphs when switching to a logarithmic scale. The logarithmic scale is used for large changes in indicators. If we turn to logarithms, then the extreme values \u200b\u200bof the indicator (minimum and maximum) will differ within narrower limits, since log1=0; log100=2 etc.

To eliminate inconsistencies and random differences in the interpretation of the obtained generalizing characteristics, it is recommended to follow the basic rules for the design of tables and graphs.

conclusions

The process of statistical research includes: observation (collection of primary data on population units); generalization of the collected data: their grouping, calculation of summary indicators; presentation and analysis of the results of generalization. Compliance with program and methodological requirements, logical and counting control determine the quality of statistical observation data. Grouping ensures the systematization of data, their generalization, reflects the composition of the population, creates the basis for calculating the system of indicators. Grouping and summary as methods of summarizing data are interrelated and complement each other. Calculation of summary indicators based on preliminary grouping of data significantly expands the possibilities statistical analysis. The statistical summary allows you to go to the indicators of the population as a whole and its individual parts. They divide the category of indicators of statistical properties of any mass phenomena (absolute and relative values, average values, variation indicators, indicators of the structure and nature of distribution, indicators of communication and dynamics), as well as the category of indicators of the properties of specific objects (economic indicators, demographic indicators, macroeconomic indicators). Method of construction and conditions of use various kinds indicators are discussed in the relevant sections of the statistics course. Common to all sections are the requirements for the presentation and presentation of statistical data in the form of tables and graphs.

Questions for self-examination

What are the objectives of statistical observation?
What types of statistical observation do you know?
What sources and methods of collecting statistical data can you name?
What are the forms of statistical observation?
What are the requirements for statistical data?
What is the classification of observation errors?
What are the objectives of economic censuses?
How is the state statistical observation organized?
What is the monitoring program and organizational plan?
What tasks does statistics solve using the grouping method?
What determines the method of constructing different types of groupings?
What distinguishes the multivariate classification technique?
How are distribution series subdivided and on what grounds can they be constructed?
In what units of measurement are absolute statistical values expressed?
What are the advantages of a tabular form of data presentation?
What rules should be followed when using tables and graphs?
What types of relative values do you know and how are they calculated?
What are statistical graphs and what problem do they solve?
What indicators of the intensity of structural shifts can you name?
What is a system of statistical indicators?
What tasks does the statistical summary solve?

Bibliography

Eliseeva I.I., Yuzbashev M.M. General Theory of Statistics: Textbook / Ed. I.I. Eliseeva. – 5th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Finance and statistics, 2004.
Methodological provisions on statistics. Issue 1. - M., 1996.
Methodological provisions on statistics. Issue 3. - M., 2000.
Methodological provisions on statistics. Issue 4. - M., 2003.

Workshop name

annotation

Workshop 2. Methods of observation, processing and analysis of statistical information. Statistical groupings

Presentations

Title of the presentation	annotation

To obtain information about the state and development of the country's economy or other data characterizing the cultural and material level of society, a statistical study is carried out. The latter consists of three successive stages: statistical observation of the summarization and grouping of the collected materials and analysis of the results of the summary.

Statistical observation acts as one of the main methods of statistics and as one of the most important stages of statistical research.

Statistical observation- this is a systematic, scientifically organized collection of data on the phenomena and processes of social life by registering according to a previously developed observation program. In the process of statistical observation, primary statistical information is obtained, which is necessary for the implementation of statistical functions.

So, in the course of statistical observation, for example, of agricultural rental enterprises in the region, data are recorded on their number, the composition of employees, the products produced, the distribution of income, the number of livestock, the size of sown areas, etc. Or another example: when studying certain phenomena of social life, it turns out insufficient availability of accounting and reporting data, since they cannot always give a complete and accurate picture of any phenomenon or process. Take, for example, determining the size and composition of the population in a country. This issue is of great national importance. Meanwhile, there is no reporting that would give an accurate answer in terms of the size and composition of the population. Therefore, there is a need for the organization of special monitoring. Or such an example: the price level in the agricultural market. Monitoring the price level - a question public policy and is of great interest for economic analysis. At the same time, the necessary reporting on this issue does not exist.

In all such cases, a specially organized statistical observation is carried out. The latter is considered the foundation of a statistical study, because in the process of its implementation, information is generated that is subject to processing and analysis at the next stages of the study. Statistical observation information should be objective and of high quality, which means that it should be provided with correct information. scientific organization its receipt, by the proper execution of the observation itself.

The task of statistical observation is due to the tasks that are put before the study of certain processes and phenomena and arising from the needs of their management. Their essence is to obtain in the shortest possible time complete and reliable information about the facts under study. That is, the most important task of statistical observation is probably an objective reflection of the observed (investigated) phenomena and processes of social life. The task of statistical observation (as well as the goal) should be clearly formulated according to the results of the study and taking into account the object of observation.

The scientific organization of statistical observation leads to compliance with certain requirements for its implementation. Let's call them.

1. Phenomena that are subject to observation must have a certain national economic significance, as well as scientific or practical value.

2. Since social phenomena are in constant change and development and have a different qualitative state, statistical observation should ensure the collection of mass data. which reflects the whole set of facts. Incomplete information about the processes under study will lead to erroneous conclusions based on the results of the analysis.

3. The complex interrelationship and intertwining of economic phenomena leads to the orientation of statistical observation to the collection of not only information that directly characterizes the object under study, but also such that it contributes to a change in its state. So, the observational data must be complete. The completeness of data is understood as the completeness of the spatial coverage of the units of the studied population, the essential aspects of the phenomena, as well as the completeness of the coverage over time.

4. Information obtained from the results of statistical observation must be reliable. That is, the observed data are subject to careful and comprehensive verification of their quality. The peculiarity of this requirement is that in case of receiving false information, it is impossible to eliminate its defects in the process of further processing, which makes it difficult to make scientifically based decisions. It is clear that statistical information is considered qualitative if it is true, likely and accurate.

5. Statistical observation is carried out on a scientific basis according to a previously developed program that provides a scientific approach to solving methodological and organizational issues.

6. The data of statistical observation should be comparable. Only in this case their generalizations and comparisons in space and time are ensured.

In cases where statistical information is necessary for the implementation of managerial functions, it includes such a requirement as timeliness. It is clear that statistical data, even if they are quite accurate (or probable), but come out of time, cannot be used to make managerial decisions.

In addition to the brevity of questions, one of the important requirements is to respect their sequence, since certain answers must control each other. For example, when conducting a population census, it is no coincidence that the question of age is on the form earlier than on education, occupation, sources of livelihood. Age information controls the correctness of the answers.

The scientific organization of statistical observation involves the definition of the object and unit of observation, the development and development of the program. Statistical observation is carried out in accordance with the organizational plan for its implementation.

Object of statistical observation is a set of social phenomena and processes subject to statistical observation. For example, when studying Agriculture the object of observation is the totality of agricultural enterprises.

The selection of the object of observation is, as a rule, a complex and responsible task. Mass social phenomena and processes are endowed with many properties, they are closely interconnected. Therefore, the selection of the object of study should be based on scientific principles its definitions. The latter should give grounds for separating this object from objects adjacent to it, which are the subject of independent research. The definition of the object of statistical observation must have precise indications of its features and properties.

For example, it will not be sufficient to indicate that the totality of agricultural enterprises is subject to observation. The selection of agricultural enterprises as an object of statistical observation requires the precise establishment of a system of signs of an agricultural enterprise. Depending on the tasks of observation, such signs can be: form of ownership, production line, level of technical equipment, organizational forms of management, etc. An accurate definition of the object of observation is necessary to obtain comparable data, in order to avoid possible cases of double counting of individual facts or the omission of a certain category its elements.

For the object of statistical observation, it is characteristic that it cannot be studied directly as a whole; this requires the allocation of individual units in its composition.

Unit of statistical observation- this is a constituent element of the object of study, which is the basis of the account and the carrier of essential features and properties that are subject to registration. it primary element object of study. The unit of observation is set based on the tasks of observation and the complexity of the object of study.

Therefore, in each specific statistical study of mass facts, one or more units of observation are adopted. Thus, in a population census, the unit of observation, as a rule, is a person. But if the family is also subject to research, then in this case two units of observation are already established: the person and the family.

In the statistical study of the agricultural sector in different cases and depending on the objectives of the study, different units of observation can be adopted. For example, when studying labor productivity and its payment, the unit of observation will be an individual worker: when studying the structure of agriculture by the size of enterprises, the unit of observation will be each individual enterprise, that is, the administrative and economic unit is separated. The latter includes collective agricultural enterprises, state farms, rental enterprises, farms, subsidiary farms of workers in the agricultural sector, etc.

The correct definition of the unit of observation is essential for the organization and conduct of statistical research. This is largely due to the objectivity of the results obtained.

Thus, the definition of the object and unit of statistical observation should be based on scientific principles - this should be well understood by everyone who participates in its organization and implementation.

The main task of state statistics is the formation of state information resources. This is achieved through statistical observation. The adequacy of the reflection of the most important socio-economic processes taking place in the country largely depends on the methods used for collecting and processing primary data. Currently, there is no standard definition of data quality; it is customary to note two main requirements for statistical observation materials: reliability and comparability.

Reliability - this is the correspondence of the primary data to the actual situation. Based on practical need, reliability is usually described in terms of errors. To prevent errors of observation, their types and causes of occurrence are identified. Observation errors are divided into two types: registration errors and representativeness errors.

Registration errors are errors that are possible regardless of the type of observation. They are random and systematic (tendentious). There are intentional errors caused by the deliberate distortion of data. Unintentional errors, as a rule, are random in nature, they can occur as a result of low qualification of workers.

Representativeness errors inherent only in selective observation. The reason for their occurrence is that the sample population does not accurately reflect the composition of the entire studied population. For more information about these errors, see Chap. 5.

Comparability of statistical data is considered in different aspects:

1) comparability within one observation;
2) comparability of data from different observations;
3) comparability with data from past studies.

The reasons for the differences can be caused by organizational and methodological factors that affect the change in the data collection methodology, registration time, etc.

A broader concept of the quality of statistics is now being established in terms of their adaptation to the needs of users. The components of such a definition of quality, along with comparability and reliability, include relevance, timeliness, accessibility, interpretability.

Achieving the required level of quality of the results of statistical activities requires compliance with scientifically developed methods for collecting, processing and disseminating statistical data (including compliance with accepted international standards).

Statistical observation - the first stage of statistical research, which is the collection of data on socio-economic phenomena and processes organized according to a single program by registering their essential features in order to obtain primary statistical information.

There are forms of organization and types of statistical observation, sources of primary data and methods of data collection.

To forms of organization relate:

- reporting;
- specially organized observation.

Types of observation share:

- by the time of registration of facts into continuous (current), periodic and one-time;
- coverage of units for continuous and non-continuous.

Sources of primary data are:

– direct observation;
- documentary way;
- interview.

To data collection methods relate:

- forwarding;
– self-registration;
- Correspondent.

The organization of statistical observation involves the solution of certain programmatic and methodological issues:

concretization of the purpose and formulation of the tasks of statistical research;
drawing up programs of observation and development of the received statistical information;
restriction of the surveyed population (establishing its scope);
creation of a statistical basis (for sample observation - sampling basis), determination of its unit and unit of observation;
choice of observation method (for selective observation - the establishment of the optimal percentage of selection);
formation of a sample population;
collection and editing of primary information, including logical and arithmetic methods of control, based on the relationship between the related items of the questionnaire and the allowable values of statistical features provided by the respondents.

- material and labor resources available to the organizer;
- the composition of the statistical problems being solved;
– number of observation units;
– the required accuracy of the results obtained.

For example, the All-Russian population census was conducted from October 14 to October 25, 2010. In accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 23, 2009 No. 1074 "On the organization of the All-Russian population census of 2010" federal Service state statistics summed up the preliminary results of the population census in relation to the number of enumerated population, including men and women, with a breakdown into urban and rural population.

The final results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census in accordance with Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of November 12, 2010 No. 896 "On summing up the results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census" were summed up on the basis of automated processing of information about the population contained in the census sheets:

- until June 30, 2012 - in relation to the number, location, age and sex structure, marital status, education, national composition and language proficiency, citizenship, livelihoods, economic activity, number and composition of the household, as well as the number of persons temporarily staying on the territory of the Russian Federation on the date of the census;
– until December 31, 2012 – in relation to population migration, housing conditions of the population, birth rate, as well as demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individual nationalities.

Methods of statistical observation in the study of entrepreneurial activity are distinguished depending on the type of enterprises and the observed indicators. For small enterprises, selective observation methods are mainly used, for large and medium-sized enterprises - continuous methods, and for individual enterprises operating without forming a legal entity - estimation methods based on indirect data.

The number of observed indicators is more significant for large and medium enterprises and limited for small enterprises. For individual enterprises operating without forming a legal entity, a small number of the most important indicators are evaluated. General economic indicators (the value of production and sales, investments, etc.) and indicators of business activity of enterprises are more suitable for sampling methods of observation, while indicators of the production and sale of certain types of products, as well as the financial statements of commercial organizations, are preferably observed in continuous mode. .

At present, in order to monitor the state of the country's economy and its individual sectors, a certain system is envisaged for the formation of an information base of state statistics: conducting complete surveys once every 5–10 years - economic censuses, between which periodic sample surveys will be carried out on a wide range of issues. In foreign statistical practice, vast experience has been accumulated in conducting censuses, especially in the United States, where they began to be carried out in 1810. From the history of domestic statistics, it is known that the census as the main method of observation has been used since the 1920s, making up for the lack of sufficiently stable statistical reporting. Subsequently, periodic reporting was introduced on almost all aspects of economic activity.

The formation of a mixed economy, on the one hand, and the strengthening of the requirement for data confidentiality, on the other hand, with a decrease in reporting discipline, determined the need to revive economic censuses at a new organizational and technical level. The main stages of the All-Russian Economic Census are the census of individual entrepreneurs and the census of economic entities - legal entities.

The economic census will clarify the main parameters of the state of the economy of Russia and the regions, as well as supplement information on all current market residents to create the basis for sample surveys.

What are the requirements for the program of statistical observation. Statistical observation. Distribution of respondents by education and gender