What resources of world importance does Australia have. Natural resources of Australia. Alternative energy sources
The area is 7.7 million km2. Population - 20.3 million people
State in the composition. Commonwealth - six states and two territories. Capital -. Canberra
EGP
. Australia (Australia) It is the only country in the world that occupies an entire continent. Australia is located southeast of. Eurasia. She is bathed in water. Quiet and. Indian Oceans. The main feature of the economic and geographical position of nia. Australia - isolation, remoteness from other continents. Technological progress in transport and communications has brought it closer to other continents. Relative proximity acquires a positive value. Australia to countries. Southeast and. Eastern. Asia and. Oceania. In terms of area, the country ranks sixth in the world after. Russia,. Canada,. China,. USA and. Brazil. From the west to the east is the territory. Australia stretches for 4.4 thousand km, and from north to south - for 3.1 thousand k1 yew. km.
Australia is an economically highly developed country. in absolute terms. GNP it is included in the group of the first 15 countries of the world while in the global division of labor it specializes in agricultural and raw material specialization
Australia is a member. UN,. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and other world and regional organizations
Population
. modern population. Australia was shaped by immigrants. Back to top European colonization about 300 thousand natives lived on the mainland, and now their number is more than 150 thousand people. They belong to the Australoid race and ethnically do not form a single whole. Aborigines are divided into many tribes speaking different languages.
After. Second World War. Australia received many so-called "displaced persons", as well as people from the European south and east - Italians, Yugoslavs, Greeks, etc. Among them were more than 20 thousand Ukrainian rainsiv. Recently, the part of immigrants in the population growth is 40%. In recent decades, the country has been suffering from a growing rate of illegal immigration from countries. Southeast and. Eastern. AsiaAsia.
The population is distributed very unevenly throughout the country. Main areas highest density concentrated in the east and southeast, southwest and south. Here the population density is 25 - -50 people per 1 km2, and the rest of the territory is very poorly populated (the density does not even reach one person per 1 km2). In some inland desert areas. The Australian population is missing. In recent decades, there have been shifts in the distribution of the country's population, thanks to the discovery of new mineral deposits in the north and south. The Australian government encourages the movement of the population to the center of the mainland, to the underdeveloped regions.
By level of urbanization. Australia occupies one of the first places in the world - 90%. Among urban areas. There are three groups of cities in Australia: firstly, these are small mountainous cities that are scattered throughout the continent and are its integral feature, and secondly, these are state capitals that perform not only administrative and political functions, but also economic, commercial, scientific, cultural, thirdly, these are medium-sized centers that have arisen near the capitals, assuming the functions of centers of various industries.
employment structure. Australia is typical of post-industrial countries. Thus, 3.6% is employed in agriculture, 26.4% in industry, and 70% in the service sector. In 2005, unemployment was about 55%.
Natural conditions and resources
At 0.3% of the world population. Australia 5.8% earth's surface. Therefore, its provision with natural resource potential is 20 times higher than the average in the world, primarily mineral resources.
resources. The discovery of new deposits brought the country to a leading position in the world in terms of reserves and production of iron and lead-zinc ores, bauxites
The largest deposits of coal, oil and gas are located in the eastern part. Australia. In the western and northern parts of the country there are deposits of ore raw materials: iron, nickel, polymetals, gold, silver and copper, manganese. Bauxite deposits are concentrated on the peninsula. Cape York and the northeast. Northern Territory. With the exception of oil, the country fully provides its needs with the main types of raw materials for industry.
60% of the territory. Australia is occupied by drainless regions. The river network is the densest on about. Tasmania is a full-flowing river country -. Murray with tributaries. Darling and. Murrumbidgee. Rivers flowing down the eastern slopes. Big. Dividing Range, short and fairly full-flowing rivers of the central. Australia does not have a permanent flow. Most of the country's lakes, like rivers, are almost exclusively rain fed. In they have neither a constant level nor a drain. In summer, the lakes dry up and are shallow saline depressions.
Forest resources. Australia are minor. Forested areas, including scrapers, make up about 18% of the country's total area. Under the influence of economic activity, the vegetation has changed tremendously.
The country in relief is a vast plateau, concave in the central part and elevated at the edges. Mountains occupy 5% of the territory. There is a large depression in the center. The central lowland is an arid region. And Australia.
The northern and northeastern parts of the country are located in the tropical climate zone. The largest part. Australia occupies the subtropical climate zone. Only the extreme south is included in the temperate climate zone. Australia is known as an arid continent, but areas with sufficient rainfall make up 1/3 of the total area. In arid regions, there are significant reserves of groundwater.
Unique natural landscapes. Australia and the magnificent beaches of its east coast is the basis for the rapid development of ecological, tourist and sports (diving, yachting, windsurfing) tourism
Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. New discoveries of mineral ores made on the continent over the past 10-15 years have advanced the country to one of the first places in the world in terms of reserves and extraction of such minerals as iron ore, bauxite, lead-zinc ores.
The largest deposits of iron ore in Australia, which began to be developed since the 60s of our century, are located in the region of the Hamersley Range in the north-west of the country (the Mount Newman, Mount Goldsworth, etc. deposits). Iron ore there is also on the islands of Kulan and Kokatu in King's Bay (in the northwest), in the state of South Australia in the Middleback Range (Iron-Knob, etc.) and in Tasmania - the Savage River field (in the valley of the Savage river).
Large deposits of polymetals (lead, zinc mixed with silver and copper) are located in the western desert part of the state of New South Wales - the Broken Hill deposit. An important center for the extraction of non-ferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc) has developed near the Mount Isa deposit (in the state of Queensland). There are also deposits of polymetals and copper in Tasmania (Reed Rosebury and Mount Lyell), copper in Tennant Creek (Northern Territory) and elsewhere.
The main gold reserves are concentrated in the ledges of the Precambrian basement and in the southwest of the mainland (Western Australia), in the area of the cities of Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie, Northman and Wiluna, as well as in Queensland. Smaller deposits are found in almost all states.
Bauxites occur on the Cape York Peninsula (Waype Field) and Arnhem Land (Gow Field), as well as in the southwest, in the Darling Range (Jarradale Field).
Uranium deposits have been found in various parts of the mainland: in the north (Arnhemland Peninsula) - near the South and East Alligator rivers, in the state of South Australia - near Lake. Frome, in the state of Queensland - the Mary-Katlin field and in the western part of the country - the Yillirri field.
The main deposits of coal are located in the eastern part of the mainland. Most large deposits both coking and non-coking coal are being mined near the cities of Newcastle and Lythgow (NSW) and the cities of Collinsville, Blair Atol, Bluff, Baralaba and Moura Kiang in Queensland.
Geological surveys have established that large deposits of oil and natural gas are located in the bowels of the Australian mainland and on the shelf off its coast. Oil has been found and produced in Queensland (the Mooney, Alton and Bennet fields), on Barrow Island off the northwestern coast of the mainland, and also on the continental shelf off the south coast of Victoria (the Kingfish field). Deposits of gas (the largest Ranken field) and oil have also been discovered on the shelf off the northwestern shores of the mainland.
Australia has large deposits of chromium (Queensland), Gingin, Dongara, Mandarra (Western Australia), Marlin (Victoria).
Of the non-metallic minerals, there are various in their quality and industrial use clays, sands, limestones, asbestos, and mica.
The water resources of the continent itself are small, but the most developed river network is on the island of Tasmania. The rivers there have a mixed rain and snow supply and are full-flowing throughout the year. They flow down from the mountains and therefore are stormy, rapids and have large reserves of hydropower. The latter is widely used for the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The availability of cheap electricity contributes to the development of energy-intensive industries in Tasmania, such as the smelting of pure electrolyte metals, the manufacture of cellulose, etc.
The rivers flowing from the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range are short, in their upper reaches they flow in narrow gorges. Here they may well be used, and partly already used for the construction of hydroelectric power stations. When entering the coastal plain, the rivers slow down their flow, their depth increases. Many of them in the estuarine parts are even accessible to large ocean-going vessels. The Clarence River is navigable for 100 km from its mouth, and Hawkesbury for 300 km. The volume of runoff and the regime of these rivers are different and depend on the amount of precipitation and the time of their occurrence.
On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, rivers originate, making their way along the interior plains. In the region of Mount Kosciuszko, the most abundant river in Australia, the Murray, begins. Its largest tributaries, the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Goulbury and some others, also originate in the mountains.
Food r. The Murray and its channels are mostly rainy and to a lesser extent snowy. These rivers are at their fullest in early summer, when the snow melts in the mountains. In the dry season, they become very shallow, and some of the Murray's tributaries break up into separate stagnant reservoirs. Only Murray and Murrumbidgee retain a constant current (except for exceptionally dry years). Even the Darling, the longest river in Australia (2450 km), during summer droughts, getting lost in the sands, does not always reach the Murray.
Dams and dams have been built on almost all the rivers of the Murray system, near which reservoirs have been created, where flood waters are collected and used to irrigate fields, gardens and pastures.
The rivers of the northern and western coasts of Australia are shallow and relatively small. The longest of them - Flinders flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. These rivers are rain-fed, and their flow varies greatly in different time of the year.
Rivers whose flow is directed to the interior of the mainland, such as Coopers Creek (Barkoo), Diamant-ina, and others, are deprived not only of a constant flow, but also of a permanent, distinctly expressed channel. In Australia, such temporary rivers are called screams. They fill with water only during short showers. Soon after the rain, the riverbed again turns into a dry sandy hollow, often not even having a definite shape.
Most lakes in Australia, like rivers, are fed by rainwater. They have neither a constant level nor a runoff. In summer, the lakes dry up and are shallow saline depressions. The layer of salt at the bottom sometimes reaches 1.5 m.
In the seas surrounding Australia, sea animals are mined and fish are caught. AT sea waters breed edible oysters. Sea trepang, crocodiles and pearl clams are fished in warm coastal waters in the north and northeast. The main center of artificial breeding of the latter is located in the region of the Koberg peninsula (Arnhemland). It was here, in the warm waters of the Arafura Sea and Van Diemen Bay, that the first experiments were carried out to create special sediments. These experiments were carried out by one of the Australian companies with the participation of Japanese specialists. It has been found that pearl clams grown in warm waters off the northern coast of Australia produce larger pearls than those off the coast of Japan, and in a much shorter period of time. At present, the cultivation of pearl mollusks has spread widely along the northern and partly northeastern coasts.
Since the Australian mainland for a long time, starting from the middle Cretaceous, was in isolation from other parts of the globe, his vegetable world very idiosyncratic. Of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, more than 9 thousand are endemic, i.e. grow only on the Australian continent. Among the endemics are many species of eucalyptus and acacia, the most typical plant families in Australia. At the same time, there are also plants that are inherent in South America(for example, southern beech), South Africa (representatives of the Proteaceae family) and the islands of the Malay Archipelago (ficus, pandanus, etc.). This indicates that many millions of years ago there were land connections between the continents.
Since the climate of most of Australia is characterized by severe aridity, dry-loving plants dominate in its flora: special cereals, eucalyptus trees, umbrella acacias, succulent trees (bottle tree, etc.). The trees belonging to these communities have a powerful root system, which goes 10-20, and sometimes 30 m into the ground, due to which they, like a pump, suck out moisture from great depths. The narrow and dry leaves of these trees are painted mostly in a dull gray-greenish color. In some of them, the leaves are turned to the sun with an edge, which helps to reduce the evaporation of water from their surface.
In the far north and northwest of the country, where it is hot and warm northwest monsoons bring moisture, tropical rainforests grow. Giant eucalyptus trees, ficuses, palm trees, pandanuses with narrow long leaves, etc. predominate in their woody composition. The dense foliage of the trees forms an almost continuous cover, shading the ground. In some places along the coast there are thickets of bamboo. Where the shores are flat and muddy, mangrove vegetation develops.
Rainforests in the form of narrow galleries stretch for relatively short distances inland along the river valleys.
The farther to the south, the drier the climate becomes and the hotter breath of the deserts is felt more strongly. The forest cover is gradually thinning. Eucalyptus and umbrella acacias are arranged in groups. This is a zone of humid savannas, stretching in a latitudinal direction south of the tropical forest zone. In appearance, savannahs with rare groups of trees resemble parks. There is no undergrowth in them. Sunlight freely penetrates through a sieve of small tree leaves and falls on the ground covered with tall dense grass. Forested savannahs are excellent pastures for sheep and cattle.
The central deserts of parts of the mainland, where it is very hot and dry, are characterized by dense, almost impenetrable thickets of thorny low-growing shrubs, consisting mainly of eucalyptus and acacia. In Australia, these thickets are called scrub. In some places, the scrub is interspersed with vast, devoid of vegetation, sandy, rocky or clayey areas of deserts, and in some places - thickets of tall soddy cereals (spinifex).
The eastern and southeastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range, where there is a lot of rainfall, are covered with dense tropical and subtropical evergreen forests. Most of all in these forests, as elsewhere in Australia, eucalyptus trees. Eucalyptus trees are industrially valuable. These trees have no equal in height among hardwood species; some of their species reach 150 m in height and 10 m in diameter. The growth of wood in eucalyptus forests is large, and therefore they are very productive. There are also many tree-like horsetails and ferns in the forests, reaching 10-20 m in height. At their top, tree-like ferns carry a crown of large (up to 2 m long) pinnate leaves. With their bright and fresh greenery, they somewhat enliven the faded bluish-green landscape of eucalyptus forests. Higher in the mountains, an admixture of damarr pines and beeches is noticeable.
Shrub and grass covers in these forests are varied and dense. In less humid variants of these forests, grass trees form the second layer.
On the island of Tasmania, in addition to eucalyptus trees, there are many evergreen beeches related to South American species.
In the southwest of the mainland, forests cover the western slopes of the Darling Range, facing the sea. These forests consist almost entirely of eucalyptus trees, reaching considerable heights. The number of endemic species is especially high here. In addition to eucalyptus, bottle trees are widespread. They have an original bottle-shaped trunk, thick at the base and tapering sharply upwards. In the rainy season, large reserves of moisture accumulate in the tree trunk, which are consumed during the dry season. In the undergrowth of these forests there are many shrubs and herbs, full of bright colors.
In general, Australia's forest resources are small. The total area of forests, including special plantations, consisting mainly of species with soft wood (mainly radiata pine), at the end of the 70s was only 5.6% of the country's territory.
The first colonists did not find plant species characteristic of Europe on the mainland. Subsequently, European and other species of trees, shrubs and herbs were brought to Australia. Grapevine, cotton, cereals (wheat, barley, oats, rice, corn, etc.), vegetables, many fruit trees, etc. are well established here.
In Australia, all soil types characteristic of tropical, subequatorial and subtropical natural zones are presented in a regular sequence.
In the area of tropical rainforests in the north, red soils are common, changing towards the south with red-brown and brown soils in wet savannahs and gray-brown soils in dry savannahs. Red-brown and brown soils containing humus, a little phosphorus and potassium, are valuable for agricultural use.
Within the zone of red-brown soils, the main wheat crops of Australia are located.
In the marginal regions of the Central Plains (for example, in the Murray basin), where artificial irrigation is developed and a lot of fertilizers are used, grapes, fruit trees, and fodder grasses are grown on gray earth soils.
Gray-brown steppe soils are widespread in the inner desert territories of semi-desert and especially steppe regions surrounding the ring, where there is grass, and in some places shrub-tree cover. Their power is insignificant. They contain little humus and phosphorus, therefore, when using them even as pastures for sheep and cattle, the application of phosphorus fertilizers is required.
The Australian continent is located within the three main warm climatic zones of the southern hemisphere: subequatorial (in the north), tropical (in the central part), subtropical (in the south). Only a small part of Tasmania lies within the temperate zone.
The subequatorial climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature course (during the year average temperature air 23 - 24 degrees) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm., and in some places more than 2000 mm.). Precipitation is brought here by the humid northwest monsoon, and it falls mainly in the summer. In winter, during the dry season, rain falls only occasionally. At this time, dry, hot winds blow from the interior of the mainland, which sometimes cause droughts.
In the tropical zone on the Australian continent, two main types of climate are formed: tropical wet and tropical dry.
The tropical humid climate is characteristic of the extreme eastern part of Australia, which is included in the zone of action of the southeast trade winds. These winds bring moisture-saturated air masses from the Pacific Ocean to the mainland. Therefore, the entire region of the coastal plains and the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range is well moistened (on average, precipitation is from 1000 to 1500 mm) and has a mild warm climate (the temperature of the warmest month in Sydney is 22 - 25 degrees, and the coldest - 11, 5 - 13 degrees).
Air masses that bring moisture from the Pacific Ocean also penetrate beyond the Great Dividing Range, losing a significant amount of moisture along the way, so precipitation falls only on the western slopes of the ridge and in the foothills.
Located mainly in tropical and subtropical latitudes, where solar radiation is high, the Australian mainland is getting very hot. Due to the weak cut coastline and the elevation of the outlying parts, the influence of the seas surrounding the mainland is weakly felt in the inner parts.
Australia is the driest continent on Earth and one of the most characteristic features its nature - wide use deserts, which occupy vast spaces and stretch for almost 2.5 thousand km from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the foothills of the Great Dividing Range.
The central and western parts of the mainland are characterized by a tropical desert climate. In summer (December-February), the average temperatures here rise to 30 degrees, and sometimes even higher, and in winter (June-August) they drop to an average of 10-15 degrees. The hottest region of Australia is the northwestern one, where in the Great Sandy Desert the temperature stays at around 35 degrees and even higher almost all summer. In winter, it decreases slightly (up to about 25-20 degrees). In the center of the mainland, near the city of Alice Springs, in summer time year, the temperature during the day rises to 45 degrees, at night it drops to zero and below (-4-6 degrees).
Central and western parts of Australia, i.e. about half of its territory receives an average of 250-300 mm of precipitation per year, and the vicinity of the lake. Air - less than 200 mm; but even these insignificant precipitations fall unevenly. Sometimes for several years in a row there is no rain at all, and sometimes in two or three days, or even in a few hours, the entire annual amount of precipitation falls. Part of the water seeps quickly and deeply through the permeable soil and becomes inaccessible to plants, and part evaporates under the hot rays of the sun, and the surface layers of the soil remain almost dry.
Within the subtropical belt, three types of climate are distinguished: Mediterranean, subtropical continental and subtropical humid.
The Mediterranean climate is characteristic of the southwestern part of Australia. As the name suggests, the climate of this part of the country is similar to the climate of the European Mediterranean countries - Spain and Southern France. Summers are hot and generally dry, while winters are warm and humid. Relatively small fluctuations in temperature by season (January - 23-27 degrees, June - 12 - 14 degrees), a sufficient amount of precipitation (from 600 to 1000 mm).
The subtropical continental climate zone covers the southern part of the mainland adjacent to the Great Australian Gulf, includes the vicinity of the city of Adelaide and extends somewhat further east, to the western regions of the state of New South Wales. The main features of this climate are low rainfall and relatively large annual temperature fluctuations.
The subtropical humid climate zone includes the entire state of Victoria and the southwestern foothills of the state of New South Wales. In general, this entire zone is characterized by a mild climate and a significant amount of precipitation (from 500 to 600 mm), mainly in the coastal parts (the penetration of precipitation into the interior of the continent decreases). In summer, temperatures rise to an average of 20-24 degrees, but in winter they drop quite a lot - up to 8-10 degrees. The climate of this part of the country is favorable for the cultivation of fruit trees, various vegetables and forage grasses. True, artificial irrigation is used to obtain high yields, since in the summer the moisture in the soil is not enough. Dairy cattle (grazing on fodder grasses) and sheep are bred in these areas.
The temperate climate zone includes only the central and southern parts of the island of Tasmania. This island is largely influenced by the surrounding waters and has a climate of moderately warm winters and cool summers. The average January temperature here is 14-17 degrees, June - 8 degrees. The prevailing wind direction is west. The average annual rainfall in the western part of the island is 2500 mm, and the number of rainy days is 259. In the eastern part, the climate is somewhat less humid.
In winter, snow sometimes falls, but it does not last long. Abundant rainfall favors the development of vegetation, and especially herbs that vegetate all year round. Herds of cattle and sheep graze all year round on evergreen succulent natural and improved by oversowing fodder grasses meadows.
The hot climate and insignificant and uneven precipitation over most of the mainland lead to the fact that almost 60% of its territory is deprived of runoff to the ocean and has only a rare network of temporary watercourses. Perhaps no other continent has such a poorly developed network inland waters like in Australia. The annual flow of all the rivers of the continent is only 350 cubic km.
BUT Australia , one of the highly developed countries in the world, attracts with its mild climate and equally mild immigration laws. It opens its doors to experienced professionals and businessmen.
Andimmigration to Australia - this is an opportunity not only to live in a highly developed country, but also, having passed the citizenship exam after 4 years of residence in the country and having received citizenship, travel around the world without visas.
T well , being one of the economically developed and stable countries in the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost anyone with education and work experience can choose it as their place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are quite simple and understandable - everyone can figure them out on their own.
E the only country in the world , occupying the territory of the whole mainland of the same name, as well as about. Tasmania and adjacent islands. The country is located in the southern and eastern hemispheres, washed by the seas of the Pacific and Indian oceans. In the north it is washed by the Timor, Arafura Seas and the Torres Strait, in the east - by the Coral and Tasman Seas, in the south - by the Bass Strait and the Indian Ocean, in the west - by the Indian Ocean. The coastline is slightly indented. The country has 3 time zones (ahead of Moscow by 6 - 8 hours). Time in Sydney is ahead of Moscow by 7 hours in winter, by 8 hours in summer. In addition, time also varies from state to state, where half an hour is sometimes added to standard time.
BUTAustralia was opened Billem Janszon in 1606. The population of the country at that time was made up of Australian Aborigines who settled there more than 42 thousand years ago. In 1770, the country was declared a colony of the English Empire, and in 1901, all the Australian colonies united in the Australian Union, completely subordinate to the English Queen.
|
Australia- the sixth country in the world in terms of territory, and this is the only state that occupies an entire continent. The Australian Union includes the Australian mainland and several islands, the largest of which is Tasmania. On the territory of the mainland, diverse nature coexists with modern densely populated megacities. Although most of the continent is occupied by semi-deserts and deserts, Australia has a variety of landscapes: - from alpine meadows to tropical jungles. Australia has become home to unique species of flora and fauna, some of which are not found in other parts of the world. Many plants and animals, including giant marsupials, became extinct with the advent of the natives; others (for example, the Tasmanian tiger) - with the advent of Europeans. The Australian continent is the perfect place to practice any water sport. Surfing, windsurfing, diving, water skiing, rowing and yachting - all this is at the service of vacationers on the coast. If this does not appeal to you, go for a walk in one of the many reserves, ride a bike or horseback. In addition, you can go on a safari or go rock climbing. The attractiveness of Australia lies not only in the nature of the mainland. Well-appointed cities, centers of cultural and business life of the state also contribute here. In all metropolitan areas - be it Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne or any other major city - historical sights coexist with skyscrapers, cozy parks - with crowded streets, and various museums - with chic shops. When you leave Australia, of course, you will want to take something with you as a keepsake, something that will remind you of your trip to this wonderful country. In souvenir shops you can buy various handicrafts created by natives, clothes made from the finest sheep's wool, and in jewelry stores you can buy jewelry made from famous Australian opals, fine pearls or pink diamonds. Availability of immigration Australia, being one of the economically developed and stable countries in the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost anyone with education and work experience can choose it as their place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are quite simple and understandable - everyone can figure them out on their own. Climate of Australia The Australian continent is located within the three main warm climatic zones of the southern hemisphere: subequatorial (in the north), tropical (in the central part) and subtropical (in the south). Only a small part of Tasmania lies within the temperate zone. In winter, which falls in June, July and August, snow sometimes falls, but it does not last long. The subequatorial climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature course (during the year, the average air temperature is 23 - 24 degrees) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm., and in some places more than 2000 mm.). The further south you go, the more noticeable the change of seasons. In the central and western parts of the mainland in summer (December-February), average temperatures rise to 30 degrees, and sometimes even higher, and in winter (June-August) they drop to an average of 10-15 degrees. In the center of the continent in the summer, the temperature during the day rises to 45 degrees, at night it drops to zero and below (-4-6 degrees). |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
_svg.png)
Museums in Australia
Sydney
Sydney has a lot of interesting cultural objects- the famous Sydney Museum of Australian History and Anthropology, War Memorial Art Gallery, National Maritime Museum(a really interesting place - everything about the sea and watercraft is collected here - from aboriginal boats to battleships and surfboards), Art Gallery of New South Wales, Museum of Applied Arts and Science, one of the most "daring" museums in the world - Museum contemporary art, Nicholson Museum of Antiquity, Australia Wild Animal Park and Hyde Park.
Melbourne
Melbourne is often referred to as the "Cultural Capital of the Southern Hemisphere". These days, Melbourne's compact city center is filled with museums, galleries and great shopping, but most of the city is occupied by parks, squares and the Royal Botanic Gardens. Also of interest are the National Gallery and Museum of Victoria, the Museum of Modern Australian Art, St. Patrick's Cathedral, the James Cook Memorial and the city's old Mint.
Perth
You can visit the gallery Fine Arts Western Australia, where works by foreign and Australian masters are exhibited, including masterpieces of traditional Aboriginal art, which amaze with the technique of their execution. No less interesting is the Museum of Western Australia, which tells about the nature of the state, its history, about the largest meteorite crater in the world in Wolf Creek, and, of course, about the indigenous people - the aborigines.
Darwin
In the city itself, it is interesting to visit the country's only Military Museum on East Point, the original Gallery of Aboriginal Art and Culture, a combed crocodile farm and the Darwin Botanical Garden.
 |
ayers rock Unusual in its red color, the rocky monolith of Uluru has long been the emblem of central Australia. This is the oldest and largest monolithic rock on earth (its age is about 500 million years). It makes an amazing impression both because it rises in the middle of a completely flat surface, and because it changes its shades at sunset and sunrise. Many tourists and photographers come to admire this magical play of light. This rock was and remains a sacred place of the Aborigines. On it you can see rock paintings. |
 |
Great Barrier Reef One of Australia's most famous attractions is the Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral structure in the world. This is a huge system of reefs and islets, stretching for 2,010 km. along the east coast of the country, from Cape York almost to Brisbane. For over 20 years, the Barrier Reef has been a national park. |
 |
Blue Mountains The Blue Mountains is a unique nature reserve near Sydney. Here, as in many other parts of Australia, nature is carefully preserved as it was thousands of years ago. Covered with eucalyptus forests, the mountains seem really blue from afar - due to the evaporation of eucalyptus oils. Viewing platforms offer magnificent panoramas of mountains covered with forests, sheer cliffs, deep valleys and canyons. |
 |
Harbor Bridge It is also called "coat hanger" - due to the fact that it looks like a giant hanger. This is one of the longest bridges in the world (503 meters). It was opened in 1932 and cost $20 million by the time it was completed. And today motorists, moving to the South side of Sydney, pay $ 2 toll, covering the cost of maintaining the bridge. The bridge pylon closest to the Opera House is open to the public. From the observation deck, a circular panorama of Sydney opens, this is a convenient place for photo and video filming. |
 |
sydney tower The Sydney Tower is the tallest building in the Southern Hemisphere (304.8 m high). Here it is viewpoint, revolving shops and restaurants. |
 |
sydney opera Of all the attractions in Australia, the Sydney Opera House attracts the largest number of tourists. The famous sails of the Opera House is a symbol not only of Sydney, but of the whole of Australia. Some consider the Opera House a magnificent example of "frozen music". The architect himself said that he created a sculpture, inside which he placed the theater premises. "You will never get tired of it (the building), you will never get tired of it," he predicted. And he was right - the opera building never ceases to amaze, no matter how much we admire it. |
| Sydney Aquarium Sydney Aquarium - Magnificent marine park. Here you can observe outlandish fish and marine animals in picturesque aquariums or from underwater tunnels, where overhead |
Australian economy: industry, foreign trade, agriculture
The Australian economy is a developed Western-style market system. The level of GDP per capita is close to the main Western European countries. The country was ranked third out of 170 in the Index human development(Human Development Index) and sixth in terms of quality of life according to the methodology of The Economist magazine (2005). Economic growth continues despite the global economic crisis. One of the main reasons for the success is economic reforms- Privatization, deregulation and reform of the tax system, carried out by the Howard government.
Australia has not had a recession since the early 1990s. In April 2005, unemployment fell to 5.1%, reaching its lowest level since the 1970s. Now unemployment is 4.3%. The service sector, which includes tourism, education and banks, accounts for 69% of GDP. Agriculture and extraction of natural resources - 3% and 5% of GDP, but at the same time make up a significant share of exports. The main buyers of Australian products are South Korea and New Zealand. Many economists are concerned, however, with a large foreign trade deficit.
Energy industry in Australia
Australia is relatively well endowed with energy mineral resources. The country accounts for 8% of the world's hard coal reserves and 15% of lignite reserves, and in terms of uranium reserves, Australia probably ranks second in the world, second only to the former USSR. Australia's oil resources are limited, while gas resources are plentiful. The use of hydropower is possible only in the Snowy Mountains and Tasmania, due to this source 10% of all electricity generated in the country is provided.
Transport Australia
Long distances are the main obstacle that the Australian economy had to overcome. Sea shipping has always been essential for the movement of heavy bulk goods, which were predominantly produced in Australia. In fiscal year 1995-1996, Australian ports handled almost 400 million tons of international bulk cargo (70% of which was iron ore and coal) and 22 million tons of international non-bulk cargo. The ports of Dampier (iron ore), Port Hedland (iron ore), Newcastle (coal and iron ore) and Hay Point (coal) occupied the leading positions in terms of bulk cargo turnover. The capitals of all states are located on the coasts and are cargo ports. general type. Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Fremantle (outport of Perth) are the largest ports in terms of total cargo turnover. The most significant carrier is the state-owned Australian National Line, which in 1996 owned 10 ships.
The first Australian railway was built in Melbourne in 1854. The uncoordinated construction of roads with different gauges by the colonial authorities led to the creation of a system that was inconvenient, expensive and slow. The first priority was the translation of the national system railways to a single standard gauge. In this regard, the rebuilding of the Adelaide-Melbourne railway line in 1995 was of great importance.
The Australian government viewed the railways as a means of developing the country. The maximum length - 42,000 km - was reached in 1921. Subsequently, the length of the network was somewhat reduced, and in 1996 traffic was supported on state railways with a total length of 33,370 km. In addition, there were private lines operated mainly by iron ore companies, including the 425 km Mount Newman line and the 390 km Hamersley line (both in the Pilbara region of Western Australia). The state railroad system, which had long been separately managed by different states, was reassigned to the National Railroad Corporation in 1991.
Highways are vital for the transport of goods and passengers. In 1995, there was one registered vehicle for every 1.65 people. The total length of the road network in 1997 was 803,000 km, but it is unevenly distributed. Only the eastern, southeastern and southwestern regions of the country are adequately provided with roads. Only 40% of all roads have a hard surface - asphalt or concrete. Many roads are only rough or slightly different from trails, others are gravel or loose stone. In rural and remote areas, traffic is sometimes interrupted for weeks during the wet season. Currently, there is a paved ring road encircling the mainland, and a submeridional road Darwin - Adelaide. Australia has a national highway system funded by the federal government. It includes more than 1,000 km of toll roads, and in the 1990s the construction of toll roads by private contractors began (especially in the Melbourne area).
The development of air transport in Australia has helped to connect with outside world and within the country. On domestic routes, passenger transportation is provided mainly by Quontas and Ansett airlines. For decades, the two-airline principle was carried out by the federal government, with one of them (Ansett) being privately owned and the other (Transåstrelien Airlines or Aústrelien Airlines) being state-owned. In addition, the state-owned company Kuontas was engaged in international transportation. In the 1990s, Quontas and Australien Airlines merged, the combined company Quontas was privatized and now serves both domestic and international flights. In addition, Ansett also began to serve international flights. Domestic lines are currently open to competition, but none of the smaller companies can compete with Quontas and Ansett.
There are a total of 428 licensed aircraft pick-up and drop-off locations in Australia, from major international airports to airstrips serving sheep ranches. Thanks to air transport even in vast, sparsely populated areas of the country, mail, fresh fruits and vegetables are regularly delivered, and emergency medical care is established. Aircraft are also used for planting seeds, fertilizing pastures and transporting a wide variety of goods.
Agriculture in Australia
From 1795, when the first white settlers became partially self-sufficient in basic food, until the end of World War II Agriculture, and especially sheep farming, formed the backbone of the Australian economy. Although agriculture has lost its leading position with the development of industry, this industry still underlies the well-being of the country. In 1996-1997, it provided almost 3% of the gross national product and 22% of export earnings.
The expression "Australia rides a sheep" justified itself for a hundred years - from 1820 to about 1920. Using several Spanish merinos imported in 1797 from the Cape of Good Hope, as well as others brought a little later from England, John MacArthur and his wife Elizabeth by Careful crossbreeding brought out a new breed - the Australian Merino. The mechanization of the English textile industry determined the demand for fine-stapled wool, which Australia was able to satisfy from 1820. In 1850 there were 17.5 million sheep in this country. After 1860, the money raised from the gold mines of Victoria was used to expand sheep farming. In 1894, the number of sheep exceeded 100 million. In 1970, the number of sheep in Australia reached a record high of 180 million. However, as a result of a sharp drop in the price of wool on the world market in 1997, it was reduced to 123 million.
In 1974, a proposal was made to introduce a lower level of auction prices for wool, and it worked successfully until 1991, when the sale of a huge stock of accumulated wool on the "free market" began. As a result, wool prices plummeted. By that time, more than 4.6 million bales of unsold wool had accumulated in the country. The marketing of these stocks, as well as newly produced wool, has become a problem for modern Australia. In 1996, 730 thousand tons of wool were produced, but prices for it fell by 57% compared with the level of 1988-1989.
While Australian wool had a market since the early 19th century, there was no such market for meat for many years. Therefore, old and extra sheep were slaughtered for skins and fat. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the invention of meat freezing technology in 1879 made it possible to export Australian mutton to England. The successful development of trade stimulated the breeding of new breeds of sheep that gave meat best quality compared to merino, but somewhat worse wool. In 1996-1997, 583 thousand tons of mutton were produced in Australia, of which 205 thousand tons were exported. Over the past decade, live sheep have been exported, which were slaughtered after delivery to the country of destination. Basically, this product was purchased by the Muslim countries of the Middle East. In total, over 5.2 million sheep were exported from Australia in 1996-1997.
Since there are no large predators in Australia other than the dingo, cattle ranching during the colonial period reached a significant scale, especially in drier and more remote areas, where it outpaced sheep farming. However, the development of this industry was held back due to the inability to export products and the limited domestic market. The "Gold Rush" in Victoria in the 1850s attracted thousands of people. A significant beef market arose there, which marked the beginning of the development of commercial beef cattle breeding. However, it was only after 1890, when frozen Australian beef began to enter the English market, that the further development of this industry was guaranteed. By that time, most of the mainland, which is now used for grazing cattle, had been mastered, and the total number of livestock reached about 10 million heads.
In 1997, there were 23.5 million heads of beef cattle. The production of beef and veal amounted to 1.8 million tons, of which 42% was exported. Great importance to expand the export of Australian beef had the opening of the Japanese market. As in sheep breeding, during these years, the export of live cattle increased significantly - more than 860 thousand heads in 1996-1997.
Dairy farms in Australia are concentrated on the southeast coast, where there is a lot of rainfall or irrigation; the most important areas for the development of this industry are the south coast of Victoria, the Murray Valley near Echuka and the border area between Queensland and New South Wales. In 1997 there were 3.1 million head of dairy cattle. The number of these herds has declined since the early 1960s, but thanks to improved composition and quality of pastures, as well as improved farming methods, the volume of dairy production has not decreased. In the 1990s, the number of dairy cattle increased again. This trend is partly due to the successful adaptation of the industry to world market conditions after the decision was made in the mid-1980s that dairy products should be priced in line with world prices. Currently, about half of Australian dairy products are exported (mainly to the Middle East and Asia) in the form of cheese, milk powder, butter and casein. In the past, the production of dairy products depended on government subsidies, now this industry is becoming more and more independent.
Other livestock sectors, such as pig, poultry and beekeeping, are mainly oriented to the domestic market, and only a few products are exported.
The cultivation of grain crops is limited mainly to the eastern and southeastern peripheral regions of Australia, to a lesser extent developed in the southwest of Western Australia and in Tasmania. After 1950, when 8 million hectares were sown, there was a significant increase in sown area until a record level of 22 million hectares in 1984. Subsequently, unfavorable climatic and economic factors led to a reduction in sown areas to 17 million hectares in 1991, but then they began to expand again - to 19.4 million hectares in 1994.
Fertilization is necessary for the cultivation of crops and the functioning of many pastures. In 1995-1996 they were used on an area of 28.4 million hectares. Irrigation plays an increasingly important role for Australian farms. In 1994, the total area of irrigated land was 2.4 million hectares. Most of these lands were concentrated in the Murray-Darling basin. In 1995-1996, the total value of crop production was AUD 14.7 billion. dollars. The most important among grain crops is wheat grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of 380-500 mm. It accounts for more than half of all cultivated areas. It is predominantly a winter crop, which is very sensitive to droughts. In particular, in 1994-1995, when the drought hit New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, the wheat harvest fell to 9 million tons, and two years later in 1996-1997 it almost tripled and reached 23.7 million tons. t.
Barley and oats are important winter crops. They are used as fodder for livestock, and are also sown in stubble fields - such areas often serve as pastures. Australia is one of the world's leading exporters of oats; its collection in 1995-1996 amounted to 1.9 million tons on an area of 1.1 million hectares. South Australia is the leader in barley production. Part of the harvest of this crop is used for malt, the rest is for livestock feed or exported. In 1995-1996, 5.8 million tons of barley were harvested on an area of 3.1 million hectares. Among other grain crops, corn (used mainly for fodder), sorghum (grown for grain and fodder), triticale (a hybrid of rye and wheat), and oilseeds - peanut, sunflower, safflower, rapeseed and soybeans stand out. Canola cultivation expanded in the 1990s.
The majority (98%) of rice is grown on irrigated land along the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers (lower valley) in southern New South Wales. Rice crops are expanding in Queensland. In 1996-1997 rice harvest amounted to 1.4 million tons on an area of 164 thousand hectares.
Sugar cane cultivation is limited to coastal areas in eastern Queensland and northern New South Wales. In 1995-1996, 4.9 million tons of sugar were produced, and most of it was exported. Cotton crops in Australia are confined mainly to irrigated lands. The main cotton-growing areas are the Namoi, Guidir and McIntyre river valleys in New South Wales and Burke County. In 1995-1996, 430 thousand tons of cotton fiber were produced (of which 70% was exported). Australia meets its needs for short and medium staple cotton, but has to import long staple cotton.
Vegetable production provides Australia's needs, and over the past decade, the area under vegetables has increased and the range of these crops has expanded. In 1995-1996 vegetable crops occupied 130 thousand hectares. Although much of it for fresh consumption is still grown on small intensively cultivated suburban farms, the development of transport has facilitated the establishment of vegetable farms in areas with the most suitable soils and low land costs. Most vegetables for canning and freezing are produced in irrigated areas.
In Australia, the demand for fruits and grapes is met in excess, but nuts and olives have to be imported. The irrigated lands along the Murray and Murrumbidgee river valleys stand out in terms of productivity, supplying grapes, citrus fruits and a variety of stone fruits such as peaches, cherries and apricots. The main horticultural exports are raisins, oranges, pears and apples. Tropical fruits such as pineapple, banana, papaya, mango, macadamia and granadilla are grown in the strip between Coffs Harbor (New South Wales) and Cairns (Queensland) on the country's east coast.
Grapes are used in winemaking and for dried and fresh consumption. In 1995-1996 vineyards covered an area of 80 thousand hectares. Per last years wine production increased and a significant part of it (more than 25%) was exported. Australian wines are very diverse. In 1994, there were 780 wineries operating in the country. However, 80% of all production came from the four largest wineries.
Forestry. Australia is poorly endowed with good timber. Only 20% of the country's area is covered by primary forests, with 72% of the forests located on public lands, the rest on private lands. Almost three quarters of the forests are occupied by eucalyptus stands. Few species are suitable for making wood pulp, with the exceptions being mountain ash in Gippsland and curry in Western Australia. Local types of softwood have a particularly limited use. To reduce shortages, exotic softwood trees, predominantly stately New Zealand pine, have been planted on about 1 million hectares. However, Australia has to import wood, mainly softwood, from Canada and the US. In turn, Australia exports timber harvested in Tasmania and New South Wales.
Fish farm. Fishing is confined mainly to the southern and eastern parts of the shelf. In the 1990s, it greatly expanded, and a significant part of the catch was exported - mainly spiny lobsters and shrimp to Japan, Xianggang (Hong Kong) and Taiwan. The total value of exported seafood in 1995-1996 exceeded 1 billion Australians. In the same year, a total of 214 thousand tons of seafood were harvested, of which the most important fish species were bluefin tuna, Australian salmon, mullet and shark, and of crustaceans - shrimp and spiny lobsters. Shrimp production was 27.5 thousand tons, and lobsters - 15.6 thousand tons. Shrimp are caught by trawlers in the Gulf of Carpentaria, and lobsters are caught in many areas along the southern coast of Australia. The oyster and scallop fishery is mainly oriented to the domestic market.
Since the early 1980s, aquaculture has expanded and is now one of the fastest growing sectors of fisheries. Currently, the main objects of this industry are oysters, tuna, salmon, shrimp and scallops. The value of its production in 1995-1996 amounted to 338 million Australians. dollars, or twice as much as six years ago. The once prosperous pearl industry has now almost ceased, but artificial pearl farms have been established in several (at least ten) places on the northern coast and provide a considerable income. Rivers and streams in the mountains of Eastern Australia provide favorable opportunities for trout fishing.
Manufacturing industry in Australia
The development of the manufacturing industry in Australia was greatly facilitated by the reduction in imports during the Second World War. The expansion of this industry continued in the 1950s and 1960s, and employment there increased by 70%. In the 1970s, the growth of employment in the manufacturing industry slowed down, and this trend continues today. However, the manufacturing industry now accounts for approx. 14% of GDP, i.e. much less than 20 years ago, when this industry provided 20% of GDP. At the end of the 1970s, approximately 1.2 million people were employed in the manufacturing industry, and in 1996 - approx. 925 thousand people, or 13% of the active population.
Mining industry in Australia
Over the past 40 years, mining in Australia has expanded, and now this country is a major supplier of minerals to the world market. Australia is ahead of other countries in the production of bauxite, diamonds, lead and zircon and in the export of coal, iron ore, bauxite, lead, diamonds and zinc. Australia is the world's second largest exporter of bauxite and uranium, and the third largest exporter of gold and aluminium. The largest extractive industry is coal, hard coal accounts for 10% of Australian exports. In general, in 1995-1996, the extractive industry provided 4% of Australia's GDP, and the products of this industry accounted for 22% of exports. In addition to coal, iron ore, oil, copper, zinc ores and uranium were exported from Australia.
In the past, the most important mineral resource was gold. In 1851-1865, deposits in the states of Victoria and New South Wales, where gold was first found, annually produced an average of 70.8 tons of this precious metal. Later gold deposits were discovered in Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Currently, gold is mined in many parts of the country, but mainly in Western Australia. In total, 264 tons of gold were mined in 1995-1996, with 78% in Western Australia, where the richest Kalgoorlie deposit stands out.
Since 1950, mineral exploration has expanded. Important discoveries were made in the 1960s, especially in the Precambrian shield of Western Australia and in sedimentary basins. As a result, for the first time since the gold rush of the 1850s, there was a gigantic boom in the mining industry. This campaign was financed by the capital of Japan, the United States and, as well as Australia itself. The most active activity unfolded in Western Australia, especially in the extraction of iron ore.
At one time, the export of iron ore was banned, as it was believed that its reserves in the country were limited. This policy was radically changed after huge deposits of this ore were discovered in 1964 in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. In 1995-1996, 137.3 million tons of iron ore were mined in Australia, of which 92% was for export. The main deposits are located in Western Australia - the Hamersley, Newman and Goldsworthy mountains. Other deposits are Tallering Peak, Kulanuka and Kulyanobbing.
Australia has extensive reserves of bauxite, the main raw material for aluminum production, and since 1985 this country has produced at least 40% of the world's bauxite production. Bauxites were first discovered in 1952 on the Gove Peninsula (Northern Territory), and in 1955 in Weipa (Queensland). There are also deposits in Western Australia - in the Darling Range southeast of Perth and on the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region; in all but the last, development has begun. In 1995-1996, 50.7 million tons of bauxite were mined. Part of the bauxite goes to the production of alumina, and the other part is processed into aluminum. The bauxites from the Weipa deposit are sent to Gladstone, where alumina is produced. Similar enrichment plants operate in Gove (Northern Territory); Quinan and Pinjarre (Western Australia) and Bell Bay (Tasmania). In 1995-1996, alumina production in Australia amounted to 13.3 million tons, most of it is exported. At the same time, Australian enterprises produced 1.3 million tons of aluminum by electrolysis.
The coalfields near Newcastle have been exploited since 1800 and coal was one of the first Australian exports. Anthracite and semi-anthracite coals are rare, but the reserves of other types of coal are large. The main deposits of bituminous (coking and steam) coals are located in the Bowen (in Queensland) and Sydney (in New South Wales) basins; some seams are over 18 m thick and may be mined (particularly in the Bowen Basin). It was these coals, in particular from the Queensland deposits located near Collinsville, Moura, Blair Atol and Bridgwater, that revived the Australian coal industry. Japan, the main importer of Australian coal, has been heavily investing in coal mining in the Bowen Basin, where several new mines have been opened. In 1995-1996, 194 million tons of hard coal were mined in Australia (about half in Queensland and the same in New South Wales), 140 million tons of coal were exported (43% to Japan, 13% to Korea and 7% to Taiwan) . Australia is currently the leading supplier of coal to the world market.
Coking coal for iron and steel industry is mined from deposits near Newcastle and Wollongong. Sub-bituminous coals are being developed in Ipswich and Cullaid in Queensland, Lee Creek in South Australia and Fingal in Tasmania. The main deposit of Western Australia is located in Collie, 320 km south of Perth. The Latrobe Valley in Victoria has large deposits of brown coal: three main seams are mined by highly mechanized open pit mining; most of the coal is used in local thermal power plants to power southern Victoria. Other brown coal deposits are located west of Melbourne - in Anglesey and Baccus Marsh. Large brown coal deposits have been discovered in Kingston in the southeast of South Australia, Esperance in Western Australia and Rosevale in Tasmania.
Because the coal industry is of critical economic importance, including for power generation, exports and employment, Australia has long resisted the implementation of the UN resolution adopted at the Kyoto climate change conference in December 1997. Ultimately, she agreed to significantly reduce 2010 carbon gas emissions.
The oil exploration program, which began in the 1950s with state support, contributed to the clear identification of at least 20 sedimentary basins; of these, nine are now producing oil. The most important deposits are in Gippsland (Victoria), Carnarvon (Western Australia), Bonaparte (Northern Territory and Western Australia) and Cooper Eromanga (South Australia and Queensland). In 1995-1996, 30 billion liters of oil were produced, incl. almost half of the Gippsland Basin. Australia has almost reached the level of self-sufficiency in petroleum products, exports of crude oil and condensate in 1994-1995 amounted to 35 million liters, and imports - 77 million liters, which is much less than the level of local production.
Natural gas, first discovered in the Roma region of Queensland in 1904, until 1961 had only local significance. In 1995-1996, almost 30 billion cubic meters were produced in Australia. m of gas, mainly from the deposits of the Gippsland region and the shelf off the northwest coast, with the latter region accounting for more than half and being exported. All state capitals and many other cities are connected by pipelines to gas fields. Brisbane receives gas from the Roma-Surat fields; Sydney, Canberra and Adelaide - from the Cooper Eromanga Basin; Melbourne - from the Gipsland shelf; Perth - from the Dongar-Mandara fields and the shelf off the northwest coast; Darwin - from the deposits of the Amadius basin.
Australia is gradually expanding its LPG production. In 1995-1996, 3.6 billion liters of this gas were produced, including 62% from the Bass Strait fields and 25% from the Cooper Basin.
Australia is the main producer and lead, which are often found together with. The most important area for the extraction of these metals is Mount Isa - Cloncurry in western Queensland, from where the ore goes to the processing plants in Mount Isa and Townsville. Older but still significant mining areas for these metals are Zian Dundas in Tasmania (since 1882) and Broken Hill in western New South Wales (since 1883). In terms of metal content in 1995-1996, 774 thousand tons of lead ore were mined. In the same year, 1.3 million tons of zinc were mined. The Mount Isa-Cloncurry region is also a major hotspot. This metal was first mined in the Kapanda-Barra region of South Australia in the 1840s. In 1991, Australia produced 1.3 million tons of copper in terms of copper concentrate.
Australia became a major producer after the metal was discovered in 1966 at Cambalda, south of the Kalgoorlie gold region in Western Australia. In 1991, 65.4 thousand tons of nickel were mined. After the discovery of diamond deposits in the northeast of Western Australia in 1979, Australia became their main producer. Diamond mining at the Argyle mine began in 1983 and is now considered one of the largest in the world. Most of the mined diamonds are of industrial importance. In 1995-1996 Australia exported almost 7200 kg of diamonds. A significant amount of opals and sapphires is also mined. The Coober Pedy, Andamooka and Mintabe deposits in South Australia produce most of the world's precious opals; New South Wales has the Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs deposits. Sapphires are mined near Glen Innes and Inverell in New South Wales and at Anaki in Queensland.
Australia has most of the world's reserves of rutile, zircon and thorium contained in the sands along the country's east coast between Stradbroke (Queensland) and Byron Bay (NSW) and off the coast of Western Australia at Capel. In 1995-1996, 2.5 million tons of sands containing these minerals were mined. The extraction of manganese ore far exceeds the needs of the country, and most of the production is exported. All manganese comes from Groote Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Australia has been a major supplier of tungsten in the past and a significant portion of its production is still exported. Tungsten mines are located in the northeast of Tasmania and on King Island.
Australia owns 30% of the world's reserves of cheap uranium raw materials. The Labor government in power, out of security concerns, limited uranium mining to two mines. The development of the Ranger Nabarlek fields near Jabiru in the Northern Territory began in 1979, and the development of the Olympic Dam fields in South Australia in 1988. In 1995-1996, 3.2 thousand tons were mined in the first area, and 1.85 thousand tons in the second. The coalition government that came to power in 1996 lifted restrictions on uranium mining. Government approval has been obtained for the Jabiluka mine in the Northern Territory and the Beverly mine in South Australia is planned, although both projects are facing opposition from environmental groups.
Salt is produced by the evaporation of sea water, as well as the waters of salt lakes. Four large installations of this kind, located in Western Australia (Dhampier, Lake MacLeod, Port Hedland and Shark Bay), provide almost 80% of the salt produced in the country. Most of it is exported to Japan, where it is used in the chemical industry. For the domestic market, salt is produced in small factories located mainly in South Australia, Victoria and Queensland.
Australia's foreign trade
Australia has always depended on overseas markets for the products of its ranches, farms, mines and, more recently, manufacturing industries. In 1996-1997, the value of exports amounted to almost 79 billion Australian dollars. dollars, including finished products - 61.4%, mineral raw materials - 22.7% and agricultural products - 13.6%. In the same year, 75% of Australia's exports went to the Asia-Pacific region. The top buyer of Australian goods was Japan (19% of export value), followed by South Korea (9%), New Zealand (8%), US (7%), Taiwan (4.6%), China (4.5%) , Singapore (4.3%), Indonesia (4.2%) and Hong Kong (3.9%), while the UK accounted for only 3%.
Australia's trade balance in 1995-1996 was generally characterized by a slight deficit: exports - 78.885 billion Australians. dollars, imports - 78.997 billion austral. dollars. The main imports were computers, aircraft, motor vehicles, chemical products (including oil), telecommunications equipment, medicines, clothing, shoes and paper. Australia's trade balance different countries evolved differently. For example, there was a surplus with Japan (exports A$15.3 billion and imports A$10.2 billion) and a large deficit with the United States (exports A$5.5 billion). , and imports - 17.6 billion Australian dollars). In addition, there was a surplus with South Korea, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iran and South Africa and significant trade deficits with the UK, and .
The economic ties between Australia and the United States attract particular attention. Australia is considered an active ally of the United States, but along the line foreign trade the balance is not in favor of Australia - just like in trade between the US and Japan, the latter (which in turn is inferior to Australia) wins. Australia and the United States are competitors in the export of some goods, such as grain. Government subsidies given to American export farmers are seen in Australia as unfair competition.
Despite relatively balanced foreign trade performance, Australia has a chronic deficit in its overall international financial balance. This can be explained by successive deficits generated by non-trade factors such as interest payments on foreign loans, dividend payments to foreign investors, insurance costs and ship charters. In fiscal year 1996-1997, Australia's "current account deficit" was 17.5 billion Australians. dollars, or 3.4% of GDP, which is much less than the level of 1994-1995, when it was 27.5 billion Australians. dollars, or 6% of GDP.
In fiscal year 1996-1997, Australia's entire external debt was estimated at AU$288 billion. dollars. Taking into account the value of Australian investments abroad (except for shares), Australia's net external debt was 204 billion Australians. dollars. A country's overall international investment position can be estimated by adding this external debt to its net equity investment. In 1996-1997, Australia's gross foreign share liabilities were AUD 217 billion. dollars, and a net liability on foreign shares - 105 billion austral.dollars. In general, the international investment position of Australia, taking into account debt and equities, was characterized by a deficit of 309 billion Australians. Doll.
The Australian economy has always been heavily dependent on foreign investment. With the government's continued market orientation, healthy economy, and large-scale development projects, foreign capital has continued to flow. In fiscal year 1996-1997, total foreign investment was AUD 217 billion. dollars, and the volume of Australian investments abroad - 173 billion Australian. USD In general, approx. 29% of the shares of Australian companies were owned by foreigners, and in private trading companies this figure reached 44%. Particularly large is the participation of foreign capital in the mining industry.
Throughout the 20th century Australia tried to protect its industry by imposing duties on imported goods, while at the same time trying to establish free export of goods. Since the beginning of the 1970s, customs duties have been sharply reduced, which significantly affected the production and employment in a number of sectors of the economy, for example, in the manufacturing industry - in the production of cars, clothing and shoes. As a result of these policies, the Australian economy has become more competitive, and the share of manufactured goods in exports has increased significantly. Thanks to a more stable economic structure, by the end of 1998 Australia was able to overcome the strong shocks that erupted in the Asia-Pacific region without much loss. Australia has strengthened its position in the so-called. Cairns Group of Trading Partners and in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, upholding the principle of free trade. In the late 1990s, the Australian government, concerned high level unemployment and the unwillingness of other partners in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation to continue the policy of reducing customs duties, itself introduced a moratorium on further reductions in duties until 2004.
Money circulation and banking. Australia has adopted a decimal currency system since 1966. The Australian dollar is issued by the Reserve Bank of Australia, which regulates interest rates and controls the financial system. In recent years, regulation of the banking sector has been gradually loosened. For example, since 1983, foreign banks have been allowed to operate in Australia, and the fundamental differences between different types banks and between banks and other financial institutions such as life insurance companies, construction companies and pension funds. As of June 1996, 50 Australian and foreign banks operated in the country, with more than 6.5 thousand branches. The four largest Australian banks - the National Bank of Australia, the Union Bank of Australia, Westpack Banking Corporation and the Australian and New Zealand Banking Group - control more than half of all banking assets. The merger of these four large banks is prohibited by the state, which seeks to ensure the competitiveness of the banking sector.
Australian public finance
Despite the federal principle state structure, through which the states initially received significant financial autonomy, the dominant factor in the system of public finances in Australia is federal government. In fiscal year 1995-1996, for example, the national government increased its share of public sector revenue by 73%, while its own expenditures (excluding subsidies to other government agencies) amounted to approx. 55% of total public sector spending. The draft federal budget for the 1998-1999 financial year provides for revenues of 144.3 billion Australians. dollars, of which 2.5% comes from tax revenues, and expenses in the amount of 141.6 billion austral. dollars, which will amount to a budget surplus of 2.7 billion Australians. dollars. The main areas of budget spending are social insurance and social assistance (38% of total spending), health care (16%), defense (7%) and education (4%).
The surplus envisaged by the draft budget should end the 7-year period of the budget deficit, which came after the Labor government managed to achieve a positive budget balance for 4 years in a row (from 1987-1988 to 1990-1991). It is assumed that in the foreseeable future the country will have a deficit-free budget. As a result, within four years, the amount of domestic public debt (the statistics of which do not include indicators of state-owned business enterprises) should be reduced to zero. For comparison: in the 1995-1996 financial year, the amount of public debt reached a peak and amounted to 95.8 billion Australians. dollars, or 19.5% of GDP. The total revenues of the governments of the states and territories in 1995-1996 amounted to 74.4 billion Australians. About 46% of this amount was received in the form of grants from the federal government, the rest was received in the form of taxes on payroll, property, financial transactions and sales tax. The main items of expenditure for state and territory governments are education (31% of spending), health care (20%), public debt repayment (15%), police and security services (9%).
Taxation system. In the system of taxation, the most important place is occupied by income tax. Although in general the level of taxes in Australia is much lower than in other developed industrial countries, income tax rates are quite high. In 1995-1996, income tax accounted for over 60% of taxes collected at all levels (while personal income tax accounted for 40%, and legal entities - 13%). Income from individuals is calculated on a progressive scale, starting with a minimum rate of 20% levied on income that exceeds the tax-exempt annual income of 5.4 thousand AUD. dollars, and up to a maximum rate of 47% on income in excess of 50 thousand Australians. dollars (data as of 1997-1998). Over the past decades, there has been a gradual decrease in the maximum income tax rate, which was previously 60%.
Wealth and real estate taxes are relatively low, totaling 5% of the total tax deductions, and there is no inheritance tax (inheritance tax was abolished in the 1970s). Tax on goods and services in 1995-1996 amounted to approx. 23% of total tax revenues, which is somewhat less than in other industrialized countries, but the taxation mechanism in this area is rather complicated. The federal government collects a wholesale tax at various rates (12% on some goods, 22% on others, and 32% on "luxury goods"). There is also a 37% wholesale tax on beer and spirits, a 41% tax on wine and a 45% tax on expensive cars. Food, clothes, building materials, books, magazines and newspapers, medicines are not taxed. In addition, a federal excise tax is levied on oil and certain agricultural products. Until 1997, taxes and excises were also levied on gasoline, alcoholic beverages and tobacco products, which were legally treated as taxes on franchise and working capital. In August 1997, the High Court ruled that these taxes were unconstitutional and violated the government's monopoly on excises, so steps were hastily taken to transfer these taxes to the category of state taxes that go to state budgets.
In 1985, the then Labor government supported the idea of introducing a simple and comprehensive consumption tax, but then he had to withdraw this project under pressure from supporters of the social security system and trade unions, who feared the regressive effect of the new tax mechanism. The proposal to introduce a single tax on goods and services (GST) was included in the radical platform of the liberal-national opposition in the elections of 1993, but the apparent unpopularity of this proposal, admittedly, was the reason for the defeat of the opposition coalition. However, in 1996 the same opposition coalition led by John Howard defeated the Labor Party even though its program included the same unpopular thesis about the introduction of NTU. At the same time, the Howard government promised that if he was re-elected in 1998, it would not only reduce the income tax rate (which was supposed to be the basis of the budget surplus planned by the government), but at the same time introduce a 10% GST on all goods and services (except institutions health care, education and kindergartens). With this tax reform program, the Howard government won the election. However, the fate of the NTU project remains unclear, as the government does not have a majority in the Senate. It is likely that if foodstuffs are also excluded from the tax base, the NTU will be supported by small party senators and come into force in 2000.
Distribution of Australian tax revenue
The states that formed the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 became not only self-financing, but also self-governing entities. As the federal government strengthened and expanded its participation in the development and implementation of state financial policy (for example, in 1908 the national pension program was adopted), it began to collect taxes that had previously been the prerogative of state governments (land tax, funeral duty, income tax and etc.) and compete with the states in capital construction lending.
In the early days of the Union, a number of once-important revenue items for the state budgets - the tax on public utilities, public transport and the sold-off lands of the British crown - gradually lost economic importance. On the other hand, the constitutional transfer of "customs and excise duties" to the federal government has limited the ability of the states to levy taxes in these areas. Although the transfer of these payments to the federal level was intended to stimulate internal trade between the states and establish uniform tariffs on imports, this gave impetus to the emergence of a "vertical budget imbalance", in which the federal government's revenue invariably exceeds its real spending and, accordingly, the states really spend far more than they can collect in taxes. With regard to "excise payments", the High Court insisted on a fairly broad interpretation of them, which deprived the state budgets of many potential sources of revenue in the form of turnover tax, consumption tax, penalties and left the states with a rather narrow tax base.
Throughout the 1920s, the states struggled to meet their obligations to repay debts and interest payments on previously taken loans, as a result of which they ran into budget deficits. In 1927, a special mechanism was developed for coordinating government loan programs and eliminating competition between the federal center and the states in the field of borrowing within the framework of a financial agreement between the states and the federal government, according to which a loan council was formed. All government loans (with the exception of defense loans) now had to be made in agreement with the Board of Loans, which included one representative from each state and central government. The federal government received two advisory votes and one casting vote in the council, so that the government needed to enlist the support of two more states to make favorable decisions. But even without these additional votes, the federal government's financial dominance in other areas of the economy allowed it to consistently exercise decisive influence on the decisions of the loan board. In 1928, the financial agreement received constitutional justification in a referendum that approved the inclusion of Article 105A in the constitution.
Finally, when the federal government succeeded in monopolizing the collection of income taxes in the 1940s, its financial power was on a firm footing. In the early 1940s, income tax became the most important source of replenishment of the state budget, while income tax rates varied significantly from state to state. During World War II, the federal government, ostensibly in an effort to find efficient and fair ways to increase budget revenues, proposed to the states that they waive direct taxes for the duration of the war (in exchange for federal compensation payments) so that uniform tax rates could be established throughout the country. . But the premiers of the states did not agree with this proposal, and then in 1941 the federal parliament passed a law obliging the states to adopt a new scheme. As a result, the states were entitled to compensatory transfers for lost revenues, but only on the condition that they did not impose their own income tax. A number of states challenged the single tax law, but in 1942 the High Court upheld it. In 1946, the federal parliament again passed the same law in order to maintain a single tax in peacetime (in 1957 this law was also upheld by the High Court). However, the federal government had no legal grounds to prevent the introduction of local income taxes in the states. However, the practical significance of the new legislation was that the federal government secured a monopoly on the collection of income tax, since the imposition of a state income tax would automatically deprive it of federal transfers and could lead to "double taxation" in that state.
This system of taxation finally strengthened the financial basis of Australian federalism. Currently, income taxes are collected by the central government. The federal budget for 1998-1999 provides for the collection of income taxes in the amount of 99 billion Australians. dollars - of which 76% are for individuals, 23% - for legal entities. Another 15 billion Australians. dollars should come to the budget from the tax on wholesale sales and 14 billion austral. dollars - from excise payments on petroleum products and so on.
In 1971, some of the vertical fiscal imbalance was corrected when the federal government gave the states the power to levy a payroll tax (in exchange for a reduction in the general spending transfer, although the states promptly legislated tax rates higher, benefiting from this reform as a result) . The payroll tax has become the most important source of state budget revenues, being directly related to the rate of economic growth. However, this tax is considered too burdensome for businesses, as it slows down the development of investment and employment.
In practice, the vertical budget imbalance is determined by the federal center, which returns budget funds to the states in the form of transfers (subsidies). The Union Government proposes a draft budget for the coming year at the annual conference of state premiers. The heads of state governments participate in this partly ritual and partly competitive forum, making their own amendments and entering into special agreements with the government. At different stages modern history of the country, the federal center was regarded by the states as a generous, then as a tight-fisted creditor, although it must be admitted that the degree of generosity of the government of the Union invariably depended on the general principles of its economic strategy. Thus, in the first years after the war, budget revenues from increased tax collection served as a powerful financial support for strengthening the federal government. At the same time, the size of compensatory transfers to the states was constantly decreasing.
The system of vertical budget imbalance has its supporters. The country has developed a centralized and in general efficient system collection of income tax, and the powers of the federal center to determine the amount of government spending and borrowing, in turn, provide it with the ability to effectively manage the country's economy as a whole. On the other hand, the opinion is expressed that the budget imbalance significantly violates the interdependence between public spending programs and the execution of the budget revenues. According to the opponents of the current system, not only does this imbalance prevent direct linking of decisions on public spending with responsibility for the execution of the revenue side of the budget, but also the social and financial responsibility of power structures is eroded.
State governments, in principle, are able to increase their budget revenues through local taxes. In the past, the central government has given the states the opportunity - notably in 1952 and 1977 - to take over some of the functions of collecting income taxes. However, the states did not want to use the powers they received. With the increase of some local payments and taxes, other taxes are simultaneously reduced, or even completely canceled. Thus, in most states the inheritance tax was abolished, land tax benefits were introduced, and in 1977 none of the states took advantage of the opportunity to introduce an income tax surcharge.
The Howard government promised that all revenue generated by the introduction of GST would be redistributed to the states. This measure should provide states with more accurate fiscal revenue projections, although it is unlikely to help reduce vertical fiscal imbalances.
In the past, most federal grants to the states were distributed as “untied” “general use” payments (in the 1990s they were called bailout grants), which allowed the states to use the allocated funds at their own discretion. Article 96 of the constitution states that the federal government "may grant financial assistance to any state on such terms as the federal parliament thinks acceptable." And according to the decision of the High Court, the federal center, when allocating financial assistance to the states under certain conditions, has the right to determine among these conditions those that may relate to powers that are not constitutionally transferred to the federal center.
The first legislation in the 1940s to allocate the power to collect taxes proposed that the federal government's reimbursement of income taxes collected in the states should be in the form of "untied" payments, so that the states could dispose of them as freely as they previously disposed of income from the collection local income taxes. Beginning in the late 1940s, however, the federal government repeatedly increased the share of "tied" (i.e., targeted) payments, which now account for about half of all federal transfers.
Ten years after the formation of the Commonwealth of Australia, the federal government has become a reliable source of financial assistance to states that had previously experienced serious financial difficulties. In 1933, when the practice of issuing government subsidies was firmly rooted, the central government created a permanent special body - a commission on subsidies - to determine the amount and form of financial assistance to the states.
Page 3 of 7
Natural conditions and resources
Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. New discoveries of mineral ores made on the continent over the past 10-15 years have advanced the country to one of the first places in the world in terms of reserves and extraction of such minerals as iron ore, bauxite, lead-zinc ores.
The largest deposits of iron ore in Australia, which began to be developed since the 60s of our century, are located in the region of the Hamersley Range in the north-west of the country (the Mount Newman, Mount Goldsworth, etc. deposits). Iron ore is also found on the Kulan and Kokatu Islands in King's Bay (in the northwest), in the state of South Australia in the Middleback Range (Iron-Knob, etc.) and in Tasmania - the Savage River deposit (in the Savage river valley).
Large deposits of polymetals (lead, zinc mixed with silver and copper) are located in the western desert part of the state of New South Wales - the Broken Hill deposit. An important center for the extraction of non-ferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc) has developed near the Mount Isa deposit (in the state of Queensland). There are also deposits of polymetals and copper in Tasmania (Reed Rosebury and Mount Lyell), copper in Tennant Creek (Northern Territory) and elsewhere.
The main gold reserves are concentrated in the ledges of the Precambrian basement and in the southwest of the mainland (Western Australia), in the area of the cities of Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie, Northman and Wiluna, as well as in Queensland. Smaller deposits are found in almost all states.
Bauxites occur on the Cape York Peninsula (Waype Field) and Arnhem Land (Gow Field), as well as in the southwest, in the Darling Range (Jarradale Field).
Uranium deposits have been found in various parts of the mainland: in the north (Arnhemland Peninsula) - near the South and East Alligator rivers, in the state of South Australia - near Lake. Frome, in the state of Queensland - the Mary-Katlin field and in the western part of the country - the Yillirri field.
The main deposits of coal are located in the eastern part of the mainland. The largest deposits of both coking and non-coking coal are developed near the cities of Newcastle and Lythgow (New South Wales) and the cities of Collinsville, Blair Atol, Bluff, Baralaba and Moura Kiang in Queensland.
Geological surveys have established that large deposits of oil and natural gas are located in the bowels of the Australian mainland and on the shelf off its coast. Oil has been found and produced in Queensland (the Mooney, Alton and Bennet fields), on Barrow Island off the northwestern coast of the mainland, and also on the continental shelf off the south coast of Victoria (the Kingfish field). Deposits of gas (the largest Ranken field) and oil have also been discovered on the shelf off the northwestern shores of the mainland.
Australia has large deposits of chromium (Queensland), Gingin, Dongara, Mandarra (Western Australia), Marlin (Victoria).
From non-metallic minerals, there are clays, sands, limestones, asbestos, and mica of various quality and industrial use.
The water resources of the continent itself are small, but the most developed river network is on the island of Tasmania. The rivers there have a mixed rain and snow supply and are full-flowing throughout the year. They flow down from the mountains and therefore are stormy, rapids and have large reserves of hydropower. The latter is widely used for the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The availability of cheap electricity contributes to the development of energy-intensive industries in Tasmania, such as the smelting of pure electrolyte metals, the manufacture of cellulose, etc.
The rivers flowing from the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range are short, in their upper reaches they flow in narrow gorges. Here they may well be used, and partly already used for the construction of hydroelectric power stations. When entering the coastal plain, the rivers slow down their flow, their depth increases. Many of them in the estuarine parts are even accessible to large ocean-going vessels. The Clarence River is navigable for 100 km from its mouth, and Hawkesbury for 300 km. The volume of runoff and the regime of these rivers are different and depend on the amount of precipitation and the time of their occurrence.
On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, rivers originate, making their way along the interior plains. In the region of Mount Kosciuszko, the most abundant river in Australia, the Murray, begins. Its largest tributaries, the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Goulbury and some others, also originate in the mountains.
Food r. The Murray and its channels are mostly rainy and to a lesser extent snowy. These rivers are at their fullest in early summer, when the snow melts in the mountains. In the dry season, they become very shallow, and some of the Murray's tributaries break up into separate stagnant reservoirs. Only Murray and Murrumbidgee retain a constant current (except for exceptionally dry years). Even the Darling, the longest river in Australia (2450 km), during summer droughts, getting lost in the sands, does not always reach the Murray.
Dams and dams have been built on almost all the rivers of the Murray system, near which reservoirs have been created, where flood waters are collected and used to irrigate fields, gardens and pastures.
The rivers of the northern and western coasts of Australia are shallow and relatively small. The longest of them - Flinders flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. These rivers are fed by rain, and their water content varies greatly at different times of the year.
Rivers whose flow is directed to the interior of the mainland, such as Coopers Creek (Barkoo), Diamant-ina, and others, are deprived not only of a constant flow, but also of a permanent, distinctly expressed channel. In Australia, such temporary rivers are called screams. They fill with water only during short showers. Soon after the rain, the riverbed again turns into a dry sandy hollow, often not even having a definite shape.
Most lakes in Australia, like rivers, are fed by rainwater. They have neither a constant level nor a runoff. In summer, the lakes dry up and are shallow saline depressions. The layer of salt at the bottom sometimes reaches 1.5 m.
In the seas surrounding Australia, sea animals are mined and fish are caught. Edible oysters are bred in sea waters. Sea trepang, crocodiles and pearl clams are fished in warm coastal waters in the north and northeast. The main center of artificial breeding of the latter is located in the region of the Koberg peninsula (Arnhemland). It was here, in the warm waters of the Arafura Sea and Van Diemen Bay, that the first experiments were carried out to create special sediments. These experiments were carried out by one of the Australian companies with the participation of Japanese specialists. It has been found that pearl clams grown in warm waters off the northern coast of Australia produce larger pearls than those off the coast of Japan, and in a much shorter period of time. At present, the cultivation of pearl mollusks has spread widely along the northern and partly northeastern coasts.
Since the Australian mainland for a long time, starting from the middle of the Cretaceous period, was in conditions of isolation from other parts of the globe, its flora is very peculiar. Of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, more than 9 thousand are endemic, i.e. grow only on the Australian continent. Among the endemics are many species of eucalyptus and acacia, the most typical plant families in Australia. At the same time, there are also such plants that are inherent in South America (for example, the southern beech), South Africa (representatives of the Proteaceae family) and the islands of the Malay Archipelago (ficus, pandanus, etc.). This indicates that many millions of years ago there were land connections between the continents.
Since the climate of most of Australia is characterized by severe aridity, dry-loving plants dominate in its flora: special cereals, eucalyptus trees, umbrella acacias, succulent trees (bottle tree, etc.). The trees belonging to these communities have a powerful root system, which goes 10-20, and sometimes 30 m into the ground, due to which they, like a pump, suck out moisture from great depths. The narrow and dry leaves of these trees are painted mostly in a dull gray-greenish color. In some of them, the leaves are turned to the sun with an edge, which helps to reduce the evaporation of water from their surface.
In the far north and northwest of the country, where it is hot and warm northwest monsoons bring moisture, tropical rainforests grow. Giant eucalyptus trees, ficuses, palm trees, pandanuses with narrow long leaves, etc. predominate in their woody composition. The dense foliage of the trees forms an almost continuous cover, shading the ground. In some places along the coast there are thickets of bamboo. Where the shores are flat and muddy, mangrove vegetation develops.
Rainforests in the form of narrow galleries stretch for relatively short distances inland along the river valleys.
The farther to the south, the drier the climate becomes and the hotter breath of the deserts is felt more strongly. The forest cover is gradually thinning. Eucalyptus and umbrella acacias are arranged in groups. This is a zone of humid savannas, stretching in a latitudinal direction south of the tropical forest zone. In appearance, savannahs with rare groups of trees resemble parks. There is no undergrowth in them. Sunlight freely penetrates through a sieve of small tree leaves and falls on the ground covered with tall dense grass. Forested savannahs are excellent pastures for sheep and cattle.
Conclusion: Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. Australia is located on a large mainland and this shows the diversity of resources. Australia is mostly a desert continent.
Natural resources and conditions.
Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. New discoveries of mineral ores made on the continent over the past 10-15 years have advanced the country to one of the first places in the world in terms of reserves and extraction of such minerals as iron ore, bauxite, lead-zinc ores.
The largest deposits of iron ore in Australia, which began to be developed since the 60s of our century, are located in the region of the Hamersley Range in the north-west of the country (the Mount Newman, Mount Goldsworth, etc. deposits). Iron ore is also found on the islands of Kulan and Kokatu in King's Bay (in the northwest), in the state of South Australia in the Middleback Range (Iron-Knob, etc.) and in Tasmania - the Savage River deposit (in the valley of the Savage River).
Large deposits of semi-metals (lead, zinc with an admixture of silver and copper) are located in the western desert part of the state of New South Wales - the Broken Hill deposit. An important center for the extraction of non-ferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc) has developed near the Mount Isa deposit (in the state of Queensland). Deposits of semimetals and copper are also found in Tasmania (Reed Rosebury and Mount Lyell), copper - in Tennant Creek (Northern Territory) and in other places.
The main gold reserves are concentrated in the ledges of the Precambrian basement and in the southwest of the mainland (Western Australia), in the area of the cities of Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie, Northman and Wiluna, as well as in Queensland. Smaller deposits are found in almost all states.
Bauxites occur on the Cape York Peninsula (Waype Field) and Arnhem Land (Gow Field), as well as in the southwest, in the Darling Range (Jarradale Field).
Uranium deposits have been found in various parts of the mainland: in the north (Arnhemland Peninsula) - near the South and East Alligator rivers, in the state of South Australia - near Lake. Frome, in the state of Queensland - the Mary-Katlin field and in the western part of the country - the Yillirri field.
The main deposits of coal are located in the eastern part of the mainland. The largest deposits of both coking and non-coking coal are developed near the cities of Newcastle and Lythgow (New South Wales) and the cities of Collinsville, Blair Atol, Bluff, Baralaba and Moura Kiang in Queensland.
Geological surveys have established that large deposits of oil and natural gas are located in the bowels of the Australian mainland and on the shelf off its coast. Oil has been found and produced in Queensland (the Mooney, Alton and Bennet fields), on Barrow Island off the northwestern coast of the mainland, and also on the continental shelf off the south coast of Victoria (the Kingfish field). Deposits of gas (the largest Ranken field) and oil have also been discovered on the shelf off the northwestern shores of the mainland.
Australia has large deposits of chromium (Queensland), Gingin, Dongara, Mandarra (Western Australia), Marlin (Victoria).
From non-metallic minerals, there are clays, sands, limestones, asbestos, and mica of various quality and industrial use.
The water resources of the continent itself are small, but the most developed river network is on the island of Tasmania. The rivers there have a mixed rain and snow supply and are full-flowing throughout the year. They flow down from the mountains and therefore are stormy, rapids and have large reserves of hydropower. The latter is widely used for the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The availability of cheap electricity contributes to the development of energy-intensive industries in Tasmania, such as the smelting of pure electrolyte metals, the manufacture of cellulose, etc.
The rivers flowing from the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range are short, in their upper reaches they flow in narrow gorges. Here they may well be used, and partly already used for the construction of hydroelectric power stations. When entering the coastal plain, the rivers slow down their flow, their depth increases. Many of them in the estuarine parts are even accessible to large ocean-going vessels. The Clarence River is navigable for 100 km from its mouth, and Hawkesbury for 300 km. The volume of runoff and the regime of these rivers are different and depend on the amount of precipitation and the time of their occurrence.
On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, rivers originate, making their way along the interior plains. In the region of Mount Kosciuszko, the most abundant river in Australia, the Murray, begins. Its largest tributaries, the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Goulbury and some others, also originate in the mountains.
Food r. The Murray and its channels are mostly rainy and to a lesser extent snowy. These rivers are at their fullest in early summer, when the snow melts in the mountains. In the dry season, they become very shallow, and some of the Murray's tributaries break up into separate stagnant reservoirs. Only Murray and Murrumbidgee retain a constant current (except for exceptionally dry years). Even the Darling, the longest river in Australia (2450 km), during summer droughts, getting lost in the sands, does not always reach the Murray.
Dams and dams have been built on almost all the rivers of the Murray system, near which reservoirs have been created, where flood waters are collected and used to irrigate fields, gardens and pastures.
The rivers of the northern and western coasts of Australia are shallow and relatively small. The longest of them - Flinders flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. These rivers are fed by rain, and their water content varies greatly at different times of the year.
Rivers whose flow is directed to the interior of the mainland, such as Coopers Creek (Barkoo), Diamant-ina, and others, are deprived not only of a constant flow, but also of a permanent, distinctly expressed channel. In Australia, such temporary rivers are called screams. They fill with water only during short showers. Soon after the rain, the riverbed again turns into a dry sandy hollow, often not even having a definite shape.
Most lakes in Australia, like rivers, are fed by rainwater. They have neither a constant level nor a runoff. In summer, the lakes dry up and are shallow saline depressions. The layer of salt at the bottom sometimes reaches 1.5 m.
In the seas surrounding Australia, sea animals are mined and fish are caught. Edible oysters are bred in sea waters. Sea trepang, crocodiles and pearl clams are fished in warm coastal waters in the north and northeast. The main center of artificial breeding of the latter is located in the region of the Koberg peninsula (Arnhemland). It was here, in the warm waters of the Arafura Sea and Van Diemen Bay, that the first experiments were carried out to create special sediments. These experiments were carried out by one of the Australian companies with the participation of Japanese specialists. It has been found that pearl clams grown in warm waters off the northern coast of Australia produce larger pearls than those off the coast of Japan, and in a much shorter period of time. At present, the cultivation of pearl mollusks has spread widely along the northern and partly northeastern coasts.
Since the Australian mainland for a long time, starting from the middle of the Cretaceous period, was in conditions of isolation from other parts of the globe, its flora is very peculiar. Of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, more than 9 thousand are endemic, i.e. grow only on the Australian continent. Among the endemics are many species of eucalyptus and acacia, the most typical plant families in Australia. At the same time, there are also such plants that are inherent in South America (for example, the southern beech), South Africa (representatives of the Proteaceae family) and the islands of the Malay Archipelago (ficus, pandanus, etc.). This indicates that many millions of years ago there were land connections between the continents.
Since the climate of most of Australia is characterized by severe aridity, dry-loving plants dominate in its flora: special cereals, eucalyptus trees, umbrella acacias, succulent trees (bottle tree, etc.). The trees belonging to these communities have a powerful root system, which goes 10-20, and sometimes 30 m into the ground, due to which they, like a pump, suck out moisture from great depths. The narrow and dry leaves of these trees are painted mostly in a dull gray-greenish color. In some of them, the leaves are turned to the sun with an edge, which helps to reduce the evaporation of water from their surface.
In the far north and northwest of the country, where it is hot and warm northwest monsoons bring moisture, tropical rainforests grow. Giant eucalyptus trees, ficuses, palm trees, pandanuses with narrow long leaves, etc. predominate in their woody composition. The dense foliage of the trees forms an almost continuous cover, shading the ground. In some places along the coast there are thickets of bamboo. Where the shores are flat and muddy, mangrove vegetation develops.
Rainforests in the form of narrow galleries stretch for relatively short distances inland along the river valleys.
The farther to the south, the drier the climate becomes and the hotter breath of the deserts is felt more strongly. The forest cover is gradually thinning. Eucalyptus and umbrella acacias are arranged in groups. This is a zone of humid savannas, stretching in a latitudinal direction south of the tropical forest zone. In appearance, savannahs with rare groups of trees resemble parks. There is no undergrowth in them. Sunlight freely penetrates through a sieve of small tree leaves and falls on the ground covered with tall dense grass. Forested savannahs are excellent pastures for sheep and cattle.
The central deserts of parts of the mainland, where it is very hot and dry, are characterized by dense, almost impenetrable thickets of thorny low-growing shrubs, consisting mainly of eucalyptus and acacia. In Australia, these thickets are called scrub. In places it is scraped, interspersed with vast, devoid of vegetation sandy, rocky or clay areas of deserts, and in places - thickets of tall soddy grasses (spinifex).
The eastern and southeastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range, where there is a lot of rainfall, are covered with dense tropical and subtropical evergreen forests. Most of all in these forests, as elsewhere in Australia, eucalyptus trees. Eucalyptus trees are industrially valuable. These trees have no equal in height among hardwood species; some of their species reach 150 m in height and 10 m in diameter. The growth of wood in eucalyptus forests is large, and therefore they are very productive. There are also many tree-like horsetails and ferns in the forests, reaching 10-20 m in height. At their top, tree-like ferns carry a crown of large (up to 2 m long) pinnate leaves. With their bright and fresh greenery, they somewhat enliven the faded bluish-green landscape of eucalyptus forests. Higher in the mountains, an admixture of damarr pines and beeches is noticeable.
Shrub and grass covers in these forests are varied and dense. In less humid variants of these forests, grass trees form the second layer.
On the island of Tasmania, in addition to eucalyptus trees, there are many evergreen beeches related to South American species.
In the southwest of the mainland, forests cover the western slopes of the Darling Range, facing the sea. These forests consist almost entirely of eucalyptus trees, reaching considerable heights. The number of endemic species is especially high here. In addition to eucalyptus, bottle trees are widespread. They have an original bottle-shaped trunk, thick at the base and tapering sharply upwards. In the rainy season, large reserves of moisture accumulate in the tree trunk, which are consumed during the dry season. In the undergrowth of these forests there are many shrubs and herbs, full of bright colors.
In general, Australia's forest resources are small. The total area of forests, including special plantations, consisting mainly of species with soft wood (mainly radiata pine), at the end of the 70s was only 5.6% of the country's territory.
The first colonists did not find plant species characteristic of Europe on the mainland. Subsequently, European and other species of trees, shrubs and herbs were brought to Australia. Grapevine, cotton, cereals (wheat, barley, oats, rice, corn, etc.), vegetables, many fruit trees, etc. are well established here.
In Australia, all soil types characteristic of tropical, subequatorial and subtropical natural zones are presented in a regular sequence.
In the area of tropical rainforests in the north, red soils are common, changing towards the south with red-brown and brown soils in wet savannahs and gray-brown soils in dry savannahs. Red-brown and brown soils containing humus, a little phosphorus and potassium, are valuable for agricultural use.
Within the zone of red-brown soils, the main wheat crops of Australia are located.
In the marginal regions of the Central Plains (for example, in the Murray basin), where artificial irrigation is developed and a lot of fertilizers are used, grapes, fruit trees, and fodder grasses are grown on gray earth soils.
Gray-brown steppe soils are common in the semi-desert and especially steppe areas surrounding the desert interior territories, where there is grass, and in some places shrub-tree cover. Their power is insignificant. They contain little humus and phosphorus, therefore, when using them even as pastures for sheep and cattle, the application of phosphorus fertilizers is required.
The Australian continent is located within the three main warm climatic zones of the southern hemisphere: subequatorial (in the north), tropical (in the central part), subtropical (in the south). Only a small part of Tasmania lies within the temperate zone.
The subequatorial climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature course (during the year, the average air temperature is 23 - 24 degrees) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm., and in some places more than 2000 mm.). Precipitation is brought here by the humid northwest monsoon, and it falls mainly in the summer. In winter, during the dry season, rain falls only occasionally. At this time, dry, hot winds blow from the interior of the mainland, which sometimes cause droughts.
In the tropical zone on the Australian continent, two main types of climate are formed: tropical wet and tropical dry.
A humid tropical climate is characteristic of the extreme eastern part of Australia, which is included in the zone of action of the southeast trade winds. These winds bring moisture-saturated air masses from the Pacific Ocean to the mainland. Therefore, the entire region of the coastal plains and the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range is well moistened (on average, precipitation is from 1000 to 1500 mm) and has a mild warm climate (the temperature of the warmest month in Sydney is 22 - 25 degrees, and the coldest - 11, 5 - 13 degrees).
Air masses that bring moisture from the Pacific Ocean also penetrate beyond the Great Dividing Range, losing a significant amount of moisture along the way, so precipitation falls only on the western slopes of the ridge and in the foothills.
Located mainly in tropical and subtropical latitudes, where solar radiation is high, the Australian mainland is getting very hot. In connection with the weak indentation of the coastline and the elevation of the marginal parts, the influence of the seas surrounding the mainland is weakly felt in the inner parts.
Australia is the driest continent on Earth, and one of the most characteristic features of its nature is the wide distribution of deserts that occupy vast spaces and stretch for almost 2.5 thousand km from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the foothills of the Great Dividing Range.
The central and western parts of the mainland are characterized by a desert tropical climate. In summer (December-February), the average temperatures here rise to 30 degrees, and sometimes even higher, and in winter (June-August) they drop to an average of 10-15 degrees. The hottest region of Australia is the northwestern one, where in the Great Sandy Desert the temperature stays at around 35 degrees and even higher almost all summer. In winter, it decreases slightly (up to about 25-20 degrees). In the center of the mainland, near the city of Alice Springs, in the summer, the temperature during the day rises to 45 degrees, at night it drops to zero and below (-4-6 degrees).
Central and western parts of Australia, i.e. about half of its territory receives an average of 250-300 mm of precipitation per year, and the vicinity of the lake. Air - less than 200 mm; but even these insignificant precipitations fall unevenly. Sometimes for several years in a row there is no rain at all, and sometimes in two or three days, or even in a few hours, the entire annual amount of precipitation falls. Part of the water seeps quickly and deeply through the permeable soil and becomes inaccessible to plants, and part evaporates under the hot rays of the sun, and the surface layers of the soil remain almost dry.
Within the subtropical belt, three types of climate are distinguished: Mediterranean, subtropical continental and subtropical humid.
The Mediterranean climate is characteristic of the southwestern part of Australia. As the name suggests, the climate of this part of the country is similar to the climate of the European Mediterranean countries - Spain and Southern France. Summers are hot and generally dry, while winters are warm and humid. Relatively small fluctuations in temperature by season (January - 23-27 degrees, June - 12 - 14 degrees), a sufficient amount of precipitation (from 600 to 1000 mm).
The continental subtropical climate zone covers the southern part of the mainland adjacent to the Great Australian Gulf, includes the vicinity of the city of Adelaide and extends somewhat further east, to the western regions of the state of New South Wales. The main features of this climate are low rainfall and relatively large annual temperature fluctuations.
The humid subtropical climate zone includes the entire state of Victoria and the southwestern foothills of the state of New South Wales. In general, this entire zone is characterized by a mild climate and a significant amount of precipitation (from 500 to 600 mm), mainly in the coastal parts (the penetration of precipitation into the interior of the continent decreases). In summer, temperatures rise to an average of 20-24 degrees, but in winter they drop quite a lot - up to 8-10 degrees. The climate of this part of the country is favorable for the cultivation of fruit trees, various vegetables and forage grasses. True, artificial irrigation is used to obtain high yields, since in the summer the moisture in the soil is not enough. Dairy cattle (grazing on fodder grasses) and sheep are bred in these areas.
The temperate climate zone includes only the central and southern parts of the island of Tasmania. This island is largely influenced by the surrounding waters and has a climate of moderately warm winters and cool summers. The average January temperature here is 14-17 degrees, June - 8 degrees. The prevailing wind direction is west. The average annual rainfall in the western part of the island is 2500 mm, and the number of rainy days is 259. In the eastern part, the climate is somewhat less humid.
In winter, snow sometimes falls, but it does not last long. Abundant rainfall favors the development of vegetation, and especially herbs, which vegetate all year round. Herds of cattle and sheep graze all year round on evergreen succulent natural and improved by oversowing fodder grasses meadows.
The hot climate and insignificant and uneven precipitation over most of the mainland lead to the fact that almost 60% of its territory is deprived of runoff to the ocean and has only a rare network of temporary watercourses. Perhaps, on no other continent is there such a poorly developed network of inland waters as in Australia. The annual flow of all the rivers of the continent is only 350 cubic km.
Population. Demographic situation
In 1996 The population of Australia amounted to 18,322,231 people, so Australia's place in terms of population in the world is in the fortieth. In 2000, the population was 19.2 million people.
The country is mainly inhabited by Europeans 77% of the population of Australia are descendants of immigrants from the British Isles - the British, Irish, Scots, who formed the Anglo-Australian nation, the rest are mostly immigrants from other countries. European countries, natives and mestizos - 250 thousand. people (1991). Most of the country's population are immigrants. Every fourth inhabitant of Australia was born outside of it. After. During the Second World War, an immigration program began to be implemented, during which the population of the country was increased from 7.6 million. people in 1947 up to 15.5 million people in 1984 About 60% of this growth came from immigrants and their children born in Australia. The core population of Australia is made up of Anglo-Australians.
Australia belongs to the countries with the I type of reproduction.
Out of 18,322,231 people Men aged 1 to 14 - 2,032,238, 15 to 64 - 6,181,887, 65 and older - 934,374, women aged 1 to 14 - 1,929,366, 15 to 64 - 6,017,362, 65 and older -- 1,227,004
The average population density is about 2 people per km2. But the population density varies across the country. This is due to the fact that about half of the territory of Australia is occupied by deserts and semi-deserts that are not suitable for habitation. Therefore, the population density in the desert areas is less than a person per square kilometer, and on the east coast the climate is much more favorable, therefore, the large cities of Australia are located here - Sydney (3.6 million people), Melbourne (3 million people), Brisbane (1.2 million people). people), and the population density here is from 1 to 10 people. per sq. km., also on the west coast in the area of Perth (1.2 million people), the population density is up to 10 people, per sq. km. km.
In the capital of Australia, 311 thousand people live in 1999. Australians are mostly city dwellers. At the beginning of the twentieth century. 50% of the country's population lived in cities, after. World War II - 70%, in the 60s. the rural population was 16%, in the 80s. -- fourteen%. The process of urbanization continued all the time, and its pace has steadily increased, so according to forecasts at the end of the twentieth century. the rural population will be 8%.
Over 70% of Australians live in 12 major cities countries: in the federal capital, the capitals of states and the Northern Territory and cities with a population of more than 100 thousand people. people About 40% of the country's population lives in Melbourne and Sydney. The main role among mineral resources country plays tin. The total possible reserves of tin ore are estimated at 1.5 million tons, and reliable - at 500 thousand tons. The ore is of very high quality. In stock...
The Far East and its importance in the country's economy
Territory Far East stretches along the Pacific coast for 4500 km. It is located in the zone of contrasting processes and phenomena. As already noted, heterogeneous blocks of the earth's crust, various air masses interact here ...
Nature, geographical (natural) environment plays an important role in life and development human society. Nature in the broad sense of the word embraces the entire material world. The geographic environment is part of nature...
Features of the socio-economic development of the Baltic countries
The Baltic states have a number of common features in geographical location and natural conditions. They are located on the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea, on the adjacent marginal area of the East European (Russian) Plain...
Republic of Belarus
The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
Almost the entire continental territory of Yakutia is a zone of continuous permafrost, which only in the extreme southwest passes into a zone of its discontinuous distribution. The average thickness of the frozen layer reaches 300-400 m....
Socio-economic geography of the district and its significance for school geography
Geological structure The Blagovarsky district is located within the eastern part of the Russian Platform. In the area under consideration, structural layers composed of the Bavlinian strata, Devonian Carboniferous and Permian deposits...
Comparative economic and geographical characteristics of the Northwestern and Volga Federal Districts
Natural conditions are all elements of animate and inanimate nature that affect economic activity person. Natural resources are all elements of nature that are used in production as raw materials and energy...
Territorial organization of the population and economy of the economic subdistrict: Magadan Region
The Magadan region occupies a part of the North-East of Russia that is diverse in surface structure. The relief is dominated by mountain structures with a very complex geological structure...
Characteristics of the Murom region Vladimir region and strategies for its development
There are mineral deposits in the region. building materials: clays and loams for the production of bricks, sands for concrete additives, sands for sand-lime bricks and road construction...
Economic and geographical characteristics of Cairo
The climate is tropical, in the spring period in the city there are gusts of dry sultry wind, called here khamsin. Winters are quite warm, the average air temperature in January reaches +12 ° C. In summer, hot ...
Economic and geographical characteristics of the Sakhalin region
The climate is temperate, monsoonal. The average temperature in January is from? 6 ° C (in the south) to? 24 ° C degrees (in the north), the average temperature in August is from +19 ° C (in the south) to + 10 ° C (in the north); rainfall - on the plains about 600 mm per year, in the mountains up to 1200 mm per year ...
Economic geography of the Astrakhan region
The Astrakhan region is located in the lower Volga region. This explains the richness and diversity. In physical and geographical terms, the territory of Astrakhan is divided into three parts ...
Economic-geographical characteristics of Australia and Oceania
Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. New discoveries of mineral ores made on the continent over the past 10-15 years have pushed the country to one of the first places in the world in terms of reserves and extraction of minerals such as iron ore ...
