It should be said that the problem of interaction between subject and object is widely discussed on the pages of philosophical and sociological publications. Until recently, the subject-object relationship was considered the only form of connection between them. But now more and more the fact is beginning to be realized that it does not exhaust all the richness and variety of relations between these dialectical opposites.

The main forms of subject-object interaction

In connection with numerous discussions, the idea has already been fully formed that in society it is necessary to distinguish at least two "types" of relations: "subject-object" and "subject-subject". The subject-object relation is characterized as the relation of a person to objects outside world and, above all, as his relationship to nature. And the subject-subject relation is like the relation of people to each other. For example, VN Sagatovsky even gives a definition of activity through these two types of relations. "Activity," he argues, "is a system of subject-object and subject-subject relations expressing the essential forces of the subject."

Since two types of interactions are introduced into the analysis ("subject-object" and "subject-subject"), the question naturally arises as to how they relate to each other. Some authors believe that there should be relations of coordination between them, in connection with which these two types of relations are separated into different areas. social activities, and, accordingly, for different industries scientific knowledge. So, B. G. Yudin believes that “dialectical materialism deals mainly with the “subject-object” scheme, and historical materialism deals with the “subject-subject” scheme.

Other authors are convinced that there are relations of subordination between subject-object and subject-subject interactions. Namely, the subject-object relations are included in the subject-subject ones as part of the whole. For example, V. P. Fofanov considers all attempts to distinguish between two types of interactions in society "the result of serious theoretical confusion." The specificity of public life, but in his opinion, is determined by subject-subject interaction, and subject-object relations act as dependent and derivative from it. First of all, "subjects - people" act in society, and therefore the interaction "subject - thing" turns out to be secondary and subordinate. He writes: "A subject-object relation is not an independent type social relations, but one of the moments of a more complex whole, one of the moments of the interaction of two subjects.

The case here, however, is somewhat different. It has already been said that the subject and object are paired, correlative functionally manifested phenomena.

There are no individuals in the world who would always act only as subjects or objects. The property of subjectivity or objectivity is manifested only functionally, i.e. depending on what role these individuals play in a particular interaction.

Describing, for example, the interaction of man and nature, K. Marx writes: "History can be viewed from two sides, it can be divided into the history of nature and the history of people. However, both of these stories are inextricably linked; as long as people exist, the history of nature and history people mutually condition each other.

As we see, here the history of nature is not categorically placed in dependence on the history of people. On the contrary, their complete identity in the process of interaction is emphasized, because they mutually determine each other. In specific interactions, not only people, but also natural forces can act as subjects of interaction. So it was, for example, in the process of anthropogenesis, and now it happens quite clearly in the period " natural Disasters"- earthquakes, droughts, floods, environmental deviations and other "inventions" or "initiatives" of nature. Speaking about the role and importance of nature in organic life of a person, K. Marx considered it necessary to emphasize: "Of course, the priority of external nature is preserved ...".

Consequently, people are special material formations, which, biologically, throughout their existence, always depend on nature in one form or another. Of course, the nature of this dependence historically changes, but the "priority of external nature" in certain areas remains to this day. To consider people only as a subject, and nature only as an object, is to pay full tribute to anthropocentrism, to allow one-sidedness in the analysis of complex interaction. People, as biological organisms, both in the past and now often act as objects of natural forces.

K. Marx in his works repeatedly notes the exceptionally great influence of nature on a person as a living being in certain interactions. Thus, considering questions of anthropogenesis, he points to the constructive function of nature in the formation of the "bodily organization of individuals." In his opinion, the geological, orohydrographic, climatic and other relationships that they find "determine not only the initial naturally occurring bodily organization of people, especially racial differences between them, but also all its further development - or lack of development - to this day" . Thus, the bodily organization of people, especially their racial differences, are the result of the activities of nature throughout their history, i.e. both in the past and now they are created by nature. In this interaction, the external nature is the subject, and the human body is the object.

However, if a person is taken as social individual, then its role in interaction with nature is determined quite unambiguously - it usually acts as a subject. This position is due to the fact that the determining form of interaction between man and nature in most cases is labor, material production, in the process of which he transforms nature in accordance with his needs. Material production, being the basis for the existence and development of society, allows a person to create his own specific social system, in which nature acts as a permanent object.

Thus, only in social aspect When the interaction is considered, on the one hand, of the productive labor of a person, and on the other hand, of the substances of nature, society acts as a universal subject, and nature as a universal object. K. Marx points out that "subject, humanity and object, nature" are "definitions valid for production in general". Consequently, only in relation to production in general can such concepts as subject in general and object in general be applied. But at the same time, it should be remembered that the basis of such interaction is "man and his labor on one side, nature and its materials on the other." Beyond such an abstraction, the subjectivity and objectivity of both man and nature depend entirely on the nature of the particular interaction.

It should be noted that K. Marx in Capital and in the preparatory works for it very often speaks in this respect of the subjective and objective aspects of material production. For example, he distinguishes "the components of capital, which, from the point of view of the labor process, differ as objective and subjective factors, as means of production and labor power ...".

Or, characterizing the role of man in primitive society, he points out: "The main objective condition of labor is not product labor, but found by labor nature. On the one hand, there is a living individual, and on the other hand, the earth as an objective condition for his reproduction ... If objective conditions, as belonging to an individual, are a prerequisite for his work, then the subjective prerequisite is the individual himself as a member of a particular community that mediates his attitude to the ground."

Similarly, there is a stable subject-object dependence in the process of human cognition of the world around him. A cognizing person always acts as a subject, objects of nature and other people as his cognizable objects.

Do subject-object and subject-subject interactions exhaust the whole variety of connections between subordinating individuals. It is quite obvious that it is not. The world is rich in objective entities, and therefore the forms of interactions between subjects and objects are diverse. However, in terms of activity they can be differentiated into four main groups: subject-object, subject-subject, object-subject, and object-object. Of these, the subject-object relationship is the main and defining one. All subject-subject, object-subject and object-object interactions usually unfold on the basis of some kind of subject-object relationship. For example, the leaders of two enterprises can enter into subject-subject relations between themselves only because they are elements of subject-object interactions.

What is the specificity of the subject-subject relationship?

As already noted, for the subject included in the subject-object interaction, three main functions are inherent - initiator, systematizer and regulator. Are these functions inherent in individuals in subject-subject interaction? It turns out that they have only two of these functions. Both subjects here act as initiators and regulators of interaction, but neither of them is able to perform the function of a systematizer. As a result, the subject-subject interaction, as a rule, does not take on the character of an independent system. Therefore, in most cases it is unstable and temporary. For example, subject teachers interact with each other in the process of teaching students, but this does not lead to the emergence of a new system of social activity.

Depending on the needs of their systems or under the influence of some other factors, subjects can enter into specific interactions with each other, but this usually does not lead to the emergence of new qualitative definitions. A new system can only arise if one subject takes over the others and turns them into its object. But in such situations, the former subjects change their quality, and at the same time the quality of the system that is formed under the influence of the new subject also changes. Thus, the teacher-innovator usually creates a school of excellence, in which his fellow teachers already act as students.

The specifics of the object-subject interaction follows from the specifics of the object, which was discussed above. To what has been said, one can only add that the object-subject - nose interaction acts as an antipode of the subject-object interaction and therefore everything that is inherent in the second is not inherent in the first. At the same time, there is no doubt that the connection of an object with a subject is also an interaction, but it has its own characteristics that cannot be ignored. The activity of the object in interaction with the subject can have three main forms - to promote the activity of the subject, to interfere with it, or in some respects to promote, and in others to interfere. If we take, for example, the behavior of patients when interacting with doctors, then all these three forms are quite obvious.

What is object-to-object interaction? In science, it has not been specially studied yet. However, this is one of critical factors real development. Object-object interaction usually occurs between individuals in the event that they all turn out to be a common (cumulative) object of the same subject. For example, collectives of workshops of a plant, being objects of management of the directorate, enter into certain relations with each other regarding this management.

Apparently, here it is possible two interaction options. One of them can be called the interaction of objects in the form consolidation, when people unite in one way or another to develop a response to the influence of the subject. Being objects of a single subject, communities consolidate their efforts in the process of reaction. These consolidations may or may not occur for one reason or another. They are usually not permanent. So, factory shops often unite in protecting their interests against the management, or, conversely, support it in any business.

The other option is the opposite. It can be called the interaction of objects in the form neutralization, when some individuals hold back the process of consolidating the response. They undermine (neutralize) the forces aimed at unification. For example, in the struggle of the oppressed against the oppressors, there are always social groups or individuals who interfere and in every possible way hinder the process of consolidating the forces of the oppressed. Under appropriate conditions, neutralization can also play a positive role, say, in disorganizing the forces of a political enemy.

Object-object interaction under certain conditions can lead to the fact that one of the interacting individuals is gradually transformed and takes shape in a new subject. He begins to initiate, coordinate and systematize all emerging responses. Continuing to be the object of a certain subject, this individual within the framework of this system gradually creates new system interaction, in which it already acts as a subject. It is this process of subjectivization of the individual that leads to the fact that at a certain stage of interaction he is able to create a new system of social relations. The successful struggle of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie is convincing proof of this.

The transformation of an object into a subject is a complex theoretical and practical problem that has always attracted the attention of many researchers. Analyzing the system of capitalist exploitation, K. Marx noted: “The privilege of the modern ruling classes and the slavery of the working class are equally based on existing organization of labor, which the former will, of course, defend and support with all the means at their disposal, one of which is the modern state machine. Therefore, in order to change the existing organization of labor and replace it with a new organization, force is needed - social and political force - force not only for resistance, but also for attack; and in order to acquire such strength, you need to organize yourself into an army with sufficient moral and physical energy to fight the enemy hordes"

We have considered how objects interact with text and with elements of a printed page, but if there are several built-in objects on one page, then they can interact with each other. The nature of this interaction also needs to be managed.

The first thing to decide is whether objects are allowed to overlap each other. For those objects that are allowed to overlap, select the Object Format checkbox > Position > Advanced > Object position > Allow overlap. Recall that access to the Format Object dialog box is opened by a command (it can be called differently for different objects) of the object's context menu.

The mutual position of objects is controlled using the following operations:

Grouping;

sequencing tasks;

alignment;

Distributions.

Grouping objects. If there are several objects on the page and it is important to strictly fix them mutual arrangement, then they are combined into one complex (group) object using the grouping operation. After this operation, the properties of the group object can be configured in the same way as we configured the properties of the simplest objects - it can be given the nature of the text wrapping, the method of binding to a paragraph or to elements of a printed page, etc.

To group several objects, select them (multiple objects are selected while holding down the SHIFT key), right-click on any of the objects in the group and select the Group command from the context menu > Group. Grouped objects can be moved as a whole. To ungroup objects and get access to the individual properties of each of them, you need to select the group and give the command Group > Ungroup.

Rice. 3. Ungrouped complex object

Managing the order of objects. If several objects are placed on the document page, then it is assumed that each object has its own layer. By default, the order of the layers is related to the order in which the objects were created, that is, those objects that were created earlier are on layers lower than the objects created later. If there is no overlap between objects, then we do not notice that there is a certain order of objects, however, when objects overlap each other, this order becomes noticeable.

Manage the order of objects using the Order command of the context menu. It opens a sub-menu that allows you to raise an object to the front, lower it to the back, move it one layer up or down, and set the position of the object relative to the text.

Rice. 4. Order management

Alignment of objects. If the objects that make up the composition do not overlap, it is important to have a means of relative alignment with each other. Alignment of objects is performed before grouping, because after it the objects can no longer be moved relative to each other. In this case, the grouping operation fixes the mutual arrangement of objects. After it, the objects can no longer move relative to each other, and the position of the entire group on the page can be controlled as a single entity. To perform alignment, you must first open the additional toolbar Drawing (View > Toolbars > Draw).

To align several objects with each other, select them while holding down the SHIFT key, and then give the command Actions > Align/distribute (using the Actions button on the Drawing toolbar). There are six alignment methods. They correspond to three horizontal alignment commands (Left, Right, Center) and three vertical alignment commands (Top, Bottom, Middle). Attention should be paid to the peculiarity of the action of the alignment commands. So, for example, if two objects are aligned on lower field, which means they are aligned to lower field lower object. Alignment by right field is the alignment on right the field itself right object from among the selected ones, and so on. If you need to align with the page margins, you must first check the Actions menu checkbox > Align/Distribute > Regarding the page.

Distribution of objects. This operation is related to alignment. Its essence is that equal intervals are set between objects horizontally and (and) vertically. Accordingly, in the command menu Actions > Align/Distribute commands are available: Distribute Horizontally and Distribute Vertically.

Uniform distribution of objects is usually performed after alignment, but, of course, before grouping. It is not uncommon for objects to be aligned vertically and simultaneously evenly distributed horizontally, or vice versa, respectively. An additional difference between distribution commands and alignment commands is that for mutual alignment, it is enough to have two selected objects, and for distribution commands, at least three objects must be selected.

Entering formulas

The need for a means to enter mathematical expressions into a text document is typical for scientific and technical documentation. One of these tools is a special application Mathcad. But the functions of the system Mathcad much broader, and there are good reasons to have a simple formula entry tool in the word processor itself.

In a programme Microsoft Word this tool is the formula editor Microsoft Equation 3.0. It allows you to create formula objects and insert them into a text document. If necessary, the inserted object can be edited directly in the document field.

Society does not consist of separate individuals, but reveals the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are relative to each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is formed by the actions of people and their mutual influence, which are called interactions. Interaction- this is the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditioning and links1.

In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. Interaction in social philosophy and psychology, as well as management theory, in addition, refers not only to the influence of people on each other, but also to the direct organization of their joint actions, which allows the group to realize common activities for its members. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds: the exchange of opinions, ideas, images, the impact on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state.

Interaction is the systematic and constant performance of actions aimed at eliciting a response from other people. The joint life and activity of people both in society and in an organization, in contrast to the individual, has more severe restrictions on any manifestations of activity or passivity. In the process of real interaction, adequate representations of the employee about himself and other people are also formed. The interaction of people is the leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society.

In the organization there are two types of interaction - interpersonal and intergroup, which are carried out in the system of interpersonal relations and communication.

Interpersonal interaction in the organization- these are long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts between employees within groups, departments, teams, which cause mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes. The more contacts there are between their participants and the more time they spend together, the more profitable is the work of all departments and the organization as a whole.

Intergroup interaction- the process of direct or indirect action of many subjects (objects) on each other, generating their interdependence and the peculiar nature of the relationship. Usually it is present between whole groups of the organization (as well as their parts) and is its integrating factor.

Interpersonal relationships (relationships)- these are the relationships between people, subjectively experienced and in which the system of their interpersonal attitudes, orientations, expectations, hopes is manifested, which are determined by the content of joint activity. In an organization, they arise and develop in the process of joint activities and communication.

Communication- a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts and connections between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and includes the exchange of information and the formation of a single strategy for interaction, mutual synergy2. Communication in organizations is included mainly in the practical interaction of people (joint work, teaching) and provides planning, implementation and control of their activities. The direct basis of communication between people in an organization is a joint activity that unites them to achieve a specific goal. A broader understanding of the factors that motivate people to communicate is outlined in Western scholarship. Among them, first of all, the following can be mentioned:

Exchange theory (J. Homans): people interact with each other based on their experience, weighing possible rewards and costs;

Symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, G. Bloomer): the behavior of people in relation to each other and objects of the surrounding world is set by the values ​​that they provide to them;

Impression management (E. Hoffman): situations of social interaction similar to dramatic performances in which actors try to create and maintain pleasant impressions;

Psychological theory (Z. Freud): the interaction of people is strongly influenced by ideas learned in early childhood and conflicts.

In the process of selecting personnel, forming production groups and teams, the manager should take into account a number of psychological features of the behavioral reactions of individuals from the initial stage of the development of their interaction.

So, at the initial stage (low level), interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when there is a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other between them in order to exchange information and communicate, which, as a result of specific reasons, can not achieve its goal, and therefore not acquire all-round development.

The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the partners in the interaction. At the same time, they do not represent a simple "sum" of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships that are regulated by real or imaginary difference - similarity, similarity - contrast of people involved in joint activities (practical or mental). Differences between individuals is one of the main conditions for the development of their interaction (communication, relationships, compatibility, wear), as well as themselves as individuals.

Any contact begins with a concrete sensory perception of the appearance, characteristics of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals to each other dominate.

Relationships of acceptance - rejection are found in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, an attempt to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other or not. If not, then mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection occur (sliding gaze, pulling away the hand when shaking, avoiding the head, body, guarding gestures, "sour mine", fussiness, running away, etc.). Conversely, people turn to those who smile, look straight and open, turn their faces, respond with a cheerful and cheerful tone, as those who are trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed through joint efforts.

Of course, the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by partners in interaction has deeper roots. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between scientifically substantiated and verified levels of homogeneity - different rarity (degree of similarity - differences) of the participants in the interaction.

The first (or lower) level of homogeneity is the ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are the age and gender differences of partners.

The second (upper) level of homogeneity - heterogeneity (degree of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction) - represents the ratio in the group (similarity - difference) of opinions, attitudes (including likes and dislikes) towards oneself, partners or other people and to the objective world (including in joint activities). The second level is divided into sublevels: primary (or ascending) and secondary (or effective). The primary sublevel is an ascending one, given in interpersonal interaction, the ratio of opinions (about the world of objects and their own kind). The second sublevel is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and attitudes, as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities1. The effect of congruence also plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage.

Congruence(lat. Congruens, congruentis - proportionate, appropriate, what coincides) - confirmation of mutual role expectations, the only resonant rhythm, the consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact.

Congruence provides for a minimum amount of roughness in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, which results in stress relief, the emergence of trust and sympathy at a subconscious level.

Congruence is enhanced by the feeling of complicity caused by the partner, interest, search for mutual activity based on his needs and life experience. It may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unfamiliar partners or not arise at all. But the presence of congruence indicates an increase in the likelihood that the interaction will continue. Therefore, in the process of interaction, it is necessary to try to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact.

In shaping the organizational behavior of the employees of the organization on the basis of the development of interpersonal interaction, it is necessary to take into account a number of factors that contribute to the achievement of congruence. The main ones include:

1) the experience of co-ownership, which occurs in the following cases:

Connectivity of the goals of the subjects of interaction with each other;

Having a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;

Belongings of subjects to one social group;

2) empathy (gr. Empatheia - empathy), which is more easily implemented:

For establishing emotional contact;

Similarities in behavioral and emotional reactions of partners;

Having the same attitude towards a certain subject;

In case of drawing attention to the feelings of partners (for example, they are simply described)

8) identification, which is enhanced:

When living various behavioral processes of the interacting parties;

When a person sees traits of his character in another;

When partners seem to exchange views and conduct discussions from each other's positions;

Subject to commonality of opinions, interests, social roles and positions.

As a result of congruence and effective initial contacts, feedback is established between people - a process of mutually directed responses that contributes to the maintenance of subsequent interaction and during which there is also an intentional or unintentional communication to another person about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences) are perceived or experienced.

There are three main feedback functions. He usually are:

Regulator of human behavior and actions;

Regulator of interpersonal relations;

source of self-knowledge.

Feedback can be of different types and each of its variants corresponds to one or another specificity of interaction between people and the emergence of stable relationships between them.

Feedback can be:

Verbal (transmitted in the form of a voice message);

Non-verbal, that is, such that is carried out with the help of facial expressions, posture, intonation of voice, etc.;

So that is embodied in the form of action, focused on identifying, showing another person understanding, approval, and turns out to be in general activity.

Feedback can be direct and delayed in time, brightly emotionally colored and transmitted by a person to another person as a kind of experience or be with a minimum manifestation of emotions and corresponding behavioral reactions.

AT different options joint activities are appropriate to their types of feedback. Therefore, it should be noted that the inability to use feedback significantly hinders the interaction of people in the organization, reduces the effectiveness of management.

The psychological commonality of the participants in organizational interaction, the situation strengthens their contacts, helps the development of relationships between them, contributes to the transformation of their personal relationships and actions into common ones. Attitudes, needs, interests, relationships in general, being motives, determine promising directions interactions of partners, while their tactics are also regulated by a mutual understanding of the characteristics of people, their images-representations about each other, about themselves, the tasks of joint activity.

At the same time, the regulation of the interaction and relationships of people is carried out not by one, but by a whole group of images. In addition to the images-representations of partners about each other, the system of psychological regulators of joint activity includes images-representations about oneself - the so-called I-concept, the totality of all the ideas of the individual about himself, which leads to the conviction of his behavior, with the help of which the personality determines who he is. there is. This is also added to the idea of ​​partners about the impressions they make on each other, the ideal image of the social role that partners perform, views on the possible results of joint activities. And although these images-representations are not always clearly understood by people, the psychological content, concentrated in attitudes, motives, needs, interests, relationships, is rendered with the help of volitional actions in various forms of partner-directed behavior.

At the initial stage of the process of interaction between people in a group (organization), active cooperation is gradually developing, becoming more and more embodied in effective solution problems of combining the mutual efforts of employees. This stage is called productive joint activity.

There are three forms, or models, of organizing joint activities:

Each participant does their part. common work independently of the other;

The overall task is performed sequentially by each participant;

There is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others (characteristic in the conditions of a team organization of labor and the development of horizontal ties), the actual existence of which depends on the conditions of the activity, its goals and content.

In an organization or its subdivisions, people's aspirations can still lead to clashes in the process of agreeing on positions, as a result of which people enter into "agreement-disagreement" relationships one after another. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction takes place. These relations cause a special direction of volitional efforts in the subjects of interaction, associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to display mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities of the individual, based on intelligence and high level his consciousness and self-consciousness. At the same time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied and mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, which are called compatibility and incompatibility or wear and tear - incompatibility. Interpersonal relations in a group (organization) and a certain degree of compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called "psychological climate".

There are several types of human compatibility. Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of temperamental characteristics, the needs of individuals. Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, behavioral motives. Socio-psychological compatibility has a prerequisite for coordinating social roles, interests, value orientations of participants. Finally, socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, the similarity of social attitudes in relation to various facts of reality related to the implementation of ethnic, class and confessional interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while the extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological and socio-psychological, socio-ideological, have obvious features1.

In joint activities, control by the participants themselves is noticeably activated (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual examination), which affects the executive part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.

However, it should be remembered that the engine of interaction and joint activity is primarily the motivation of its participants. There are several types of social motives for interaction (that is, motives due to which a person interacts with other people):

Maximization of the common (joint) gain (motive of cooperation)

Maximizing your own gain (individualism)

Relative Gain Maximization (Competition)

Maximizing another's gain (altruism)

Minimizing the gain of another (aggression);

Minimization of differences in gains (equality) 2. Mutual control, which is carried out by participants in a joint

activity, may lead to a revision of individual motives of activity, if there are significant differences in their direction and level. As a result, individual motives begin to be adjusted and coordinated.

During this process, thoughts, feelings, relations of partners in joint activities are constantly coordinated in various forms of the impact of people on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to act (order, request, suggestion), others authorize the actions of the partners (consent or refusal), others cause a discussion (question, reflection), which can take place in different forms. However, the choice of influence is more often determined by the functional-role relations of partners in joint work. For example, the control function of the leader (manager) encourages him to use orders, requests and authorizing answers more often, while the educational function of the same leader often requires the use of discussion forms of interaction. Thus, the process of mutual influence of partners in interaction is realized. With its help, people "process" each other, trying to change and transform the mental states, attitudes and, ultimately, the behavior and psychological qualities of the participants in joint activities.

INTERACTION

Mechanical the form of V. is not a universal, but only a particular of the universal form of V. as an endless chain of cause and effect. relations.

V.'s characterization as a mutual change in the sides of the system, in which the motion acquires a "circular" character, also applies to any specific system of interacting phenomena. Such a concrete also acts as a "cause of itself", i.e. contains within itself the source of its own movement. Understood in this way, the reason coincides with the internal. contradiction of this particular system.

V. always has a specific character in the sense that there is always a ratio of the parties determined. complete system, eg. solar system, vegetable, animal kingdoms, human. society, def. socio-economic formations. The content of V. is due to the nature of its constituent moments, the mutual change of which acts as the movement of this system. Examples of such a dialectical V. can serve any specific system, for example. living organisms. Living organisms refract impacts external environment through a specific organization of their body and the relationship of individuals of this species. A vivid example of a self-preserving, self-reproducing and self-moving system of interacting phenomena can be a human being. society in its development based on specific social patterns.

V. there is a process, ext. the unity of which is realized in the continuous change of its elements, sides. Reproduction of the phenomenon on the basis of V. its own. elements and acts as its development (self-development). In a self-developing system, the reason for its existence ultimately turns out to be its own. consequence. The chain of causes and actions closes here not only into a "ring", but also into a "spiral". An example of this form of V. is the system of V. economical. phenomena, scientifically reproduced in Marx's Capital.

In a similar relationship V. are among themselves and the practice of man. Theory is not only a consequence of practice. Arising on the basis of practice and receiving its active development in it, theory has a reverse effect on practice.

V. is expressed, for example, in the relations between wage workers and capitalists within the commodity-capitalist. production relations. Capital is as much a consequence of the existence of wage labor as it is the cause of its given, concrete historical. existence.

With all the dependence of the sides of V., dialectics obliges us to always keep in mind that one of the sides of this V. is leading. Such a leading side is the one from which each new circle of development begins. So, for example, in relation to V. theory and practice, practice is the leading party.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1–3, M., 1955; his own, Towards a Criticism of Political Economy, M., 1953; Engels F., Dialectics of Nature, Moscow, 1955; his own, Anti-Dühring, M., 1957; Lenin V.I., Philosophical Notebooks, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 38; Hegel G., Science of Logic, Soch., vol. 5, M., 1937.

E. Ilyenkov, G. Davydova, V. Lektorsky. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

INTERACTION

INTERACTION - philosophical category, reflecting the processes of interaction of various objects with each other, their mutual conditionality, change of state, mutual transition, as well as the generation of one object by another. Interaction is a kind of direct or indirect, external or internal relationship, connection. The properties of an object can manifest themselves and be known only in interaction with other objects. Interaction acts as an integrating factor, through which the parts are combined into a certain type of integrity, structure. Each form of motion of matter is based on certain types of interaction of structural elements.

Interaction determines the relationship of cause and effect. Each of the interacting parties acts as a cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side. The interaction of opposites are the deepest sources, the basis and the ultimate cause of the emergence, self-motion and development of objects.

Modern natural science has shown that any interaction is associated with material fields and is accompanied by the transfer of matter, motion and information. Knowledge of things means knowledge of their interaction and is itself the result of the interaction of subject and object.

A. G. Spirkin

New Philosophical Encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001 .

Antonyms:

See what "INTERACTION" is in other dictionaries:

Interaction … Spelling Dictionary

In physics, the impact of bodies or h on each other, leading to a change in the state of their movement. In Newtonian mechanics, the mutual action of bodies on each other is quantitatively characterized by force. A more general characteristic of V. yavl. potent. energy. Initially… … Physical Encyclopedia

interaction- (in psychology) the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating their mutual conditioning and connection. V. acts as an integrating factor that promotes the formation of structures. Feature… Great Psychological Encyclopedia

interaction- The term "interworking" is used to refer to the interactions between networks, between end systems or between parts of them, with the aim of providing a functional unit capable of communicating from end to end. ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

A philosophical category that reflects the processes of the influence of objects on each other, their mutual conditionality and the generation of one object by another. Interaction is a universal form of movement, development, determines the existence and structural ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

INTERACTION, interactions, cf. (book). Mutual communication; mutual conditioning. Interaction of social phenomena. Dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Communication, coordination, solvation, allelopathy. Ant. inconsistency Dictionary of Russian synonyms. interaction noun, number of synonyms: 5 allelopathy (1) … Synonym dictionary

Actions coordinated in terms of tasks (objects), directions, boundaries (regions) and time between parts various kinds Armed forces (arms of arms, naval forces, special troops) in the interests of achieving the common goal of a battle, operation. One of the principles of the military ... ... Marine Dictionary

INTERACTION, I, cf. 1. Mutual connection of phenomena. B. supply and demand. 2. Mutual support. V. troops (coordinated actions of troops in the performance of a combat mission). Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

In psychology, such a concept as interaction is revealed as the actions of people directed at each other. Such actions can be considered as a set of certain actions aimed at achieving their goals, solving practical problems and implementing value orientations.

Basic types of human interaction

Different types of interaction are distinguished depending on the situation that caused it. This is what led to the emergence of their various classifications.

The most common classification is based on performance orientation.

Types of interaction in the process of communication

1. Cooperation- this is such an interaction in which its participants reach a mutual agreement on how to act to achieve common goals and try not to violate it, as long as their areas of interest coincide.
2. Competition- this is an interaction that is characterized by the achievement of one's personal or public goals and interests in the context of a confrontation of interests between people.

Types of interpersonal interaction often determine the nature of relationships between people. The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people, which indicate how each of the participants in the interaction understands the meaning of what is happening. In this case, 3 more types are distinguished.

Types and types of interaction

1. Additional. Such interaction, in which partners calmly and objectively relate to each other's position.
2. Intersecting. An interaction during which the participants, on the one hand, demonstrate an unwillingness to understand the position and opinion of other interaction partners. At the same time, on the other hand, they actively show their own intentions in this regard.
3. hidden interaction. This type includes two levels at once: external, expressed in a verbal way, and hidden, manifested in the thoughts of a person. It assumes either a very good knowledge of the participant in the interaction, or your receptivity to non-verbal means of communication. These include tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, in general, everything that can give a conversation a hidden meaning.

Styles and types of interaction and their features

1. Cooperation. It is aimed at the full satisfaction of partners in the interaction of their needs and aspirations. Here one of the motives given above is realized: cooperation or competition.
2. Counteraction. This style involves focusing on one's own goals, without taking into account any interests of the other party involved. The principle of individualism is manifested.
3. Compromise. It is implemented in the partial achievement of the goals and interests of both parties.
4. Compliance. It involves sacrificing one's own interests in order to achieve the partner's goals, or abandoning petty needs in order to achieve some more significant goal.
5. avoidance. This style represents withdrawal or avoidance of contact. In this case, it is possible to lose your own goals to exclude winnings.

Sometimes activity and communication are considered as two components of the social existence of society. In other cases, communication is designated as a certain aspect of the activity: it is included in any activity and is part of it. The activity itself appears to us as a condition and basis for communication. Moreover, in psychology, the concept of "interaction" "communication" are on the same level as "personality" "activity" and are fundamental.

Types of interaction in psychology play a huge role not only in interpersonal communication, but also in the process of human development and, as a result, society as a whole. Without communication human society would not be able to fully function, and we would never have reached such heights socio-economic development as it is now.