The study of any planet is a scientific process of collecting, systematizing and comparing data.

History of the study of Mars

Exploration of Mars began 3.5 thousand years ago in Ancient Egypt. Babylonian astronomers developed a series mathematical methods to predict the position of the planet.

The first telescopic observations of Mars were made by Galileo Galil in 1610. During the 17th century, astronomers discovered various surface features on the planet. The first map of Mars was published in 1840. Later, astronomers discovered spectral lines water molecules in the Martian atmosphere; because of this discovery, the idea of ​​the possibility of life on Mars becomes popular. In the 1920s, the temperature range of the Martian surface was measured and found that the surface of Mars is in extreme desert conditions. Since the 1960s, launches of automatic interplanetary stations began to study the planet, first from a flyby trajectory, and then from an artificial satellite orbit and directly on the surface. Currently, Mars is still under the observation of ground-based telescopes, radio telescopes and spacecraft, which make it possible to explore the surface of the planet in a wide range of electromagnetic waves. The discovery of meteorites of Martian origin on Earth made it possible to investigate chemical composition the surface of the planet. Further progress in the exploration of Mars is associated with the continuation of the study of the planet by remotely controlled spacecraft and the implementation of a manned flight to Mars.

In 1969 organized International Planetary Patrol consisting of seven observatories spaced evenly and close to the equator. The purpose of the patrol is to observe large-scale atmospheric phenomena and planetary surface details and obtain continuous series of images. The patrol's observatories monitor clouds and dust storms, as well as seasonal changes in the surface of Mars. The resulting images reflect Martian seasonal changes and show that most Martian dust storms occur when the planet is closest to the Sun.

Mars is also being observed from the Hubble Space Telescope. But our conversation today is about the exploration of Mars by automatic interplanetary stations.

Since the 1960s, many spacecraft have been launched to Mars. The most famous of them are: Vikings, Mariners, Mars (Soviet spacecraft), Mars Global Surveyor, Sojohner rovers (1997), Spirit (2004-2010), " Opportunity (since 2004 until now), Curiosity (since 2012), etc.

"Mariner-4"

The American Mariner 3 became the first spacecraft to explore Mars from a flyby trajectory. This automatic interplanetary station was intended to carry out scientific research Mars, transmitting information about interplanetary space and the space around Mars, obtaining images of the planet's surface and conducting an experiment on the radio occultation of the signal from Mars by Mars to obtain information about the atmosphere and ionosphere. The spacecraft made the first successful flyby of Mars and became the first spacecraft to take pictures of another planet from close range and sent them to earth. True, the resulting images were not of very high quality, but Mariner 4 found that the atmosphere of Mars does not exceed 1% of the earth's density and consists mainly of carbon dioxide. Atmospheric pressure varied from 4.1 to 7.0 millibars (previously it was assumed that Atmosphere pressure about 85 millibars) and the atmosphere of Mars consists mainly of nitrogen. Daytime temperatures were -100 degrees Celsius.

"Mariner-9"

This device became the first artificial satellite of Mars. The station was launched on May 30, 1971. After the end of the period of Martian dust storms, the device began to send clear photographs of the surface of Mars to Earth. The device transmitted a total of 7329 images of about 80% of the planet's surface. The images showed dried-up riverbeds, craters, huge volcanic formations, a giant canyon system over 4,000 kilometers long, evidence of wind and water erosion and layer displacement, weather fronts, fog, and many more interesting details. The moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, were also photographed. These discoveries became an important basis for planning future flights.

The descent vehicle of the Soviet automatic interplanetary station "Mars-3" was the first to land on Mars in 1971. It was designed to explore Mars both from orbit and directly from the surface of the planet. The device transmitted a panorama of the surrounding surface. A pennant with the emblem of the USSR was installed on its board.

"Viking"

The American Viking spacecraft have been studying Mars for several years (since 1976) both from orbit and directly on the surface. Experiments were carried out to detect microorganisms in the soil, which did not give a positive result. Was first made chemical analysis soil and photographs of the surface are transmitted. The landers have been observing the Martian weather for a long time, and according to the data of the orbital modules, a detailed map Mars. Viking program- NASA's space program to study Mars for the presence of life on this planet. The Vikings have transmitted high-quality color photographs from the surface of Mars for the first time. They show a desert area with reddish soil, dotted with stones.

The main elements in the soil, according to the Vikings spectrometer, were silicon (13-15%), iron (12-16%), calcium (3-8%), aluminum (2-7%), titanium (0.5 -2 %).

Both devices took soil samples as samples for analysis for the presence of life - a relatively high chemical activity of the soil was revealed, but unambiguous traces of vital activity of microorganisms could not be found.

The conclusion based on the results of these experiments: either the number of microorganisms in the Viking landing sites is negligible, or there are none at all. Similar experiments in desert areas on Earth clearly indicated the presence of life.

Orbital probe "Mars Odysseus"

"Mars Odysseus" is a NASA orbiter that explores Mars. The device was launched on April 7, 2001. The main task facing the device was to study geological structure planets and the search for minerals. The device received data indicating large water reserves on Mars. Apparently, in some areas, at a depth of about 45 cm, there is a rock consisting of frozen water by 70% by volume. Later, this assumption was confirmed by other devices, but the question of the presence of water on Mars was finally resolved in 2008, when the Phoenix probe, which landed near the planet's north pole, received water from the Martian soil

Phoenix probe

"Phoenix"- NASA's Mars lander, which operated in 2008. On board was a set of instruments that made it possible to study the geological history of water, as well as to identify conditions favorable for the life of microorganisms. The unofficial slogan of the project: "For water!" The device had to answer three key questions: are the polar regions of Mars suitable for life, does ice periodically melt there, and how did the weather conditions change in the landing zone in historical period, as well as explore the features of the Martian climate.

On June 18, 2008, this probe found ice, which then melted. After a thorough examination, it turned out that the ice was water.

Mars Express Orbital Probe

"Mars Express" - a spacecraft of the European Space Agency, designed to study Mars. On June 2, 2003, it was launched at the Baikonur Cosmodrome using a Soyuz-FG launch vehicle. Instrument measurements made it possible to obtain a number of important scientific results, many of which are just getting ready for scientific publications. Water ice was first discovered in the southern polar cap at the end of the Martian summer. Mars Express discovered methane in the atmosphere of Mars, which may indicate the presence of life on the planet (methane cannot stay in the Martian atmosphere for a long time, therefore its reserves are replenished either as a result of the vital activity of microorganisms or due to geological activity). To maintain its amount in the atmosphere on Mars, there must be a source of methane. Such a source could be tectonic activity. Thanks to the space robot images, scientists were able to construct and present three-dimensional models of Martian landscapes.

The station has detected dense clouds of dry ice that cast shadows on the planet's surface and even affect its climate.

What now?

There are three artificial satellites in orbit around Mars:

• "Mars Odysseus", a NASA orbiter that explores Mars. The main task facing the apparatus is to study the geological structure of the planet and search for minerals (since October 24, 2001). The device managed to obtain data indicating large water reserves on Mars.
• "Mars Express", a spacecraft of the European Space Agency designed to study Mars (since 25 December 2003)
• , NASA's multifunctional robotic interplanetary station for Mars exploration, (since March 10, 2006). Launched on 12 August 2005 from Cape Canaveral. It contains a number of scientific instruments: cameras, spectrometers, radars, which are necessary for the analysis of the relief, the search for minerals and ice on Mars. The satellite's telecommunications system transmits more data to the Earth than all previous interplanetary vehicles combined. In addition, it is used as a strong relay satellite for other research programs.

Mars rovers Opportunity and Curiosity are currently operating on the surface of Mars.

"Opportunity" has been operating since January 25, 2004. Tasks:

• Search and description of the diversity of rocks and soils that testify to the past water activity of the planet, search for samples with mineral content.
• Determination of the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks and soils that surround the landing site.
• Determine which geological processes have shaped the terrain and chemical composition.
• Making observations of the surface made with the instruments of the Mars Reconnaissance Satellite.
• Search for iron-containing minerals.
• Classification of minerals and geological landscape, as well as identification of the processes that formed them.
• Assessment of conditions that could be beneficial for the origin of life on Mars.

"Curiosity"- autonomous chemical laboratory. The device will have to go from 5 to 20 kilometers in a few months and conduct a full-fledged analysis of Martian soils and atmospheric components.

Further exploration of Mars

Further study of Mars is associated with two main areas: continuation of the exploration of the planet by spacecraft and the implementation of a manned flight to Mars.

• MAVEN is a NASA spacecraft scheduled for launch in 2013 to study the atmosphere.
• Mars Science Orbiter, "Mission to Detect Gas on Mars" The launch is scheduled for January 2016.

India and China are also planning to send missions.

On November 1, 1962, the Soviet automatic interplanetary station Mars-1 took a course to the planet Aelita. Thus began a new phase of exploration of Mars - space.

In July 1965, the American spacecraft Mariner 4 transmitted to Earth the first 22 close-up photographs of the Martian surface. Scientists with undisguised interest awaited the results of this survey. And what? Many were then severely disappointed. Mars turned out to be completely different from the idealized planet that it was drawn to the human imagination. Instead of blooming oases, they saw in space photographs a monotonous desert plain, dotted with numerous craters. The surface of Mars resembled a lunar landscape.

However, Mars is not just an "enlarged Moon". He also has his character traits distinguishing it from other planets. This became clear after the flight in 1972 of Mariner 9, which managed to capture a wide variety of Martian landscapes. There are some real surprises among them.

Even under the most excellent atmospheric conditions, a telescope can distinguish spots on Mars with a diameter of at least 150 km. "Mariner" photographed the Martian surface with a resolution of about 1 km, and images of individual sections were obtained with a resolution of up to 40-50 m. Thanks to this, astronomers were able to study many details of the Martian relief, were able to understand the causes of a number of phenomena observed on Mars, such as, for example , amazing seasonal changes. And if a civilization similar to ours existed on Mars, then it would certainly have been discovered by photographic means.

When reviewing a map of the surface of Mars, a sharp difference between the northern and southern hemispheres of the planet immediately catches the eye. Southern Hemisphere- it's like a single giant "mainland", and the north - a single "ocean". Its level is on average 4 km lower than the level of the southern "mainland". And if on Mars, as on Earth, seas and oceans, water would certainly fill the northern depression, and the southern Martian plateau would rise above the water surface.

Most of the planets are located on the mainland of Mars large craters meteoric origin. But on the vast northern lowland, traces of the ancient space bombardment have not been preserved. They were flooded by a wide front of lava flows. This kind of asymmetry is typical for all planets of the terrestrial group.

The northern hemisphere of Mars is dominated by landforms associated with active geological processes. Here, in the region of Tharsis, four volcanic mountains rise. But what mountains! The largest and highest is Olympus. The diameter of the base of this volcano is 550 km, and its height above the surrounding plain is about 27 km! Olympus with his retinue is one of the main wonders of the world. There is nothing equal to them either on Earth or on other planets. solar system. But why did giant mountains form on Mars? The answer is simple: there are no horizontal, crustal movements, and therefore the volcanoes were able to grow to fabulous sizes. They were all already asleep: the spacecraft had not detected the release of volcanic gases from their huge calderas.

Mariner 9 images show a giant canyon in the southern tropical zone of Mars. It received the name Mariner Valley. This canyon stretches in a latitudinal direction for 3600 km.

The Mariner Valley is a global tectonic fault in the Martian crust and in its structure resembles a reef zone on the earth's ocean floor. It is curious that when this canyon was put on the map of Mars, it coincided with one of the large "channels". However, most of the "channels" are not connected with faults and other formations of the Martian relief.

While astronomers observed Mars through their telescopes from Earth, it seemed to them an unusually smooth ball. How wrong they were! The height difference between the highest peaks and the deepest Martian depressions reaches 30 km (on Earth about 20 km). Irregularities on Mars are much more pronounced than on the globe.

In a word, the "red planet" has experienced many turbulent upheavals in the past. Its surface is distinguished by a variety of forms of natural landscapes and a mosaic structure.

Mars is currently cooling. It has formed a thick lithosphere, which is enveloped by a strong crust. Therefore, the seismic activity of the planet has decreased. This is also confirmed by the results of the exploration of Mars by the American descent vehicle Viking-2. For many months of continuous work on Mars, his seismometer registered only one weak shock with a shallow epicenter. And then, according to scientists, it was caused not by internal tectonics, but by the fall of a large meteorite.

Mars apparently still has a molten core. This is confirmed by the measurement data magnetic field planets, made by the Soviet stations "Mars". Its intensity is approximately 500 times weaker than the earth's magnetic field. Moreover, the polarity of the Martian field is opposite to the polarity of the earth's field, that is, the north magnetic pole is located in the northern hemisphere of the planet, and the south - in the south. The magnetosphere of Mars extends over the day side of the planet for 2000 km from its surface, and over the night side - up to 9500 km. There are no radiation belts. Such is Mars in fact - Mars without legends.

When astronomers became convinced in the last century that the Moon is a lifeless world, they turned their attention to Mars. After all, as observations testified, Mars had an atmosphere, and this was encouraging, it was considered as one of the serious arguments in favor of the habitability of the "red planet".

As you know, oxygen and water in liquid form are necessary for life on any planet. Do they exist in the atmosphere of Mars? Molecular oxygen in it is less than in the Earth's atmosphere, about 16 thousand times, and water vapor - 1 thousand times. But if oxygen is maintained at a constant, albeit very low, level, then the atmospheric moisture content is subject to strong fluctuations with the seasons. In the Martian summer, over the melting polar cap, the humidity, for example, is 100 times higher than in winter. The strong saturation of the atmosphere of Mars (as well as the gaseous shell of Venus) with carbon dioxide occurs because there are no environments absorbing carbon dioxide on the planet - vast water spaces and green vegetation.

So, the atmosphere of Mars turned out to be completely unsuitable for life. On the one hand, it has an acute oxygen deficiency and is too dry, on the other hand, it is almost saturated with poisonous carbon dioxide to the limit. But there is another, no less important reason why it is unacceptable for terrestrial organisms. This is her sparseness.

At the average level of the surface of Mars, from which all heights and depths are measured on the planet, atmospheric pressure is only 6.1 millibars, or 4.6 mm of mercury, which is 165 times less than the pressure of the earth's atmosphere at sea level. Here on Earth, such low pressure is observed in the stratosphere at an altitude of about 30 km.

A very rarefied atmosphere weakly protects the planet from the adverse effects of space. Its influence primarily affects the temperature regime of the surface and lower layers of the atmosphere: moderate heating occurs during the day, and everything cools down at night. In the equatorial regions of Mars in the afternoon Maximum temperature rises to +17 °С, and in the morning (before sunrise) it drops to -103 °С. The range of daily temperature fluctuations reaches 120 °C.

The lowest temperature is observed at the poles of Mars. Near south pole winters are especially cold. The planet at this time is removed from the Sun, so the temperature of the southern polar cap drops to -140-143 ° C!

Due to the strong rarefaction of the atmosphere, water on Mars in liquid form cannot exist. But if there is no liquid water on the planet, there are no rain clouds, atmospheric precipitation does not fall, and, naturally, there is no runoff. In a word, the water cycle, which is very important for wildlife, does not occur on Mars. Only seasonal transitions of water vapor directly into ice and, conversely, ice into steam take place. Therefore, the weather on the planet is determined only by daily and annual changes in temperature and illumination, as well as by the strength and direction of the wind. And if a dust storm does not happen on Mars, it is always clear there: the Sun shines at all latitudes!

Even during telescopic observations of Mars, astronomers noticed that dust storms most often occur during periods of great opposition, coinciding with the passage of the planet through perihelion. Then the irradiation of its surface by the sun's rays intensifies, which causes abundant melting of the southern polar cap. Entering the time of the Martian summer, the polar cap releases huge masses of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This leads to the development of strong seasonal winds reaching more than 50 m/s. In this case, powerful whirlwinds, or tornadoes, nicknamed "dust devils" by Mars explorers, can arise.

Wind-blown dust particles play an important role in shaping the landscape of Mars. The famous "darkening wave", which some observers associated with the presence of vegetation on the planet, finally received a simple explanation. And again, large-scale space photographs helped to understand the essence of this phenomenon. It turned out that the dynamics of seasonal changes in the outlines and tonality of the light and dark regions of Mars is due to the movement of dust by winds. Where the dust settles, the surface brightens, and where it is blown away, the underlying rocks are exposed, the surface darkens. And only another global dust storm can make its own adjustments to the outlines of the Martian "seas". In any case, the dark areas on Mars should not be associated with any specific landforms, such as dark depressions on the Moon - lunar "seas".

On Mars, where desert landscapes predominate, dune and dune ridges stretch for hundreds of kilometers. Here is the real kingdom of Aeolus!

As is known, in modern conditions Mars cannot hold liquid water. Nevertheless, researchers believe that there is water on Mars. Only it is represented not by rivers, lakes and seas, but by permafrost and glaciers.

As a result of the scarcity of energy "rations" on Mars, harsh climatic conditions have developed. The average seasonal temperature there is -60 °C, which is much lower than the average annual temperature of the Earth (the latter is +15 °C). And as a direct result of this, permafrost is everywhere.

It is distributed everywhere and reaches 1.5 km at the equator, and almost 5 km at the poles! This is several times greater than the thickness of the permafrost and glaciation zones on Earth.

One of the most remarkable formations observed on Mars is its polar caps. space research made it possible to establish that the polar caps of Mars are formed by ordinary water ice and frozen carbon dioxide. Their growth occurs from the beginning of the Martian autumn to the beginning of spring (in the corresponding hemisphere of the planet) due to condensation - freezing out of the atmosphere of carbon dioxide at a temperature of -124 ° C. This is the critical temperature at which the transition of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the "dry ice" of the winter polar cap begins on Mars. A layer of "dry ice" (solid carbon dioxide) covers the ice component of the polar cap, and with the onset of spring, it evaporates and the resulting carbon dioxide rushes to the opposite pole of the planet, where it freezes again. This is repeated year after year we are talking about the Martian year lasting 687 Earth days). All that remains is the lower part of the cap, which does not melt over the summer, consisting of water ice mixed with dust.

Thanks to evaporation (rather than melting), Martian ice behaves completely differently than ice and snow on our planet. In the spring on Earth, murmuring streams run down the slopes of the hills from the melting masses. But on the outskirts of the evaporating Martian polar caps, you can’t see or hear murmuring water anywhere. It's dry and quiet everywhere.