1. Exploration of Mars

2. First observations of Mars

3. First observations with telescopes

4.Martian channels

5. Exploration of Mars in the XX - XXI centuries

6. Exploration of Mars spacecraft

7. One way ticket

Exploration of Mars(!)

The exploration and study of Mars is the scientific process of collecting, systematizing and comparing data on fourth planet solar system. The learning process covers various areas of knowledge, including astronomy, biology, planetology and others.

It was the first earth-enabled exploration device to be found on the surface of Mars. The probe consisted of three parts: a pass-through module, a meteorologist, a stereoscopic camera mounted on a folding mast, and a six-wheeled alien named Sojourner. This mobile microwave device was supposed to explore chemical composition rocks and soil. Its construction provided the basis for the development of the next Martian vehicles, which were sent on subsequent missions.

Sawyerner touched the planet for the first time. Very soon we saw photographs of the surface of Mars. Using an X-ray spectrometer, the platoon conducted soil tests. Over the next two and a half months, Sojourner analyzed the chemical composition of 15 stones and experimented with improving the tools during subsequent expeditions.

Study Mars began a long time ago, 3.5 thousand years ago, in Ancient Egypt. The first detailed reports on the position of Mars were made Babylonian astronomers who developed a number of mathematical methods for predicting the position of the planet. Using data from the Egyptians and Babylonians Ancient Greek (Hellenistic), philosophers and astronomers have developed a detailed geocentric model to explain the motion of the planets. A few centuries later, Indian and Islamic astronomers estimated the size of Mars and its distance from Earth. In the 16th century Nicholas Copernicus proposed heliocentric model for description solar system with circular planetary orbits. His results have been revised Johannes Kepler, who introduced a more accurate elliptical orbit of Mars, coinciding with the observed one.

Ineffective attempts to re-establish contacts continued until March of the following year. It was then that the mission was officially recognized as complete. But this went on for much longer. The landlord and plumber were active for three months—three times longer than the landlord's originally planned mission and 12 times longer than the expected life of the landlord. To prepare for this mission, we needed to create or upgrade 25 different technologies in less than three years.

From specimen to man on Mars

Large budget missions were discontinued at longer intervals for more expensive expeditions. The probe's most important tool was the Mars Orbiter's camera? The most likely reason for the failure was a software bug. After 20 years of research, we understand what processes take place on its surface, we know about the past billions of years when there was a humid environment favorable for life, but we still do not know if it exists there. The next step is to put a human foot on the surface of the Red Planet.

The first telescopic observations of Mars were made Galileo Galilei in 1610. During the 17th century, astronomers discovered various surface details, including a dark spot (!) Big Syrt and light polar ice caps. The period of rotation of the planet and the tilt of its axis were also determined. Telescopic observations of Mars were mainly carried out when the planet reached opposition to sun, that is, at the smallest distance between Mars and Earth.

Once the sun was a third less warm than it is now. Climate models generally suggest that for Mars to have conditions that allow liquid to surface on the surface, the planet must have an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, which creates a greenhouse effect.

They suggest that 3.5 billion years ago there was too little carbon dioxide on Mars for the greenhouse effect to melt the ice. The problems were provided by the same rocks in which the lover-lover previously discovered deposits from a prehistoric lake that could have existed on Mars billions of years ago. Further research gave a paradoxical result: the absence of climatic conditions for the creation of such a lake. In the samples tested from the rock, a suitable amount of carbonate minerals was not found.

Improvements in the optical quality of telescopes in the early 19th century made it possible to map permanent optical features. The first map of Mars was published in 1840, and more accurate mapping began with 1877. Later, astronomers discovered the spectral lines of water molecules in the Martian atmosphere; because of this discovery, the idea of ​​the possibility of life on Mars becomes popular among the general population. Percival Lowell thought he saw a network of artificial channels on Mars. These observations, as it later turned out, were optical illusions, and the atmosphere of Mars turned out to be too rarefied and dry to support an Earth-like climate.

We are surprised at the lack of carbonate minerals in the sediment that the rover examined. Recent studies by a group of 14 scientists led by Bristow have calculated an upper limit for carbon dioxide if present in the former Martian atmosphere. The result is several tens of milligrams of carbon dioxide. Milibar is one thousandth of the sea pressure on the sea. For comparison, the current atmosphere of Mars has a pressure of less than 10 millibars, and 95%.

It is made up of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide reacts in water with positively charged magnesium and iron ions to form carbonate minerals. Other minerals found in the studied rocks show that such ions are indeed present. In addition, minerals such as magnetites and clay minerals are proof that conditions never become so acidic that carbonates dissolve.

In the 1920s, the temperature range of the Martian surface was measured, and it was found that the surface of Mars is in extreme desert conditions. AT 1947 Gerard Kuiper showed that the rarefied atmosphere of Mars contains a large amount of carbon dioxide. The first list of names and coordinates of 128 major surface features ( albedo details) Mars differing in brightness from the surrounding areas was taken into 1958 at the X General Assembly International Astronomical Union. In 1969, the International Planetary Patrol was organized as part of seven observatories located relatively evenly in longitude and not far from the equator. Patrol observatories are equipped with the same type of telescopes and cameras with electronic equipment. They monitor clouds and dust storms, as well as seasonal changes in the surface of Mars.

This has been a mystery for some time, as there aren't many carbonates in Martian orbit, yet we can tell they're not visible because they're covered in dust, below the surface, or in the wrong place. The planet's surface gives new impetus to this Martian paradox: "The first time we looked for carbonates was by surveying the surface in rocks that we know are sediment from the bottom of an old lake," explains Bristow.

Scientists are trying to find an explanation for the long-standing paradox of the lake and the lack of conditions for its formation. The lake may not have been an open reservoir of liquid water, but it was covered in ice. If the ice had not been too thick, precipitation could still have formed on the bottom of the lake. Unfortunately, Lover Lover has yet to find evidence in Gale Crater for the existence of the once-frozen lake. The task requires further study in current and planned missions.

Starting from the 1960s, launches began to study the planet, first from a flyby trajectory, and then from an artificial satellite orbit and directly on the surface. Currently, Mars is still under the observation of ground-based telescopes, radio telescopes and spacecraft, which make it possible to explore the surface of the planet in a wide range of electromagnetic waves. The discovery of meteorites of Martian origin on Earth made it possible to study the chemical composition of the planet's surface. Further progress in the exploration of Mars is associated with the continuation of the study of the planet by remotely controlled spacecraft and the implementation manned flight to Mars.

The results of Bristow's team's research have been published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. First, we would like to introduce you to the history of Mars exploration and the data collected so far about the planet. Finally, let's say a few words about the activities of the Mars Society in Poland and the opportunity to join this work. Mars has been known since ancient times. Its name comes from the Greek god of war Ares, who in Roman mythology is called Mars. The two moons surrounding the planet, Phobos and Deimos, are named after the two sons of Ares, and they translate as Fear and Terror, respectively.

First observations of Mars

The first observations of Mars were made before the invention of the telescope. These were positional observations in order to determine the position of the planet in relation to the stars.

Existence Mars how wandering object in the night sky was written witness ancient Egyptian astronomers in 1534 BC. e. They also established retrograde (retrograde) movement planet and calculated the trajectory of movement along with the point where the planet changes its motion relative to Earth from straight to backward. Among the designations of Mars is the name "It moves in the opposite direction", marking the interval of backward movement. Another name for Mars, "Red Chorus", indicates with certainty that the names are based on observations. Mars was depicted on the ceiling tombs of Seti I and Ramesseum, but omitted from star map created by an ancient Egyptian scholar and architect Senmut. The latter may be related to connection Mars and the Sun at that time.

The ancients called the planet the god-like warrior because of its reddish-red color, visible even to the naked eye under favorable conditions. We now know that this color is due to the high content of iron oxides in the Martian soil. Mars is the only blue body outside the Moon whose surface, or at least some of its features, is visible from Earth with a telescope. Thanks to the efforts of astronomers, we have also managed to find several values ​​that characterize the Red Planet. In the most favorable conditions, that is, during the conjunction, Mars, therefore, retreats to the earth for about 75 million kilometers.

During the period Neo-Babylonian kingdom Babylonian astronomers carried out systematic observations of the position and movement of the planets. They found that Mars does 37 synodic period, or 42 zodiac circle, every 79 years. They also developed arithmetic methods with small corrections to predict the position of the planet. In the Babylonian planetary theory, time measurements of the planetary motion of Mars were obtained for the first time and the position of the planet in the night sky was refined.

The mass of Mars is about 10 times less than the mass of the Earth, and therefore the gravity is also lower. The moons of Mars are certainly different from Earth. Firstly, they are much smaller - the radius of Phobos is 11 km, and Deimos is 23 km. Secondly, lunar moons located in much lower orbits. The cycle of Mars around the Sun is about two Earth years, and the time around its own axis only deviates unnaturally from the Earth. The planet's magnetic field is negligibly small, so its surface is subjected to an increase in cosmic ray doses.

Throughout history, many myths and false beliefs have arisen about Mars, and there are still many controversial issues today. The name "channels" was first used by Giovanni Schiaparelli, after he made his observations Ten years later, dissected by Percival Lowell, the great enthusiast of Mars, who recognized them as the being of the civilization inhabiting the Red Planet. The case hit the papers and inspired many adventure writers, including Edgar Rice, and Burroughs, who invented a world called Barsoom.

Chinese records of appearance and the movement of Mars already appear in the period before the foundation Zhou dynasty(1045 BC), also during Qin dynasty(221 BC). Chinese astronomers have recorded planetary conjunctions, including conjunctions with Mars. In 375 a.d. e. occultation of Mars by Venus. In more detail, the period and orbit of the planet's motion were calculated during tang dynasty(618 AD).

The book impressed many early readers and the channel was quickly taken down as no one confirmed Lowell's observations. Some time ago environment scientists were electrified by the news of the discovery of a meteorite of Martian origin and sandstones found in Antarctica. On Earth, some bacteria are known to be able to live in hard sandstone, so it is suspected that niches or even live bacteria cannot contain traces of bacteria. The initial results of the study were very encouraging, finding elevated levels of potassium and magnesium in the niches, essential elements of life.

Astronomy in Ancient Greece developed under the influence Mesopotamian culture and knowledge. Because the Babylonians identified the planet Mars with Nergal- the god of war and epidemics, the Greeks identified the planet with their god of war - Ares(Mars at Romans). During the formation of Greek astronomy, the movement of the planets was not of great interest to the Greeks, and in the textbook Hesiod for ancient Greek schools Works and Days (c. 650 BC) no mention of planets

But the sensational discoveries ended because neither the bacteria nor their traces were found. The presence of a sandstone niche and the accumulation of magnesium and potassium are only traces they can, but rather do not provide evidence of finding extraterrestrial life forms. Recently, the problem has been somewhat complicated when scientists discovered another meteorite, also of Martian origin, of amino acids. However, after careful examination, it was found that they may be contaminants of terrestrial origin. So there is currently no sign of Martian microorganisms.

First observations with telescopes

Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first person to use a telescope for astronomical observations. His notes indicate that he began observing Mars through a telescope in September 1610 in order to detect eclipse phases on the planet similar to those observed on Venus and Moon. Although the exact success of the discovery is unknown, it was noted by Galileo in December 1610 that the angular size of Mars had decreased. The change in the illumination of Mars was confirmed only thirty-five years later by a Polish astronomer Jan Hevelius.

However, since Red Planet observations were not the probe's goal, it only took inefficient measurements and photographs. However, these figures were valuable to scientists. The images sent to Earth by the probe showed a planet of light, a desert and covered in craters.

The famous writer Arthur C. Clarke, reviewing the new data, described Mars as a "cosmic fossil". Subsequent space probe missions, in particular the data collected by Mariner 6 and Mariner 7, confirmed the information obtained during the Mariner mission. The pressure of the Martian atmosphere has been determined. It fluctuates between 6-9 millibars, less than one percent of Earth's mean atmospheric pressure. The remaining components are mainly nitrogen, argon and other elements in trace amounts. The chemical composition of the polar cap and the mean temperatures of Mars have also been determined.

AT 1644 Italian JesuitDaniello Bartoli reported the observation of two dark spots on Mars. Watching in 1651 , 1653 and 1655 planet in opposition when it is closest to Earth, Italian astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli with your student Francesco Maria Grimaldi also noted spots with different reflective power.

The main components of the polar caps are: frozen carbon dioxide, the so-called. dry land and ordinary water. The lowest temperature during the winter months is -140 degrees, the most heat in summer it is about 20 degrees. average temperature planet is -63 degrees Celsius.

Mariner 9 had to draw a map of the Red Planet and take numerous measurements within 60 days. Unfortunately, he hoped that a global dust storm broke out a few weeks before the ship entered orbit around the planet, which completely prevented observation of the surface for about 4 months. Meanwhile, two Soviet spaceship Mars 2 and Mars. However, their design and software did not expect the change in the original schedule of activities, which tragically ended in probes.

Dutch astronomer Christian Huygens first mapped the surface of Mars, reflecting many details of the terrain. November 28 1659 he made several drawings of Mars, which depicted various dark regions, later compared with the Great Sirte plateau and, possibly, one of polar caps. In the same year, he managed to measure the period of rotation of the planet, equal, according to his calculations, to 24 Earth hours. He also made a rough estimate of the diameter of Mars, assuming that it is equal to about 60% of the diameter of the Earth (this estimate is comparable to modern meaning at 53%.

Both orbits released lobsters that settled in the midst of a raging sandstorm. The first crashed on the site, the second - 20 seconds, then stopped. Soviet orbits didn't work any better. Much of the data provided by Mars 2 was lost due to telemetry errors, and Mars 3 entered an unfavorable orbit and only passed one valuable photograph.

When it was quiet, Mariner 9 began to confuse the startling images of the Martian surface. The most important elements of the relief of Mars. Southern Hemisphere Mars is covered in countless meteorite craters. The northern part is a plain, with traces of recent geological activity. The dark surfaces observed from the Earth turned out to be untouched, and not, as previously thought, lowlands. There are giant single peaks of volcanic origin on Mars. It is the largest mountain in the solar system. The second known geological formation on the surface of Mars is a group of canyons called the Valles Marineris.

Presumably, the first observations of the existence of an ice cap at the south pole of Mars were made by an Italian astronomer. Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1666. In the same year, he used surface markings in observations of Mars, and determined a rotation period of 24 hours 40 meters (this differs from the correct value by less than 3 minutes). AT 1672 Christian Huygens noticed a fuzzy white cap at the north pole as well. Later, in 1671, Cassini becomes the first director Paris Observatory where he dealt with the problem of the physical scale of the solar system. For this from different points on Earth, the position of Mars was measured against the background of stars - diurnal parallax. because of perigel opposition of Mars to the Sun, Mars during 1671 was in close proximity to the Earth. Cassini and Jean Picard observed the position of Mars in paris, at the same time French astronomer Jean Richet made a position measurement in cayenne(South America). Although these observations were not accurate due to the quality astronomical instruments, however, according to the results of measurements, the Cassini group obtained a value that differs from the correct one by no more than 10%.

English astronomer John Flamsteed also conducted experiments to measure the scale of the solar system and obtained similar results.

AT 1704 Franco-Italian astronomer Jacques Philippe Maraldi conducted systematic studies of the southern cap and noticed that it undergoes a change with the rotation of the planet. This indicates that the center of the cap is not located at the pole of the planet. He also noticed that the caps change in size over time.

German-English astronomer William Herschel began to observe Mars in 1777. He was especially interested in the polar caps of the planet. Four years later, in 1781, he noted that in the south the cap is “very large”, he attributed this to the location of the pole on dark side planets during the last 12 months. AT 1784 the southern cap has become much smaller, and this suggested that the size of the caps depends on the season on the planet and, therefore, the caps themselves are composed of ice. AT 1781 Herschel calculated two important parameters: the rotation period of Mars, which, according to his calculations, is 24 hours 39 hours 21 seconds, and the inclination of the planet's axis from the poles to the plane of the orbit, which is approximately 28.5 °. He noted that Mars is "large, but temperate, so its inhabitants are likely to find themselves in situations much like ours."

Between 1796 and 1809 years French astronomer Honoré Flougergue noticed the obscuration of Mars, indicating that an "ochre-coloured veil" covered the surface. Perhaps this is the first report of yellow clouds and dust storms on Mars

martian channels

AT 1877, during opposition of Mars, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli uses a 22 cm telescope to make detailed maps of the planet. In particular, on these maps, channels were indicated in the form of thin lines (to which he gave the names of famous rivers on Earth), but it was later shown that this was an optical illusion. In 1886, the English astronomer William F. Denning noted that these linear objects were irregular in nature. In 1895, the English astronomer Edward Monder became convinced that linear objects were simply the summation of many small parts.

In 1892 a French scientist Camille Flammarion writes that these channels are similar to anthropogenic ones that representatives of an intelligent race could use to redistribute water across a dying Martian world. He advocates the existence of such inhabitants, and suggested that they may be more advanced than humans.

Influenced by the observations of Schiaparelli, orientalist Percival Lowell founded observatory from 30- and 45- centimeter(12- and 18- inch) telescopes. He published several books about Mars and about life on the planet, which had a great impact on public opinion. The channels have also been discovered by other astronomers such as Henry Joseph Perrotin and Louis Tollon using a 38 cm refractor, one of the largest telescopes of the time.

Beginning in 1901, efforts were made by A. E. Douglas to photograph the channels of Mars; these efforts were crowned with success when, in 1905, Carl Otto Lampland published photographs of the canals. Although these results were widely accepted by the scientific community, they were disputed by some scientists: French astronomer Eugene Antoniadi, English naturalist Alfred Wallace, and others, since channels were not observed by "weak" telescopes.

Revision and refinement of planetary parameters

AT 1894 American astronomer William Campbell discovered that spectrum Mars is identical to the spectrum of the Moon, casting doubt on developing theories about the similarity of the atmosphere of Mars and Earth. Previous detections of water in the Martian atmosphere have been attributed to poor observing conditions. However, the results obtained by Campbell were considered controversial and were criticized by some members of the astronomical community, until they were subsequently confirmed by an American astronomer. Walter Adams in 1925.

German Struve used observed orbital changes satellites of Mars to determine the gravitational influence of the planet. In 1895, he used this data to estimate the planet's diameter, and found that the equatorial diameter was 1/190 larger than the polar diameter (in 1911 he adjusted the value to 1/192). This result was confirmed by the American meteorologist Woolard in 1944.

The surface, obscured by yellow clouds, was noted in 1870, during the observations of Schiaparelli. Another proof of the existence of clouds was obtained during the confrontations of 1892 and 1907. In 1909, Antoniadi noted that the presence of yellow clouds was due to the dimming albedo. He found that more yellow in opposition appeared on the surface of Mars when the planet was closer to the Sun, and therefore received more energy. As the reason for the appearance of these clouds, he called sand and dust raised by the wind.

Using vacuum thermocouples in the 254-centimeter (100-inch) Hooker telescope in mount wilson observatory, in 1924 the American astronomers Seth Barnes Nicholson and Edison Pettit were able to measure thermal energy emitted by the surface of Mars. They determined that the temperature ranged from −68° C(−90° F) at the pole to +7 °C (+45 °F) in the middle of the disk (corresponding to the equator). In the same year, they began measuring the energy of Mars American physicist William Koblenz and American astronomer Carl Otto Lampland. The results showed that nighttime temperatures on Mars have dropped to -85°C (-121°F), indicating "vast diurnal fluctuations" in temperatures. The temperature of the Martian clouds was up to −30 °C (−22 °F).

In 1926, by measuring the spectral lines redshift orbital movements of Mars and Earth, American astronomer Walter Sidney Adams was able to directly measure the quantity oxygen and water pair in the atmosphere of Mars. He determined that "extreme desert conditions" were widespread on Mars as well. In 1934, Adams and American astronomer Theodore Dunham Jr. determined that the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars was less than one percent.

In the 1920s, a French astronomer Bernard Lyot used polarimeter to study the properties of the surface of the Moon and planets. In 1929, he noted that the polarized light from the Martian surface was very similar to that of the Moon, although he suggested that some of his remarks could be explained by the cold, or perhaps by vegetation. Based on the amount of sunlight scattered in the atmosphere of Mars, he estimated the thickness of the Martian atmosphere to be 1/15 of the thickness of the Earth's atmosphere. This limited the surface pressure to no more than 2.4 kPa (24 mbar).

Using infrared spectrometer, in 1947 a Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper discovered carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars. He was able to estimate that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is twice as much as on Earth. However, because he overestimated the pressure on the Martian surface, Kuiper erroneously concluded that the ice caps could not be composed of frozen carbon dioxide.

Based on observations near the Earth asteroid Eros From 1926 to 1945, the German-American astronomer Eugene Konstantinovich Rabe estimated the mass of Mars.

In science, the system proposed by Schiaparelli for the names of vast light and dark regions and smaller details of the surface of Mars has been adopted. Schiaparelli singled out the following types of dark details: the seas themselves, indicated Latin term Mare, Sinus bays, Lacus lakes, Palus marshes, Depressio lows, Promontorium headlands, Fretum straits, Fons springs, Regio regions. The first standardized list of names (taking into account the Antoniadi map of 1929) and the coordinates of 128 main details of the albedo of Mars was adopted in 1958 at the X General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union.

In 1970, a working group on names for Mars was created. In 1973, the naming groups were reorganized and expanded, and the Working Group on Naming in the Solar System was established ( English Working group for planetary System nomenclature, WGPSN) to standardize names for Mars and other space objects

1. Exploration of Mars in the XX - XXI centuries

   In 1969 organized by the International Planetary Patrol ( English International planetary Patrol program) consisting of seven observatories located relatively evenly in longitude and not far from the equator. The purpose of the patrol is to observe large-scale atmospheric phenomena and details of the surface of the planets, as well as to obtain a continuous series of images. The patrol's observatories are equipped with the same type of telescopes and cameras with electronic equipment that provides a given duration of exposures, registration of the date and time of the image and its other characteristics. Patrol observatories monitor clouds and dust storms as well as seasonal changes in the surface of Mars. Detailed observations of the Martian dust storms of 1971 and 1973 have been made. The resulting images reflect Martian seasonal changes and show that most Martian dust storms occur when the planet is closest to sun

   Exploration of Mars by spacecraft

   Since the 1960s, several automatic interplanetary stations. In addition, remote sensing of Mars from Earth continued for the most part electromagnetic spectrum using ground-based and orbiting telescopes, for example, in the infrared to determine the composition of the surface, in the ultraviolet and submillimeter ranges, observations were made of composition of the atmosphere, and the wind speed was measured in the radio range.

   To Mars many spacecraft have been launched. The most famous of them: Vikings, Mariners, Mars(series Soviet space vehicles) Mars Global Surveyor, rovers sojoner (1997), Spirit(With 4 January 2004 before March 22 2010), Opportunity(With The 25th of January 2004 and so far) Curiosity(c August 6 2012 and so far), etc.

   The first spacecraft to explore Mars from a flyby trajectory was the American Mariner-4. First artificial satellite Mars became American Mariner 9. The descent vehicle of the Soviet automatic interplanetary station was the first to land on Mars Mars-3 in 1971. The transmission of data from the automatic Martian station began shortly after its landing on the surface of Mars, but stopped after 14.5 seconds. Attempts to soft-land an automatic Martian station by descent vehicles of the Soviet AMS Mars-2 in 1971 and Mars-6, Mars-7 in 1973 were unsuccessful. The first working automatic Martian station was part of the American Viking-1. The station, after a soft landing in 1976, transmitted the first images from the surface of Mars, conducted the first direct studies of the atmosphere and soil.

   Soviet spacecraft Mars 1M

   The main tasks of studying Mars from the orbit of artificial satellites in the 1970s were to determine the characteristics of the atmosphere and photograph the surface. It was envisaged to study the magnetic and gravitational fields of the planet, its thermal characteristics, relief and other things, for which Soviet automatic interplanetary stations were launched " Mars-2" and " Mars-3". In the landing area of ​​the station, it was supposed to determine the physical characteristics of the soil, determine the nature of the surface rock, experimentally check the possibility of obtaining television images of the surrounding area, and so on. Mars-3"made a soft landing on the surface of the" red planet "between the areas of Elektris and Phaetontis in the area with coordinates of 45 ° S. sh. and 158° W. e. A pennant with the image of coat of arms of the USSR. 1 minute 30 seconds after landing, the AMS was brought into working condition, and at 16 hours 50 minutes. 35 sec. began transmitting video signals from the surface of the planet. They were received and recorded on board the artificial satellite "Mars-3" and then transmitted to Earth in radio communication sessions. The video signals received from the surface of Mars were short-lived (about 20 seconds) and abruptly stopped. In the complex of experiments carried out on the satellites "Mars"-2 and 3, photographing the planet was assigned an auxiliary role, connected mainly with the provision of binding the results of measurements in other spectral intervals. The developers of the phototelevision installation (FTU) used the wrong model of Mars, because of which the wrong exposures of the PTU were chosen. The pictures turned out overexposed, almost completely unusable. After several series of shots (each with 12 frames), the photo-television installation was not used. At the same time, the images taken on Mars-3 from large distances made it possible to refine the optical compression of the planet (which differs from dynamic), build relief profiles based on the image of the edge of the disk in large areas, and obtain color images of the Martian disk by synthesizing photographic images taken with various filters.

   American spacecraft "Viking" have been studying Mars for several years (since 1976) both from orbit and directly on the surface. In particular, experiments were carried out to detect microorganisms in the soil, which did not give a positive result. For the first time, a chemical analysis of the soil was made and photographs of the surface were transmitted. Automatic Martian stations have been observing the Martian weather for a long time, and according to the data of the orbiters, a detailed map Mars.

   artificial satellite Mars Odysseus discovered that under the surface of the Red Planet there are deposits of water ice. Later this was confirmed by other devices Using the THEMIS camera (Thermal Emission Imaging System - a camera that creates an image based on the analysis of thermal radiation), an accurate map of Mars was obtained (the spatial resolution of the map is 100 meters for the entire surface of the Red Planet). To compile it, scientists used 21,000 photographs taken by an artificial satellite over eight years.

   The question of the presence of water on Mars was finally resolved in 2008, when the automatic Martian station "Phoenix", which landed in the polar region of the planet, received water from the Martian soil.

   artificial satellite Mars Express presented evidence in favor of the hypothesis that Mars' moon Phobos was formed not from main belt asteroids, but from material from the Red Planet. Scientists studied the composition of Phobos using a Fourier spectrometer placed on board. In addition to studying the composition of Phobos, the researchers conducted the most accurate determination of the mass of the Martian satellite and its density to date.

   One way flight to Mars

   A flight to Mars is already planned by several countries that are ready to launch a manned spacecraft to the red planet within the next 30 years. However, despite such bright prospects, scientists continue to argue about the feasibility of such a flight.

   You should start with the fact that a one-way flight will take, according to various calculations, from 7 to 9 months. Such a long flight is very dangerous both from the technical side (the probability of equipment breakdowns increases), and from the physiological, as well as from the psychological side. Will the astronauts be able to stay for so many months in a closed space with very limited contacts? How will a long stay in a state of weightlessness affect the human body? How great is the danger of radiation in interplanetary space? All these questions have now become very topical in connection with the planned flight to the red planet in the relatively near future.

   However, one should carefully analyze the possible consequences, as well as unforeseen circumstances that astronauts participating in such a long expedition may face. First, it is worth bearing in mind that it is absolutely not possible to prematurely abort the mission due to any circumstances, or deliver new supplies to Mars in case of a shortage. In this case, the crew can only rely on their own strength. This means that he must be ready for any eventuality, be able to repair equipment and even make new parts. It is impossible to collect enough supplies for such a long flight initially, so the astronauts will have to grow vegetables and fruits for themselves, as well as purify the air and water using special equipment. In other words, astronauts will have to deal with life support themselves.

   Some scientists are considering the option of artificially forcing astronauts to "hibernate" for the duration of the flight. For this purpose, experts suggest using hydrogen sulfide, which would slow down the metabolic process without disturbing blood circulation in the body. However this method requires years of research.

   Also, experts recommend that the entire crew carry out a preventive operation to remove the appendix "just in case a fireman." Otherwise, astronauts may experience this problem during their flight. Among other things, before such a flight, it is necessary to resolve a number of ethical issues, since for such a long time any development of events is possible, from conflicts between astronauts to the death of one of them during the expedition. In other words, detailed instructions are needed that would explain how the astronauts should act in a difficult situation.

2. The most difficult ethical issue in this moment is the disagreement of scientists about whether astronauts should return to Earth at all. Some astronomers have proposed a one-way flight with the establishment of the first colony on Mars. Scientists argue this as follows. First, it is still unknown what problems astronauts will face when taking off from the surface of Mars, where a completely different force of gravity operates. Secondly, the return itself will cost countries too much, given that scientists cannot guarantee that the flight back will be successful. Therefore, experts are seriously considering the idea of ​​"starting all over again." To do this, scientists propose to build in advance with the help of robots a house on the surface of Mars that could protect people from radiation, as well as supply the first settlers with everything necessary. In addition, the astronauts (for obvious reasons, the crew will have to include both men and women) will have to arrive on the red planet with high-tech equipment with which it would be possible to produce oxygen, water and food on their own. Periodically, new supplies from Earth would be brought here, as well as new settlers.

   However, the complexity of the implementation of this idea lies not only in the technical side of the issue, at least the development of science never stands still. An important role is also played by the ethical question of whether it is possible to send astronauts to Mars, given that they will never see the Earth again. Many experts argue that a one-way flight to Mars does not mean the certain death of astronauts, this is just the beginning of something new. In addition, already now there are volunteers who are ready to go on such a dangerous journey in the name of science.

   But, despite this, some express great concerns about the colonization of Mars. Scientists draw a parallel with the colonization of America and focus on social conflicts that can arise in the colony of the first Martian settlers and lead to unpredictable results, up to murders, local "coups", "revolutions" and "wars". In addition, social tension, which is already characteristic of any human society, can be exacerbated by many other factors: a long stay in a confined space during a flight, adaptation to Martian conditions, and so on.

On November 1, 1962, the Soviet automatic interplanetary station Mars-1 took a course to the planet Aelita. Thus began a new phase of exploration of Mars - space.

In July 1965, the American spacecraft Mariner 4 transmitted to Earth the first 22 close-up photographs of the Martian surface. Scientists with undisguised interest awaited the results of this survey. And what? Many were then severely disappointed. Mars turned out to be completely different from the idealized planet that it was drawn to the human imagination. Instead of blooming oases, they saw in space photographs a monotonous desert plain, dotted with numerous craters. The surface of Mars resembled a lunar landscape.

However, Mars is not just an "enlarged Moon". He also has his character traits distinguishing it from other planets. This became clear after the flight in 1972 of Mariner 9, which managed to capture a wide variety of Martian landscapes. There are some real surprises among them.

Even under the most excellent atmospheric conditions, a telescope can distinguish spots on Mars with a diameter of at least 150 km. "Mariner" photographed the Martian surface with a resolution of about 1 km, and images of individual sections were obtained with a resolution of up to 40-50 m. Thanks to this, astronomers were able to study many details of the Martian relief, were able to understand the causes of a number of phenomena observed on Mars, such as, for example , amazing seasonal changes. And if a civilization similar to ours existed on Mars, then it would certainly have been discovered by photographic means.

When reviewing a map of the surface of Mars, a sharp difference between the northern and southern hemispheres of the planet immediately catches the eye. The southern hemisphere is, as it were, a single giant "continent", and the northern hemisphere is a single "ocean". Its level is on average 4 km lower than the level of the southern "mainland". And if on Mars, as on Earth, seas and oceans, water would certainly fill the northern depression, and the southern Martian plateau would rise above the water surface.

Most of the planets are located on the mainland of Mars large craters meteoric origin. But on the vast northern lowland, traces of the ancient space bombardment have not been preserved. They were flooded by a wide front of lava flows. This kind of asymmetry is typical for all planets of the terrestrial group.

The northern hemisphere of Mars is dominated by landforms associated with active geological processes. Here, in the region of Tharsis, four volcanic mountains rise. But what mountains! The largest and highest is Olympus. The diameter of the base of this volcano is 550 km, and its height above the surrounding plain is about 27 km! Olympus with his retinue is one of the main wonders of the world. There is nothing equal to them either on Earth or on other planets of the solar system. But why did giant mountains form on Mars? The answer is simple: there are no horizontal, crustal movements, and therefore the volcanoes were able to grow to fabulous sizes. They were all already asleep: the spacecraft had not detected the release of volcanic gases from their huge calderas.

Mariner 9 images show a giant canyon in the southern tropical zone of Mars. It received the name Mariner Valley. This canyon stretches in a latitudinal direction for 3600 km.

The Mariner Valley is a global tectonic fault in the Martian crust and in its structure resembles a reef zone on the earth's ocean floor. It is curious that when this canyon was put on the map of Mars, it coincided with one of the large "channels". However, most of the "channels" are not connected with faults and other formations of the Martian relief.

While astronomers observed Mars through their telescopes from Earth, it seemed to them an unusually smooth ball. How wrong they were! The height difference between the highest peaks and the deepest Martian depressions reaches 30 km (on Earth about 20 km). Irregularities on Mars are much more pronounced than on the globe.

In a word, the "red planet" has experienced many turbulent upheavals in the past. Its surface is distinguished by a variety of forms of natural landscapes and a mosaic structure.

Mars is currently cooling. It has formed a thick lithosphere, which is enveloped by a strong crust. Therefore, the seismic activity of the planet has decreased. This is also confirmed by the results of the exploration of Mars by the American descent vehicle Viking-2. For many months of continuous work on Mars, his seismometer registered only one weak shock with a shallow epicenter. And then, according to scientists, it was caused not by internal tectonics, but by the fall of a large meteorite.

Mars apparently still has a molten core. This is confirmed by the measurement data magnetic field planets, made by the Soviet stations "Mars". Its intensity is approximately 500 times weaker than the earth's magnetic field. Moreover, the polarity of the Martian field is opposite to the polarity of the earth's field, that is, the north magnetic pole is located in the northern hemisphere of the planet, and the south - in the south. The magnetosphere of Mars extends over the day side of the planet for 2000 km from its surface, and over the night side - up to 9500 km. There are no radiation belts. Such is Mars in fact - Mars without legends.

When astronomers became convinced in the last century that the Moon is a lifeless world, they turned their attention to Mars. After all, as observations testified, Mars had an atmosphere, and this was encouraging, it was considered as one of the serious arguments in favor of the habitability of the "red planet".

As you know, oxygen and water in liquid form are necessary for life on any planet. Do they exist in the atmosphere of Mars? Molecular oxygen in it is less than in the Earth's atmosphere, about 16 thousand times, and water vapor - 1 thousand times. But if oxygen is maintained at a constant, albeit very low, level, then the atmospheric moisture content is subject to strong fluctuations with the seasons. In the Martian summer, over the melting polar cap, the humidity, for example, is 100 times higher than in winter. The strong saturation of the atmosphere of Mars (as well as the gaseous shell of Venus) with carbon dioxide occurs because there are no environments absorbing carbon dioxide on the planet - vast water spaces and green vegetation.

So, the atmosphere of Mars turned out to be completely unsuitable for life. On the one hand, it has an acute oxygen deficiency and is too dry, on the other hand, it is almost saturated with poisonous carbon dioxide to the limit. But there is another, no less important reason why it is unacceptable for terrestrial organisms. This is her sparseness.

At the average level of the surface of Mars, from which all heights and depths are measured on the planet, Atmosphere pressure is only 6.1 millibars, or 4.6 mm of mercury, which is 165 times less than the pressure of the earth's atmosphere at sea level. Here on Earth, such low pressure is observed in the stratosphere at an altitude of about 30 km.

A very rarefied atmosphere weakly protects the planet from the adverse effects of space. Its influence primarily affects the temperature regime of the surface and lower layers of the atmosphere: moderate heating occurs during the day, and everything cools down at night. In the equatorial regions of Mars in the afternoon Maximum temperature rises to +17 °С, and in the morning (before sunrise) it drops to -103 °С. The range of daily temperature fluctuations reaches 120 °C.

The lowest temperature is observed at the poles of Mars. Near south pole winters are especially cold. The planet at this time is removed from the Sun, so the temperature of the southern polar cap drops to -140-143 ° C!

Due to the strong rarefaction of the atmosphere, water on Mars in liquid form cannot exist. But if there is no liquid water on the planet, there are no rain clouds, atmospheric precipitation does not fall, and, naturally, there is no runoff. In a word, the water cycle, which is very important for wildlife, does not occur on Mars. Only seasonal transitions of water vapor directly into ice and, conversely, ice into steam take place. Therefore, the weather on the planet is determined only by daily and annual changes in temperature and illumination, as well as by the strength and direction of the wind. And if a dust storm does not happen on Mars, it is always clear there: the Sun shines at all latitudes!

Even during telescopic observations of Mars, astronomers noticed that dust storms most often occur during periods of great opposition, coinciding with the passage of the planet through perihelion. Then the irradiation of its surface by the sun's rays intensifies, which causes abundant melting of the southern polar cap. Entering the time of the Martian summer, the polar cap releases huge masses of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This leads to the development of strong seasonal winds reaching more than 50 m/s. In this case, powerful whirlwinds, or tornadoes, nicknamed "dust devils" by Mars explorers, can arise.

Wind-blown dust particles play an important role in shaping the landscape of Mars. The famous "darkening wave", which some observers associated with the presence of vegetation on the planet, finally received a simple explanation. And again, large-scale space photographs helped to understand the essence of this phenomenon. It turned out that the dynamics of seasonal changes in the outlines and tonality of the light and dark regions of Mars is due to the movement of dust by winds. Where the dust settles, the surface brightens, and where it is blown away, the underlying rocks are exposed, the surface darkens. And only another global dust storm can make its own adjustments to the outlines of the Martian "seas". In any case, the dark areas on Mars should not be associated with any specific landforms, such as dark depressions on the Moon - lunar "seas".

On Mars, where desert landscapes predominate, dune and dune ridges stretch for hundreds of kilometers. Here is the real kingdom of Aeolus!

As is known, in modern conditions Mars cannot hold liquid water. Nevertheless, researchers believe that there is water on Mars. Only it is represented not by rivers, lakes and seas, but by permafrost and glaciers.

As a result of the scarcity of energy "rations" on Mars, harsh climatic conditions have developed. The average seasonal temperature there is -60 °C, which is much lower than the average annual temperature of the Earth (the latter is +15 °C). And as a direct result of this, permafrost is everywhere.

It is distributed everywhere and reaches 1.5 km at the equator, and almost 5 km at the poles! This is several times greater than the thickness of the permafrost and glaciation zones on Earth.

One of the most remarkable formations observed on Mars is its polar caps. Space research has established that the polar caps of Mars are formed by ordinary water ice and frozen carbon dioxide. Their growth occurs from the beginning of the Martian autumn to the beginning of spring (in the corresponding hemisphere of the planet) due to condensation - freezing out of the atmosphere of carbon dioxide at a temperature of -124 ° C. This is the critical temperature at which the transition of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the "dry ice" of the winter polar cap begins on Mars. A layer of "dry ice" (solid carbon dioxide) covers the ice component of the polar cap, and with the onset of spring, it evaporates and the resulting carbon dioxide rushes to the opposite pole of the planet, where it freezes again. This is repeated year after year we are talking about the Martian year lasting 687 Earth days). All that remains is the lower part of the cap, which does not melt over the summer, consisting of water ice mixed with dust.

Thanks to evaporation (rather than melting), Martian ice behaves completely differently than ice and snow on our planet. In the spring on Earth, murmuring streams run down the slopes of the hills from the melting masses. But on the outskirts of the evaporating Martian polar caps, you can’t see or hear murmuring water anywhere. It's dry and quiet everywhere.