Like no other, man is inclined to influence the planet. Having fenced off cities from the wild world, we often perceive ourselves as separate from nature. modern science still believes that people are its product. Having reached our "throne" thanks to evolution, we have retained something in common with our "relatives" of mammals. What makes us like them? What's the difference? We will present a comparison of man and animal later in the article.

Man in the biological system

Modern man belongs to the genus People and the species Homo sapiens (reasonable man). There are different theories about the true origin of such a developed being: the theory of external interference, spatial anomalies, creationism and evolutionism.

According to scientific theory, people appeared by evolution in the same way as other animals on the planet. The closest relative of the genus of people is Australopithecus, and from it, about 2.3 million years ago, the first man appeared - Homo habilis (skillful). Homo sapiens arose only 130-150 thousand years ago.

In biological taxonomy, we refer to the chordate mammals and the order of primates, which explains some of the similarities between humans and animals. Of the species living on Earth, the most similar to humans in DNA are the common and pygmy chimpanzees.

General similarities between humans and animals

Humans belong to the animal kingdom, which means they have similar features with other representatives. So, our organs and tissues consist of cells that are equipped with a cell nucleus and are devoid of vacuoles.

As a representative of the class of mammals, a person has a bilateral body symmetry, four limbs, a clear division of body parts into a head, limbs, torso and neck (in animals, the tail is still prominent). Warm-bloodedness, intrauterine development of embryos, live birth, feeding of young with milk, the presence of hair on the body are inherent in people.

Human and animal (mammalian) organ systems have common features which are shown in the table below.

Embryo development

The similarity of man and animals is observed already in the first stages of life. Human embryos in the early stages practically do not differ from the embryos of other higher vertebrates. Only with time do they begin to acquire specific features for each species. At the same time, homologous organs are formed from the same structures, that is, where the forelimbs appear in lizards, wings develop in birds, and hands in humans, etc.

How are our embryos similar? The development of all vertebrates begins with fertilization, then a zygote is formed, which is crushed, passing into the stages of morula, blastula and gastrula. From the middle (mesoderm), internal (endoderm) and external (ectoderm) germ layers, organs and tissues begin to form.

Like other vertebrates, at 2.5 weeks of life, we have a chord - a long longitudinal strand, which eventually transforms into a spine. The heart at first looks like a tube with pulsating walls, and what later develops into the spinal cord and a full-fledged nervous system is at first a neural tube.

Like fish, the human brain up to 3 months consists of five cerebral vesicles. The umbilical cord connects us with the maternal organism, which is observed in all placental mammals. In primates, rodents and predators, it disappears at the birth of the fetus.

Humans and primates

The similarity between humans and animals is best seen in the great great apes. These are the representatives of mammals closest to us, united with humans in the family of hominids. In many ways, chimpanzees have more in common with humans than with other apes. Once they even wanted to define the Homo group.

The external similarity lies in elongated limbs compared to the body, in broad shoulders, a long neck and ischial calluses. Both of them do not have a tail, and there is no undercoat on the skin, the nose protrudes from the plane of the face, and the fingers have nails instead of claws. The body of great apes (anthropoids) is not covered with hair as densely as that of their counterparts.

Chimpanzee blood also has four blood groups, and the timing of their pregnancy and puberty is almost identical to ours. We have the same patterns on the molars, an equal number of lobes in the lungs and a similar structure of the larynx. Monkeys also have 4 incisors and 4 canines, 8 molars, 5-6 sacral vertebrae in the skeleton. They can walk on their hind limbs, helping themselves with their hands.

Our Common Diseases

The similarity of the internal structure of people and animals leads to the fact that we can be overcome by the same viruses and infections. Since monkeys are closest to us in terms of DNA structure, they are most susceptible to our diseases. They easily become infected from us with tuberculosis, influenza, cholera, smallpox, and hepatitis.

All mammals are susceptible to prion diseases. Humans and animals alike are susceptible to rabies. There are many cases in history when rats transmitted plague and leptospirosis to humans.

From pets, a person can become infected with helminths, ringworm, cat scratch fever, toxoplasmosis. Birds and reptiles carry salmonellosis and ornithosis, rodents - tularemia. Both wild and domestic animals are susceptible to anthrax and fascioliasis.

Our differences

While similar in many ways, humans differ from other species in many ways. Many physical differences between man and animals are associated with the development of our upright posture and speech. So, we have a more developed brain section than the front one, we have a chin, the pelvis is expanded.

Great apes have 24 pairs of chromosomes, while humans have 23. The spine of monkeys has an arcuate bend, while ours is S-shaped. Our legs bear the weight of the entire body, so they have stronger muscles. Human feet are arched to soften the concussion of the organs when walking. Rib cage flat but wide.

Separating us from most mammals is trichromatic vision (also found in primates) and a weaker sense of smell. Only 387 genes are responsible for determining odors in us, in primates - 500, in macrosomates - more than 1000.

Our legs are longer than our arms, while primates have the opposite. The fangs do not protrude from the dentition, the body is shorter than in monkeys. The thumb of a person is opposed to the rest and is very mobile, this helps to use various tools.

Brain and intellect

Of course, the main difference between man and animals is intelligence. Mammals have advanced furthest in their mental abilities. However, they are not able to surpass us. Man has consciousness, concrete and abstract thinking. We can generalize, dream, reflect on the past and the future.

A person is capable of long-range planning, while animals make decisions only for the next time period. People - the only kind who is able to draw conclusions, learn about the world around him and transfer his knowledge to others.

In this regard, our brain has acquired features that are different from animals. Its bark is 2.5 times larger in area than that of monkeys. It is larger, and the furrows are more developed. The parietal, frontal and temporal lobes, which are responsible for speech and the psyche, are also more developed in us.

A person is capable of speech, while animals have only a simplified signal system. They can notify their “brothers” of the simplest situations, for example, “danger!”, “Pleasure”, etc. Yellow-bellied marmots have 8 such signals, macaques have about 30.

But animals are capable of learning. Chimpanzees are more advanced in this. The owners of the Washoe chimpanzee managed to teach sign language. As a result, she mastered 500 concepts and could even combine them to create her own. For example, with the words "water" + "bird" she explained that she saw a swan.

Behavior

The difference in intelligence also affects the differences in the behavior of humans and animals. Both those and others are characterized by conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. But in general, the actions of animals are more ritualized and dictated by ancient instincts, and a person is inclined to act according to the situation, taking into account all external factors and his own desire. In other words, of all animals, we tend to behave in the most plastic way.

An instinct is a form of behavior that is inherent in a species at the genetic level, it is dictated by biological needs and includes a strictly defined procedure. If at least one condition is changed, then the animal will be confused or react not quite adequately.

For example, wasps, before dragging caught prey into a hole, leave it at the entrance, and climb inside themselves to check if someone else has run into it. When everything is in order, they drag the victim to the "house". If we intervene and move her prey a little further from the entrance, the wasp will start repeating all over again. Its behavior does not include the possibility that someone will drag food, so the wasp will again transfer the victim to the entrance and climb into the hole again to check.

Emotions of man and animals

In both us and animals, primary emotions are innate. From this we can conclude that the feelings associated with them of man and animals are felt in the same way, and some even manifest themselves like ours. Primates have the same set of facial muscles and can also show grimaces of joy, anger, fear, etc.

A vivid expression of emotions is inherent in social animals, as it performs communicative function. One of the important manifestations of emotions is the grin. An open mouth with protruding fangs warns the enemy of a warlike mood like nothing better.

But in animals, emotions are purely biological in nature and exist only within the limits of their direct needs and instincts. The danger for them exists only at the specific moment of the attack, and the feeling of fear appears only then. In a person, it can occur even in a calm environment, if he imagines a dangerous situation.

Culture and creativity

If instincts and emotions are observed in all higher animals, then culture is what defines a person. Humans are the only organisms that don't just exist in environment, but they can also change it.

Through thinking, creative activity and knowledge, we create material objects and spiritual values. Of the entire animal kingdom, only man is able to create tools with the help of other tools. This is how we invented clothes, household items, weapons, built pyramids, palaces, cities.

Some animals can also use tools. For example, crows get worms and insects from the bark of a tree using sticks and twigs. But they cannot make this stick themselves.

The most human-like animal is the great ape. Not only does she have a similar skeletal structure to a human, but she also has a thumb set aside, with which she can touch the tips of her other fingers, which allows the monkey to grab with her hands. various items and climb trees. A person's thumb makes it possible to use tools. These monkeys also lack a tail. Their brains are larger and more complex in structure than those of marmosets, for example.

Some people think that monkeys are the ancestors of humans, but this is not true. The theory of evolution says that ape and man many years ago descended from one common ancestor, but developed along different branches.

There are four types of anthropoids, or great apes. The largest and strongest is the gorilla. The next largest is the orangutan, then the chimpanzee, and finally the smallest of all, the gibbon.

Gibbon is the least studied representative of great apes, but it is he who has the greatest resemblance to humans. The Gibbon can stand upright and walk like a human, rather than hobble around on its forelimbs. But, on the other hand, the gibbon walks little on the ground and spends most of its life on trees, moving from branch to branch with the help of long arms and descending only to pick up leaves or fruits lying on the ground.

It is interesting to note that the teeth of great apes are similar to ours. While eating, the gibbon sits upright, like a person, and its diet, in addition to the main food in the form of leaves and fruits, can include spiders, birds, and eggs. The gibbon has a very strong family. Parents and children are not separated day or night, and since a young gibbon lives with parents until about 6 years old, the gibbon family can have 8-9 members. In the wild jungle, the gibbon can live to a very old age - up to 30 years!

90% of discoveries in medicine are made thanks to laboratory rodents. It was they who became the first "tasters" of well-known medications, antibiotics were tested on them, thanks to them we learned how alcohol, drugs, radiation affect the human body ... Why rats?

What is similar: the rat surprisingly coincides with the man in the composition of the blood and in the structure of the tissues; the only animal that, like humans, has abstract thinking. It is the ability to draw conclusions that allows these animals to be so tenacious.

Pig

Fossil skeletons of large pig-headed lemurs, megaladapis, have been found on the island of Madagascar. Instead of pig hooves, they had a five-fingered "human" hand. There are far-reaching plans to be used as surrogate mothers to carry human embryos... sows.

What is similar: the pig embryo has the laying of a five-fingered hand and a muzzle similar to a human face - hooves and a snout develop only just before the very birth; the physiology of the pig most closely matches that of a human. It is not for nothing that pig organs can be used for liver, kidney, spleen and heart transplantation.

Dolphin

Professor A. Portman (Switzerland) conducted research mental abilities animals. According to the results of the test, a man came out on top - 215 points, a dolphin was on the second - 190 points, an elephant was on the third place, and a monkey was on the fourth.

What is similar: humans and dolphins have the most highly developed brains. We have a brain weight of about 1.4 kg, theirs is 1.7, and in the same monkey it is three times less. The dolphin's cerebral cortex has twice as many convolutions as ours. Therefore, a dolphin is able to acquire 1.5 times more knowledge than a person.

great ape

There are four species of them: the largest and strongest is the gorilla, then the orangutan, the next largest is the chimpanzee, and finally the smallest is the gibbon.

What is similar: similar to the human structure of the skeleton; ability to walk upright; a thumb set aside (although not only on the hands, but also on the legs); life in the family, and, as a rule, the cub leaves only after meeting a potential spouse.

Fish

It would seem, where are we and where are the fish? We are warm-blooded. They are cold-blooded, we live on land, they live in water, but ...

What is similar: fish collagen (a protein that forms the basis of the connective tissue of the body - tendons, bones, cartilage, skin, providing its strength and elasticity) has a protein molecule almost identical to that of a human. This property is often used in cosmetology in the manufacture of cream.

- What discoveries, achievements in the field of human evolutionary genetics do you consider the most important over the past 10 years? 20 years? 50 years?

In the evolutionary genetics of both humans and other species, the most important results came from DNA analysis - it introduced significant changes in the ideas about the evolutionary tree. For humans, this analysis proved that all modern people descended from a single ancestral group that lived in Africa.

Important: the migration paths drawn on the basis of DNA analysis of modern populations do not pass through mountains and rivers, but through populations (who now live there, and their ancestors could previously live elsewhere). To bind migration paths to geographical objects, we need data on ancient DNA.

In different sources, you can see different numbers characterizing the proximity of the human and chimpanzee genomes - 98.5% or, for example, 94%. What does this spread of numbers depend on, and yet, which is more correct?

The spread of numbers depends on what type of differences between genomes are used. Nucleotide "texts" can differ in substitutions of individual letters (the so-called single nucleotide polymorphisms, the English abbreviation SNP, Single Nusleotide Polymorphism), the number of repeating fragments (CNV, Copy Number Variation), the order or orientation of large fragments can be changed (these changes have long been known as changes in the position of chromosome fragments).

Genomes may differ in the presence of inserts or the loss of fragments of different sizes. In addition, two simian chromosomes in humans are combined into one, so we have 46 chromosomes, while chimpanzees have 48.

It is difficult to indicate all these various restructurings in one figure, therefore, depending on what exactly was taken into account, the numbers are different. But when any type of difference is accounted for, the pattern of similarities between species is the same - the chimpanzee is closest to humans, then the gorilla, then the orangutan, and so on.

These few percent that distinguish the human genome from the chimpanzee genome - what is their " physical meaning"? What are these genes, what are their functions?

When comparing the genomes of humans and chimpanzees, mutations were identified that "made us human." These are the mutations that appeared in the human line and led to important changes in biochemical processes, body shape, or changed the timing of the maturation of certain systems.

However, this "physical meaning" has a very small part of the differences. Basically, the differences are due to the random accumulation of "neutral" mutations that do not manifest themselves in any way in the appearance or biochemical characteristics of their owners.

Part of the "meaningful" differences is associated with the accumulation of adaptive mutations, and in the chimpanzee genome - some mutations, in the human genome - others. Among the known changes are mutations that inactivate some "unnecessary" genes for humans. For example, inactivation of the keratin gene, a protein that is part of the hair, is associated with the absence of hair on the human body. Inactivation of olfactory receptor genes in humans is associated with a reduced survival role of the sense of smell. An important change is the inactivation of the gene for one of the proteins that is part of the masticatory muscles. The weakening of the powerful masticatory muscles attached to the bones of the skull made it possible to "liberate" it from the functions of a frame for these muscles and increase the size of the cranium, and, accordingly, the size of the brain.

Mutations in genes associated with brain size and function are particularly interesting. Human ancestors accumulated mutations in the genes that control brain size, and selected those that led to an increase in its size.

An important class of mutations that distinguish humans from other primates are changes in the genes of regulatory proteins. These proteins regulate the work of entire groups of other genes, and a change in one such protein leads to significant changes in the work of gene ensembles. By changing these proteins, it is possible, due to a small number of mutations, to achieve significant changes in the structure and functions of various organs.

Differences between human and primate genomes have already been "inventoryed", but the meaning of these differences is still clear only for a small fraction of mutations.

How do you feel about the proposals of some researchers to include chimpanzees and gorillas in the genus Homo based on genetic data?

Positively. Formally, at the level of DNA, we differ less from our primate brothers than two species of rats. Although in appearance and in lifestyle they differ much more.

Probably a naive question, but will it be possible in the foreseeable future by means of genetic engineering to “make a human out of a monkey”? What difficulties stand in the way of solving such a problem?

What for? we already are - nature has already done. I think that it is unethical to make a factory for the production of something from half-humans, half-monkeys (it is possible to obtain various useful substances from microorganisms or tissue cultures), and philosophical problems cannot be solved in this way. It is better to preserve the natural populations of our relatives.

Another science fiction question: is it possible in the foreseeable future to solve a problem like cloning a Neanderthal?

Cloning from existing DNA fragments is impossible - they are very short, you cannot sew them into a single whole. Synthesis of DNA based on the obtained information about the sequence of the Neanderal genome is hardly possible so far. When determining the nucleotide sequence of ancient DNA, there is a high probability of erroneous "reading" due to the fact that over thousands of years chemical modifications accumulate in DNA, which can be mistaken for real mutations. In addition, in a test tube, DNA is synthesized in fragments of several thousand nucleotides in size. When assembling these fragments, errors also occur. As a result, the number of errors will be so high that the system will not be viable. But there is still the stage of introducing DNA into the cell. And some more technical difficulties - for example, what to do with the level of DNA methylation.

DNA methylation is a method of chemical modification of certain nucleotides (hinging a methyl group with special enzymes). Methylation can affect the activity of genes, the recognition of DNA by enzymes (for example, by restriction enzymes, which, depending on the presence or absence of a methyl group, cut or do not cut certain sequences) and more.

You can read more about the problems associated with the study of ancient DNA in this article.

Unfortunately, the Russian Internet is full of all sorts of disinformation (for example, one regularly encounters ranting that genetically closest to a person is not a chimpanzee, but a pig ...). What are the most common myths, misconceptions about human genetics?

About pigs - a well-known myth. Insulin used to be obtained from a pig, since some of the proteins we have with pigs are really similar. And other proteins are more similar to other animal species. Most of all coincidences - I repeat - with chimpanzees. But more is known about the pig - that's the old information circulating.

The most common misconceptions are associated with complete illiteracy, with the fact that many are not even familiar with the mandatory school course genetics.

Here is an example - a response to our lecture on the inheritance of blood groups. If an illiterate dad read a page in a school textbook about dominant and recessive traits, there would be no life tragedy:

"The material is not only interesting, but also understandable even for a primary school student. I have been interested in this topic since my father (who, like my mother, has Rh positive, but unfortunately I turned out negative) said me that because of this I am not his daughter, accused my mother of all mortal sins and left us. So, dear dad, you are deeply mistaken. You are wrong !!! "(From the site http://www. bio.fizteh.ru/student/files/biology/biolections/lection03.html)

Enough has been accumulated in science big number facts about striking resemblance between humans and animals, which allows us to conclude about the unity of the origin of living beings. The following facts confirm the relationship between humans and animals.

1) In human and animal cells contain the same proteins nucleic acids that perform the same functions. A particularly great similarity was found between humans and monkeys: for example, in DNA humans and chimpanzees are kept 92% similar genes. The immunological properties of blood are also similar: both in humans and in great apes they differ blood types and there is Rh factor.

2) In the structure of the body of humans and animals allocate similar bodies and body parts . Like all monkeys, the human forelimbs are prehensile, have a hand that can freely bend and unbend; the thumb is opposed to the rest; terminal phalanges are equipped with arched nails. The clavicles are well developed in the shoulder girdle, providing varied and complex movements of the forelimbs. The skull is large. The eye sockets are located on the front side of the skull and face forward. The fields of view of each eye are not isolated, as in most mammals, but overlap one another, which provides binocular, three-dimensional vision. In addition, a person has vestigial organs , which performed important functions in animals and were preserved in humans, although they are not needed by him (for example, the appendix).

3) Man and primates, unlike other mammals, have highly developed brain having occipital lobe and prominent frontal lobes. The presence of the occipital lobes is associated with the development of vision, and the frontal - with intellectual abilities. The whole complex - forelimbs capable of manipulation, highly developed organs of vision and the brain of monkeys - is a fundamental prerequisite for the ability to work.

4) Embryo development animals of the same type are similar in many respects. Everyone has chordates in the early stages embryogenesis the axial skeleton (chord) is laid, the neural tube appears, gill slits are formed. The structure of the heart of the human embryo resembles the structure of the heart of fish - one atrium and one ventricle. The study of the embryonic development of various animals led to the conclusion that man in his embryonic development goes through all stages of the evolution of the species. This feature was formulated in the second half of the XIX century. German scientists F. Müller and E. Haeckel how biogenetic law - « in ontogeny repeats phylogenesis ", Whereby individual development individuals (ontogeny) is a brief repetition of phylogeny ( historical development species).

5) Behaviors humans and animals are similar in many ways. Animals, like humans, have developed a system of communication with the help of appropriate signals. mechanisms of human behavior species and animals are one. Outstanding Russian scientists I.M. Sechenov (1863) and I.P. Pavlov (1926) created reflex theory of behavior based on complex and diverse manifestations of activity nervous system, the functional unit of which is reflex.

However, in building and physiology human there are significant differences from animals. bipedalism became possible due to the strong development of the muscles of the lower extremities, the appearance of pronounced bends in the spine (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrococcygeal), changes in the position of the pelvis (at an angle of 60º to the horizontal), the formation of an arched foot with a well-developed first toe. In accordance with the vertical position of the body, the location of the internal organs also changed.

It should be noted functional division of the upper and lower extremities of a person. The human hand is characterized by a high degree of development - the movable hand is flexible, it has a large number of small muscles, the thumb is opposed to the palm, which allows you to firmly hold objects. The human hand is non-specific, it can perform a variety of complex and subtle movements.

The main difference in the structure of man and animal is brain development - material basis of thinking, consciousness, speech. Head brain person is not only significant larger but also much more complex structure than the brains of animals. This is due to the emergence of new structures, ensembles of neurons that regulate complex movements, speech, and thinking. hemispheresbrain human unequal, they functionally asymmetrical . Scientists have proven that lefthemisphere related With logical thinking, purposefulness of actions, a right- With emotional sphere , With intuition. The asymmetry of the human brain is formed immediately after birth.

To morphofunctional features human body can also be attributed mainly developed brain region of the skull compared with facial, large brain volume, binocular vision, hairless skin, low fertility and others.

The evolution of steel fundamental biosocial differences of a person that appear in the process of ontogenesis under the condition of a person's life among people, in society. These features relate to the physiology, and behavior, and lifestyle of a person.

The development of the mind.Human unlike animals has special form of thinking conceptual thinking, i.e., the ability to form abstract, abstract ideas about subjects in which the basic properties of specific things are generalized. Reflection of reality animals always specifically, subject associated with certain objects in the environment.

Animals maycommit very difficult steps, but their behavior is based on instincts - genetically incorporated programs of behavior. The set of such actions is strictly limited, a sequence is defined that does not change with changing conditions. A person first sets a goal, draws up an action plan that can change if necessary, and puts it into practice, analyzes the results, draws conclusions. Human conscious what he does and understands the world.