Introduction

1. Models of social policy
2. The principles of the strategy of social economic development Russia
3. Social Policy Priorities
4. The current stage of development of social policy in Russia

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The transformation of Russian society has given rise to qualitatively new phenomena in all spheres of life. It deeply affected the level, and especially the quality of life of Russians, demanded an adequate social policy.

The adoption of a number of federal laws and programs providing for a change in the structure and directions of social protection activities, in itself, unfortunately, did not remove the acuteness of vital important issues many categories of the population. In society, there are always social strata, families and individuals who find themselves in difficult life situations. For them, in addition to providing general living conditions, additional social protection is required, including targeted social support and social services.

The system of social protection of the population Russian Federation entered its second decade of development. Since 1991, having been revived as a new type of professional activity, it has gone through a certain path marked by rapid development.

The main purpose of writing this term paper is to determine a new course of development of social policy in Russia. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:

Consider the main models of social policy;

Outline the main principles of the strategy of social and economic development of Russia;

Identify social policy priorities;

Consider the situation in the development of social policy at the present stage.

To consider this topic, textbooks and periodicals by such authors as Goncharov P.K., Laikam K., Pronin S., Ishaev V., Karelova V. and others were used.

1. Models of social policy

States in the post-socialist space have common problems in the social sphere. Among them, one of the main ones is the presence of huge state social obligations inherited from the socialist system and not provided with financial resources.

In the modern history of the post-socialist period, there are two main models for the development of social policy: the paternalistic model and the targeted social system.

paternalistic model social development was borrowed from the practice of regulating the social sphere Soviet Union. It is characterized by a strict definition by the state of human behavior in the social sphere and social protection coverage of almost the entire population. . (5)

For models of targeted social policy characterized by differentiation in the performance of social functions of the state in relation to different segments of the population, the redistribution of social expenditures of the state in favor of the most vulnerable groups of the population, an increase in the efficiency of the social system, and a decrease in social tension in society.

The period of transition to a more effective model of social policy is characterized by the complexity and depth of the necessary changes and requires a comprehensive, systematic approach. Reforming the social sphere cannot be considered and implemented in isolation from the implementation of macroeconomic reforms, reform state power. During this period, a specific transitional model.

The level of social tension, the volume, and the nature of the accumulated social problems require a step-by-step, evolutionary approach to building a new model of social policy. In the process of transition to a targeted social system, the following main stages can be distinguished:

Crisis management social processes in society;

Achievement social stability;

Sustainable development of the social sphere.

Social policy in post-socialist Russia, as in many other countries with economies in transition, was focused primarily on maintaining the scale of social services provided by the state. At the same time, efforts aimed at improving the effectiveness of social programs receded into the background. Against the backdrop of a rapid decline in GDP, there was an increase in the share specific gravity social spending in total government spending.

The main form of social protection of the population in countries with a market economy is social insurance. The modern system of social insurance is still characterized by the main features and problems of the paternalistic model of social development. The process of reforming the system, which was formed in the conditions of centralized, planned management and leveling grounds, is far from being completed.

State extrabudgetary social funds formed the basis of the state insurance system: the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation, the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation, the Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund and the State Employment Fund. In addition to off-budget funds, the source of social policy financing is a three-tier budget system, including the Federal Budget of the Russian Federation, regional and local budgets. (four)

The increase in the share of social spending that occurred in the 1990s could not prevent a decline in the standard of living of the population, including workers in social sectors. It only led to a further rapid increase in the problem of the budget deficit.

In general, the paternalistic model of social development shows its low efficiency in regulating social processes in modern society. Among its many shortcomings, the following should be highlighted:

• inconsistency of the financial capabilities of the state with the volume of legally defined social obligations;
• unreasonably high (in terms of financial capacity) spending on the social sphere;
• insufficient interdepartmental coordination of bodies involved in the formation and implementation of social policy;
• cross implementation of social programs causing duplication social assistance;
• imperfect system for evaluating the effectiveness of spending on the social sphere;
• lack of a systematic approach to the formation of social protection of the population.

The imbalance of resources and obligations of the state is the most acute budgetary problem, the solution of which is singled out as one of the strategic tasks of the country's development at the present stage.

The problem of the fuzzy delineation of expenditure and tax powers between budgets of all levels has a significant impact on the effectiveness of the implementation of social policy.

Thus, the social system of modern Russia carries an archaic structure of the distribution of social services by types, categories of recipients, sources of funding and the place of assistance.

Nevertheless, the use of the paternalistic model of social policy at the initial stage of socio-economic transformations in Russia was justified due to a number of objective reasons:

A sharp drop in the standard of living of the majority of the population;

Lack of experience in solving such large-scale tasks in the field of social policy;

Insufficiency of technical and regulatory and methodological means for solving many problems social reforms;

Insufficient certainty of the socio-economic priorities of the state;

Unformed social structure of society;

The need to make full use of those resources, forms and methods of work that remained from the pre-reform system of social protection.

In view of the scale and significance of the accumulated problems, the reform of the social policy of the state is defined as one of the strategic tasks of the country's development at the present stage. Social reform is seen as an inseparable part of the state's economic and financial strategy.

The priority direction of social reforms is the transition to a more effective model - a model of targeted social policy, implemented taking into account the resources and opportunities actually available to the state and focused on supporting the most socially vulnerable groups of the population.

The targeted approach will make it possible to redistribute resources allocated to social policy in favor of the most needy categories of the population, increase the amount of benefits and other payments, while reducing the burden of inefficient government spending. Particularly needy categories of the population, in favor of which it is planned to redistribute state social expenditures, first of all, should include families with children, the elderly, the disabled and the unemployed with incomes below the subsistence level.

The main target characteristics of the targeted social policy model include the following:

• differentiation of the social policy of the state in relation to various segments of the population;
• correct allocation of categories of recipients of social assistance;
• using the principle of targeting as a means of redistributing social assistance to the most needy groups of the population;
• "municipalization" of social policy by transferring a significant part of the powers to determine the amount and forms of social assistance to the regional and municipal level;
• transfer of the social insurance system to the principles of voluntary social risk insurance;

a clear delineation of powers in the implementation of social policy between the levels of the budget system.

One of the fundamental problems of the targeted model of social policy is the problem of minimizing the costs associated with the correct definition of the recipient of social assistance. The challenge of developing effective and inexpensive means testing methods that are well adapted to local conditions is one of the most important for the phase of social policy reform. Existing means testing methods based on legal income are imperfect and insufficient.(7)

The strategic goals of social policy in Russia, defined at this stage of development, are:

• achieving a tangible improvement in the material situation and living conditions of people;
• ensuring the efficiency of employment of the population, improving the quality and competitiveness of the labor force;
• guarantee of the constitutional rights of citizens in the field of labor, social protection of the population, education, health protection, culture, housing;
• reorientation of social policy towards the family, ensuring the rights and social guarantees provided to the family;
• normalization and improvement of the demographic situation, reduction of the mortality of the population, especially of children and citizens of working age.

Achieving the goals defined above involves a phased transition to a targeted model of social policy, within which the following main tasks are identified:

• a significant increase in social policy;
• streamlining state social obligations;
• concentration of efforts on solving the most acute social problems;
• significant improvement of social infrastructure;
• development of new mechanisms for the implementation of social policy.

As part of the implementation of the targeted model by the social system of the Russian Federation, the following main stages can be distinguished.

The current situation in the social sphere can be considered as a stage crisis management social processes.

The task of social policy in the near future is to achieve social stability in the development of society. Social stability is such a state of social processes in the country, which allows for the progressive development of the economy, maintaining political stability in society.

The social stability of the development of society is ensured by the implementation of an effective social policy of the state, based on the following basic principles:

• recognition of the need for dynamic development of the social sphere as one of the most important conditions for the sustainable development of society;
• a clear definition of priorities in the field of social policy, supported at the state level;
• ensuring controllability of social processes on the basis of maintaining the unity of the social space and ensuring federal minimum guarantees in the field of social protection of the population;
• ensuring the unity of social policy at various levels of government.

The state of sustainable development of the social sphere is characterized by a constant improvement in the qualitative indicators of the social sphere, the absence of a threat to the social stability of the development of society and the presence of potential for further development.

The sustainable development of the social sphere is becoming a fundamental feature of the long-term strategy for the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation, which is being formed at the present stage. (four)

2. Principles of the strategy of social and economic development of Russia

The state in a market economy acts as an organizer of the economic order, responsible for establishing the rules of the game and being the guarantor of their stability and implementation, and as a spokesman for public interests. The transition to the modern market is the problem of choosing between the speed of transition and the achievability of the expected effect. Under the current conditions, the evolutionary formation of an effective market economy in Russia takes a long time, will predetermine its further lagging behind the countries leading economic development and will be accompanied by a large-scale loss of production and resource potential, unacceptably high social costs.

The strategy should be based on high, worthy of Russia and at the same time achievable long-term goals. This is the transformation of Russia into a dynamically developing power, provided on the basis of intensive work and business initiative, reasonable and consistent economic policy, the average European standards of living in Russian natural and climatic and geographical conditions. (6)

The condition for successful economic development is social consolidation. In order to launch interdependent processes of social consolidation and strengthening of the state, the following conditions are necessary:

• the choice of such a strategic goal, which has a consolidating potential, is able to unite the efforts of different social groups. Formation of a social contract mechanism between the state, government, business, society, on which, in particular, the institutions of the legitimacy of the state and property will be based;
• creation of a new system social order regulating the behavior of the main social actors in the context of the implementation of the strategic goals of the state.

A successful strategy for the development of the state according to the principle of well-being for the majority will be determined by the dynamics of the formation of a mass middle class. The formation of the middle class presupposes the formation of a new model of consumption of the Russian welfare standard. Such a standard should include quality housing, a high endowment of durable goods, and quality health care and education.

Currently, only 5-7% of people live in accordance with Western standards of well-being. And the entire current Russian class, which has retained the pre-perestroika standard of living, is no more than 20%. The layer of poverty, in which the average per capita income does not even cover the subsistence level, covers almost 60 million, or about 40% of the country's population. At the same time, almost 30 million people live on the verge of poverty, which has become stagnant.

Mechanisms for achieving strategic and socio-economic goals. The decisive condition in ensuring economic growth, and consequently, the entire strategy for the development of Russia as a social state in the next 10 years, is investment breakthrough. He suggests:

Forced growth of capital investments;

Investment support for a number of key sectors;

Innovative filling of investments.

But for investments to become a significant factor, the role in their material support should be played by domestic production of investment goods, in particular engineering. This implies an accelerated modernization of this sector based on domestic and imported equipment and technologies.

It is necessary to take into account a number of threats to economic dynamics:

1. Lack of domestic demand.
2. external debt.
3. Unpreparedness of the investment complex for large-scale investments.
4. A disproportionately high rate of growth in prices for fuel, electricity, transport tariffs.

An effective trajectory of economic growth in the medium term naturally falls into three periods.

First period- high growth rates and increased investment, based on the involvement in the economic turnover of the as yet unused potential and the associated opportunities for a significant increase in the efficiency of resource use. Within this period, it is possible to achieve growth rates of 8-10%.

Second period- a significant decrease in dynamics due to the depletion of reserves and the delay in the commissioning of new capacities, carried out at the expense of investments in recent years. Calculations show that its duration can be two to three years. At the same time, economic growth rates may drop to 2-4% per year.

Third period. Starting from 2006, it is possible to enter a stationary development trajectory with the growth rate remaining at a level of at least 5% per year for a decade. The task is to create conditions for expanded reproduction based on predominant domestic savings and investment opportunities.

About the budgetary policy. A balance is needed between social commitments and its ability to mobilize financial resources, both at the federal and regional levels.

The federal budget deficit simply shifted to the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. This is due to the fact that the social obligations of the regions, which are also state obligations, are not taken into account, i.e. financial resources are transferred to the federal budget, while obligations and responsibilities remain in financially disadvantaged regions. The elementary truth is that a single state should also have a single state budget, which must take into account the entire amount of income and expenditure for the corresponding year on the territory of the country.

The general principle of achieving a balanced and real deficit-free budget is not to reduce expenditures, which the last government is constantly doing, but to outstrip the growth of revenues to the budget, which is based on revenues received by the real sector. (ten)

1. Social Policy Priorities

The most important objectively determined requirement for the social policy of the period of transition to a market economy is the observance of the principle of maintaining social balance in the process of moving society to a qualitatively new state. In this regard, attention should be paid to the following significant points.

First. Social balance in a modern industrial society is a policy that reflects the interests of the majority of the nation.

Second. Social balance is maintained following methods: in the social sphere - by ensuring equal social rights, a policy of social stability and equalization of living standards and incomes of social groups, global and local mechanisms of social protection against shocks or "failures" of the market. AT economic sphere- state regulation of the economy, prices, incomes, employment, financing of social infrastructure as a nationwide system of social reproduction and social guarantees. In the political sphere - broad, mass democracy, a system of institutional mechanisms for ensuring the democratic and social rights of citizens, including mechanisms for the real influence of citizens on politics.

The establishment of the principle of social balance as a fundamental basis for stability and development is a historical turning point in the development of modern states. It is this circumstance that gave impetus to the development of modern social policy as a means of ensuring such a balance, both in the current and in the long term. A whole set of medium-term and long-term guidelines was developed, based not on intuition, but on scientific forecasts of social and economic development trends.

Social policy is distinguished by the specifics that it does not have its own autonomous tools, mechanisms that ensure the implementation of goals. Social policy is born by legislation (social, labor, economic), as well as economic policy. Strictly speaking, a genuine economic policy takes place when and only when society and the state perceive social goals as priority areas. Moreover, social policy is a mechanism for ensuring permanent transformational processes. At critical stages of development, this mechanism is especially important, since then the transformation is always associated with profound changes within the social structure, the growth and expansion of some social groups, the narrowing and disappearance of other groups, changes in their incomes, status and prestige, quality of life. All this inevitably leads to a serious breakdown of the existing system of differentiation of social groups on the macrosocial income scale.

From this point of view, special attention is basic models of social differentiation. There are certain optimal and marginal levels of income differentiation, if we consider this phenomenon from the point of view of efficiency and welfare criteria. Conventionally, 4 main models of differentiation can be distinguished: superpolar, moderately polar, moderate and egalitarian (non-market).

Superpolar Models development for modern conditions extremely unstable and fragile. This instability and fragility everywhere have the same manifestations. In social terms, this is the insecurity of the majority, often in the form of outright poverty and destitution, and social discontent. In economic terms, this is a drop in efficiency, destimulation and demotivation of productive activity, a sharp separation of the interests of the elite, employers and workers. It is these models of development that are models of social exploitation, when the luxury and fabulous wealth of certain groups and the miserable existence of others. Such models are explosive in their social architecture, and their sustainability is maintained largely by direct repressive means. Now this model is typical for most underdeveloped countries. For such societies, the level of income differentiation between the extreme decile groups (the ratio of incomes of 10% of the richest and poorest) is at least 20-30: 1.

Moderately polar patterns. Society is aware of the need for certain changes and introduces partial elements of social regulation. They are characterized by the fact that social policy is carried out by the state in a limited field, and very narrow tasks are set before it. Such models are characterized by decile differentiation of the order of 10-15:1, which took place in industrial societies in the first half of the 20th century, and now in parts of developing countries.

moderate model- the type of model now dominant in the industrialized countries of the West and Japan. With certain features, it is generally characterized by a more consolidating social differentiation, a softer scale of social hierarchy compared to a moderately polar model. The income differentiation between the extreme decile groups ranges from 3:6 to 6:1.

Along with market models, non-market models are also possible, which arose to some extent as a reaction to the super-polar differentiation of incomes. These models existed in the former socialist countries, and now in Cuba, in the DPRK. Such models can be attributed to the models of the so-called planned differentiation, which, in addition to undoubted positive advantages, also demonstrated serious shortcomings, primarily in the economic sphere. They did not contribute to effective economic growth under normal conditions, when total resource mobilization was not required; these models are generally characterized by a very low level of income differentiation - up to 4:1. (9)

The main strategic task for Russia during the reforms was the implementation of a set of adequate political and administrative organizational measures that would ensure a relatively smooth transition to a moderate model of social differentiation without shocks and cataclysms. Despite the difficult economic situation in 1990-1991, Russia had every opportunity for this: a modern industrial structure, a fairly high technological level, a skilled workforce, a powerful social infrastructure, and a low level of social differentiation. The problem was only to find an integrating model for combining all these advantages with the principles of a market economy and political democracy. Such a model would give the necessary impetus to the economy and welfare.

What happened in Russia in the 90s. years, one cannot but qualify as a historical failure, a rollback back to the system of social differentiation that existed in Russia at the end of the last - the beginning of this century. Changing this situation is one of the main priorities of social policy. At the same time, it is obvious that the solution of the fundamental problems of positive development is far from completely dependent on the realities socio-economic situations in the 1990s and the presence or absence of an optimal program of action. There is a wider set of conditions that determine the success or failure of such a program, and these conditions are outside economics and social policy.

Firstly, the new social strategy is doomed to failure without a radical transformation of the entire system of state power. It's about on the formation of a system of more effective, balanced power, responsible to the people. It is necessary to develop and put into effect mechanisms that ensure the moral purity of government, as well as business. The problem of "purity" of state power in Russia in the 90s. has reached a critical point. The criminalization of the economy and corruption have reached proportions that threaten national security.

Secondly, it is necessary to significantly strengthen administrative power, its more active and large-scale impact on socio-economic processes. Without this, the formation of an effective market economy is simply impossible.

Thirdly, the consolidation of society is required at the most difficult phase of development, when the foundations of an effective market policy are being formed. In this regard, it is important, in particular, that information transmitted by the media on the socio-economic and political development country was of an objective nature, would be socially neutral.

All these conditions associated with the formation of a system of socially effective and responsible political power are absolutely necessary for the implementation of effective social programs.

And, finally, it is necessary to carry out a deep revision of the basic principles of the concept of Russia's socio-economic development.

The success or failure of income and employment policies is critical to effective social development. The issue of forming an effective market mechanism for regulating income and wages remains topical. Such a mechanism should be based a system of close interconnection and parameters of the price of labor and the cost of labor. Only such a system is able to put into action the mechanisms of human capital, and, consequently, the entire set of motivational mechanisms. (9)

Established in the 90s. the income distribution system is highly inefficient socially. Extremely low incomes for the overwhelming majority of the active population have become in Russian conditions one of the mechanisms for wasting human resources. A mechanism of super-polar differentiation of incomes and a sharp gap between the indicators of price and the cost of labor has been formed.

This means nothing more than the absence of social policy. Therefore, the goal of the government should be to eliminate this wasteful mechanism and gradually restore the system of parallel dynamics of the price and the cost of labor, i.e., in other words, to contribute to the formation of a normal labor market.

The underestimation of human capital leads to devastating consequences, since the economy cannot function effectively as either a productive or a consuming system. Based on the fact that the main direction for the near and medium term for Russia is the fight against poverty and misery, this means that policy priority should be given to the establishment of an efficient (both socially and economically) system of income distribution and an efficient wage mechanism.

First of all, we should talk about the transformation of the minimum wage from a formally statistical indicator into an instrument of real impact on economic processes. The priority increase in the minimum wage simultaneously means a decrease in the level of income differentiation. In addition, this creates an incentive to work and increases economic efficiency, since in this case the entrepreneur will rely on more skilled labor with greater returns. The minimum wage, at least at the level of the subsistence level, is an important tool for ensuring social stability.

Of great importance is also the policy of wage equalization and the prevention of sharp differences in wages. To do this, it would be necessary to develop and adopt a Unified Tariff System to replace the current tariff system, which is formal and limited. The current tariff system essentially does not work in much of the economy. This system has long been incompatible with the principles of social justice and is discriminatory towards public sector employees.

In the medium term (for example, within 3-5 years), the legally established minimum wage should become the main element of the system of social guarantees. First, it should be subject to mandatory indexing in full, taking into account the growth in consumer prices. Secondly, it must correspond to the minimum set of goods and services included in the concept of "living wage". Thirdly, in the future it is necessary to introduce mechanisms to increase it in accordance with the pace of economic growth.

A special place should be given to government measures to regulate wages in the public sector. In this area, a socially and economically intolerable situation of a significant income gap has developed as a result of the formation of two wage systems. On the one hand, it is a privileged system that provides special payment conditions, social benefits and guarantees of stability, and it covers public administration employees (ministries, departments, etc.). on the other hand, this is the public sector itself, where wages are an order of magnitude lower than those in state administration bodies and do not provide (even for high-ranking workers) a living wage. In addition, the problem of non-payment or delay of wages has by no means lost its relevance.

1. The current stage of development of social policy in Russia

Currently, Russia is undergoing major changes in social policy. As expected, the entire system of social protection of the population is moving to a targeted model of social policy, alas, the citizens of the Russian Federation were not ready for this.

Since June 2004, a heated discussion and presentation of various bills began. There have been changes and clarifications in the definition of the division of powers between levels of power in various spheres of our life, and a new system of social protection of Russian citizens has been built. More precisely - social support.

Benefits that, in accordance with the previous system, protected different categories of citizens who needed it, were now replaced by social support measures denominated in rubles.

And this proposed change has become the hottest topic of public debate over the past two months.

When developing this reform, it was assumed:

• Benefits are not taken away, but replaced by monthly cash payments.
• This money can be obtained only by refusing free services.
• Each group of beneficiaries has its own amount, which was calculated based on the list of federal benefits due to it.
• Those citizens who have serious illnesses (oncology, bronchial asthma, diabetes mellitus) can additionally apply for state social assistance if they need it.
• No one needs to run to social security offices, or to offices of the Pension Fund now.
• Each beneficiary will receive a notice where he is offered: either just take the money to spend it on what he sees fit (even to buy groceries in the store), or receive part of the payment in the form of a so-called social package, which includes free annual travel tickets, free medicines for a certain amount and a free voucher for treatment in a sanatorium.
• If, for example, a disabled person needs medicines and treatment in a sanatorium, but he does not travel by metro or public transport, he can choose from the social package only what he needs, and get the rest with money.
• The social package will cost from 300 to 600 rubles, the prices are without markups, the government is going to conclude a tariff agreement with transport workers and drug manufacturers.
• Monthly payments will be indexed as pensions (that is, increase), taking into account the rise in prices in the whole country.
• Monthly cash compensation benefits will be paid along with the pension, but as a separate increase.
• The increase in pension will increase social payments to 6.5 - 7 thousand rubles a month.
• The new social assistance scheme will come into effect in January 2005.
• One of the largest groups enjoying social benefits - labor veterans and home front workers - is not included in the group of federal beneficiaries. (12)

Table 1.

What payments await beneficiaries?

Table 2.

How will incomes of pensioners increase as a result of compensation payments?

In early August 2004, the issue of replacing benefits with cash payments was finally resolved. The results of this decision differ from the original reform plan.

There have been some changes in the list of beneficiaries: Heroes of the USSR, Russia, Socialist Labor and full holders of the Orders of Glory and Labor Glory have been removed from the list of categories that will receive monthly payments instead of the canceled benefits in kind from next year. It was decided for them to keep benefits in kind in full, and the issue of their status is supposed to be resolved in a separate bill, which the government will prepare by autumn.(11)

The most significant seeing natural benefits decided to keep. In 2005, the discount on payment for housing and communal services will continue to operate. In addition, a so-called social package is being introduced, the cost of which - 450 rubles - will be deducted every month from the amount of the payment received by the beneficiary. As a result, all beneficiaries who receive social support from the federal budget will be entitled to free commuter travel, free medicines (according to a list approved by the government), and a sanatorium voucher (for medical reasons).

Next year, the "social package" (and, accordingly, deductions from social payments) will be received by everyone, regardless of their desire. During the year, everyone will have to decide what is preferable to him: “in-kind” benefits and reduced payments or cash compensation in full. Applications for this will need to be submitted to local social security authorities or Pension Fund offices before October 1, 2005. It will be possible to refuse the entire package as a whole, and only one of the two parts - medical or transport.

The cost of the "transport" part of the social package is estimated at 40 rubles, the price of the "medical" part (medicines plus sanatorium treatment) - 410 rubles. Depending on the choice made by the beneficiary, the amount of the social payment due will be adjusted to him.

The Pension Fund was entrusted with paying the compensation sums - together with the pension. Along with the basic pension (which, according to our legislation, is indexed to inflation), social benefits will also grow. And with the same indexation coefficient. Recall that today basic pensions are subject to increase if inflation exceeds 6 percent in a quarter (or six months). As a result, in recent years, basic pensions have been indexed twice a year - in the first quarter and in August. This arrangement is likely to continue in the future.

It is also important that the amount of compensation payments will not be taken into account (will not be included in the calculation of family income) if the beneficiary applies for a state subsidy for utility bills. (6)

Table 3

What happened as a result of the benefits reform?

Conclusion

Today, Russia is experiencing global changes in social policy in the country. The reform of social benefits has not yet yielded results, so it is too early to talk about the appropriateness and correctness of such changes. The bill spells out a norm of constitutional law: after the adoption of the law, the level of social protection of the population cannot be worsened compared to what it is today. It either needs to be kept or improved.

Bibliography

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2. Goncharov P.K. Social state: essence, world experience, Russian model // Social and humanitarian knowledge. - 2000. - No. 2. - With. 18 - 37
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4. Laikam K. Models of social policy // Society and Economics. - 2000. - No. 8.-p. 27 - 37
5. Laikam K. Reforming the economic mechanism for the implementation of state social policy // Society and Economics.-2003.- No. 11-12.-p. 130 -163
6. Grace day // Rossiyskaya Gazeta.-2004.-No. 165 (3542)
7. Novoselsky V. Changes in socio-economic processes // Economist. - 2003. - No. 3.-p. 34-42
8. On the strategy of socio-economic development of Russia for the long term // REJ.-2002.-№4.-p. 3-7
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The Swedish model of the welfare state is often called socialist, they talk about the phenomenon of Swedish socialism. Indeed, the principles of social policy pursued in Sweden largely coincide with the principles of social policy pursued in the USSR.

It should also be noted that with all the diversity of the model of building a welfare state in Western countries, it was inevitable to one extent or another that they assumed: control and participation of the state; involvement of formal social procedures; the existence and formation of the main instruments by which the state seeks to guarantee a minimum level of well-being and through which it redistributes resources in non-market ways. Thus, fundamentally, Western doctrines gravitate towards the idea of ​​state guardianship over the social sphere, i.e. the basic principles of the paternalistic model are not alien to them. Therefore, the characterization of the model of state paternalism seems to us very appropriate.

So, in the directive economy of our country and other socialist countries, the so-called paternalistic model of social policy was implemented. It was paternalism that was the most important feature of this social model. The Hungarian sociologist and economist J. Kornay defines paternalism as follows: "the central leadership assumes responsibility for the economic situation and at the same time claims to use any tool from the arsenal of administrative means that seems to it the most appropriate."

At first glance, the state, concentrating in its hands the bulk of the resources necessary for economic and social development, can distribute them with the greatest efficiency, satisfying, as far as possible, the most urgent needs of members of society. However, under the conditions of totalitarian rule, paternalism turns into the dominance and lack of control of the bureaucracy, which creates the prerequisites for the emergence of corruption, the adoption of inefficient decisions, and the state's intrusion into the private lives of citizens. An even worse consequence of paternalism is the growth of social passivity of citizens, relying on the state as the highest authority in solving all social problems.

One of the characteristic features of the paternalistic model is strict directive regulation of production, distribution and exchange of social goods and services. The consequence of this in the USSR was not only an exorbitant burden for the state - an attempt to directively balance the volume and structure of supply and demand for goods and services, but also a sharp decrease in the manufacturer's interest in studying the consumer market, which ultimately led to the complete dictate of the manufacturer.

The next feature of the paternalistic model is etatism, nationalization of the social sphere, its individual branches and institutions. Etatism is a logical continuation of paternalism and serves as an instrument of direct state intervention in the functioning of the social sphere and ousting from it any entities that can not only compete, but also offer cooperation in solving social problems.

The famous Russian sociologist O.I. Shkaratan in his work "Type of society, type of social relations" gives the following characteristics etatism as a manifestation of paternalism. He assesses the social structure that developed in the USSR by the early 1930s and persisted until the 1990s. as etacratic. “It was a new social system,” writes Shkaratan, “which was neither capitalist nor socialist, which arose in the USSR and was later extended to other countries. It has specific and steadily reproducing features that mark the formation of a new independent socio-economic and political system, which can be called etacratic (literally state power from the French and Greek). Etacratism is not a chain of deformations and deviations from some exemplary model of capitalism or socialism, but an independent step and at the same time a parallel branch historical development modern society with its own laws of functioning and development".

O.I. Shkaratan names the main features of the etacratic model:

The isolation of property as a function of power, the dominance of relations such as "power - property";

The predominance of state property, the process of constant deepening of nationalization;

State-monopoly mode of production;

Dominance of centralized distribution;

Dependence of technology development on external incentives (technological stagnation);

Militarization of the economy;

Class-layer stratification of a hierarchical type, in which the positions of individuals and social groups are determined by their place in the power structure and are fixed in formal ranks and associated privileges;

The corporate system as the dominant form of the implementation of power relations, and accordingly - the hierarchical ranking and the volume and nature of the privileges of members of the society;

Social mobility as a selection organized from above of the most obedient and loyal people to the system;

the absence of civil society, the rule of law and, accordingly, the existence of a system of citizenship, partocracy;

Imperial multi-ethnic type of national-state structure, fixation of ethnicity as a status (when defining it "by blood", and not by culture or self-consciousness).

In his consideration of the features of the etacratic system, O.I. Shkaratan refers to the assessment of this phenomenon by M. Castells, one of the world's leading sociologists: "In the 20th century, we lived, in essence, under two dominant modes of production: capitalism and statism. ... Under statism, control over economic surplus is external in relation to economic sphere: it is in the hands of the holders of power in the state (let's call them apparatchiks or, in Chinese, ling-tao).Capitalism is focused on maximizing profit, i.e. increasing the amount of economic surplus appropriated by capital on the basis of private control over the means of production and distribution. Etacratism is oriented (was oriented?) to the maximization of power, i.e. to the growth of the military and ideological ability of the political apparatus to impose its goals on a larger number of subjects at deeper levels of their consciousness.

O.I. Shkaratan notes that statism was imposed on the countries of Central and Eastern Europe by the USSR. At the same time, special resistance new system provided by the peoples of countries with extensive experience in the market economy, democratic institutions and belonging to the Catholic and Protestant Christian cultures. At the same time, statism quite voluntarily and independently grew in states that did not know mature bourgeois relations that followed a different historical path than Europe - in China and Vietnam, Mongolia and Cuba, which confirms the non-randomness of its occurrence.

According to O.I. Shkaratana, all the variety of lines of social development that currently exists in the world is ultimately based on the differences between the two dominant types of civilization, which can be conventionally called "European" and "Asian". The first comes from the ancient policy. This is a chain of societies characterized by private property, a balance of relations "civil society - state institutions", developed personality and the priority of the values ​​of individualism. The second type is historically associated with Asian despotisms, the dominance of state property, the omnipotence of state institutional structures in the absence of civil society, allegiance, the priority of communal values ​​in the suppression of individuality. In world history, in general, both in space and in time, this type of civilization prevailed. It was in these countries, where this second, non-European line of development historically dominated, that in the middle of the 20th century. established statism.

A direct consequence of etatism - extremely weak development, and often the absence, of market relations in the sectors of the social sphere. Moreover, the level of development of market relations is very different by industry.

In the USSR, in such sectors as education, health care, social security, paid forms were almost completely absent, and resources for their development were directed from the state and local budgets and from the funds of enterprises. In the fields of culture, communications and physical education, market relations in passenger transport took a modified form, providing for paid forms of public service, but at the same time, prices for the services of these industries were set lower than the cost price, requiring constant and ever-increasing subsidies. In the third group of industries - in trade, public catering, consumer services - elements of the real market were historically preserved, there was also a certain share of private property. But especially actively market relations in these sectors developed in the form of a "shadow" economy.

Another essential feature of the paternalistic model is egalitarianism - equality in the consumption of material goods and services.

This principle of social policy has played an important role in ensuring the general availability of social benefits. On its basis, universal literacy was achieved in the USSR, the living conditions of millions of people were improved, the incidence of most diseases was reduced, and life expectancy was increased. At the same time, egalitarianism reduced the incentives to work among the population and negatively affected the quality of services provided. At the same time, the egalitarian principles declared by the state often came into conflict with the numerous privileges of the nomenklatura class.

The next feature of the paternalistic model of social policy is guaranteed universal employment - was due lack of a real labor market. With the intensification of social production, the policy of general employment faced significant difficulties, in particular, in creating new jobs. At the same time, the underdeveloped system of retraining and retraining of personnel, combined with mass primary training of personnel, did not allow prompt response to the demands of the national economy. On the other hand, the country had hidden unemployment, and not only in the form of employment in the household and personal subsidiary plots, but also as a result of the inefficient use of working time, especially on the part of engineering and technical workers and junior management personnel.

It should be recognized that the application of the paternalistic model of social policy to Russian realities was largely predetermined historically, corresponded to the peculiarities of the Russian mentality and, in addition to the nature of the Russian socio-economic and political situation, for several decades gave positive results in various areas of the social sphere. However, at a certain stage in the development of society, the paternalistic model of social policy became a significant brake on improving socio-economic relations. Therefore, as Russian society was being reformed, alternative models of social policy were required.

Returning to the typology of G. Esping-Andersen's social policy discussed above, we note that the social security system in the late 1980s. in Russia, as in other socialist countries, it formally approached the social-democratic model, which implies a large role for local governments; high level of spending on social security; high employment stimulated by the state; availability of private sector organizations providing services; emphasis on compulsory insurance; tax redistribution of funds, with the main sources of funding being the state and municipalities.

However, in reality, under the pressure of the mono-party ideology, the social policy of the socialist regime was practically deprived of independence, therefore, the main characteristics of the socialist system of the welfare state in the interpretation of Esping-Andersen are an anti-liberal orientation, hierarchy, static, a mixture socialist ideas with conservative political elements.

from lat. paternus - paternal) is a principle of biomedical ethics that defines the form of caring for the needs of another (patient), just as a father takes care of a child. The essence of P. is that the doctor not only assumes the obligation to act on the basis of the patient's good, but also independently decides what exactly this good consists of. The question of the extent and in what aspects the patient can receive reliable information about his condition, about the strategy, tactics and prospects for treatment is within the exclusive competence of the doctor. Extreme forms of P. generally deprive the patient of the right to choose both in relation to the attending physician and in relation to the strategy and tactics of treatment. Thus, P. carries in itself a violent restriction of the freedom of the individual, due to "concern" for her well-being.

PATERNALISM

from lat. patemitas - paternity) - system, principles and practice government controlled, built on the paradigm of parenting and parental control over children in a patriarchal family. Raised to the scale of the state, paternalism is known in the ancient interpretations of the king as a shepherd, and the people as a herd, a flock. The king-pastor gathers together, protects and leads the people-flock; through his tireless care, he is nourished and reproduced.

But the main task of the shepherd is to ensure the safety and security of the flock: his vigilant control extends both to the entire flock as a whole, and to each of them individually. But behind paternalistic guardianship and protection there is also total power: the flock cannot live without guardianship, is incapable of independent existence. Thus, as a practice of state administration, paternalism is applied to civilly dependent peoples. Civil lack of independence inevitably results in passive subordination, which has as its goal only the acquisition of protection, access to obtaining means of subsistence, etc. In the system of paternalism, the “paternal” principle of power manifests itself as an all-suppressing, despotic control, excluding any civil independence, and the “son” the beginning of power relations essentially means the desire for dependency. Paternalism sees adults as children in need of protection and care.

A classic critique of paternalism was given by J. Locke in his polemic against R. Filmer's book Patriarch (1680). Filmer, the greatest champion of absolute power, appealed to paternity as the main argument in proving the naturalness and inclusiveness of absolute monarchical power. According to Filmer, paternal power "is a divine, unchanging right of supreme power, by which the father or monarch has absolute, despotic, unlimited and unrestricted power over the life, liberty and property of his children or subjects" (Locke J. Op. in 3 vols. , vol. 3. M., 1988, p. 146). Locke argued that the mere fact of having children does not make them slaves of their fathers. The child has the right to demand from his father only maintenance and education, but he has no right to demand rule or power from him. He may inherit his father's property for his own benefit, but he may not claim the power over other people that his father had.

In Russian political thought, the Slavophils defended the thesis of the non-state nature of the Russian people and constructed the attitude of the tsar to the people as the attitude of a father to children: the tsar is the father, but his power is not external force the victor over the vanquished, but the all-unifying force, which is based on the organic, living connection of the people with the king. In general, the policy of state paternalism is characterized by an authoritarian character, it hinders the development of civil society and exacerbates the material dependence, political inertia and spiritual lack of independence of the people. The analysis of paternalism plays a big role in bioethics when studying the doctor-patient relationship.

The Swedish model of the welfare state is often called socialist, they talk about the phenomenon of Swedish socialism. Indeed, the principles of social policy pursued in Sweden largely coincide with the principles of social policy pursued in the USSR.

It should also be noted that with all the diversity of the model of building a welfare state in Western countries, it was inevitable to one extent or another that they assumed: control and participation of the state; involvement of formal social procedures; the existence and formation of the main instruments by which the state seeks to guarantee a minimum level of well-being and through which it redistributes resources in non-market ways. Thus, fundamentally, Western doctrines gravitate towards the idea of ​​state guardianship over the social sphere, i.e. the basic principles of the paternalistic model are not alien to them. Therefore, the characterization of the model of state paternalism seems to us very appropriate.

So, in the directive economy of our country and other socialist countries, the so-called paternalistic model of social policy was implemented. It was paternalism that was the most important feature of this social model. The Hungarian sociologist and economist J. Kornay defines paternalism as follows: "the central leadership assumes responsibility for the economic situation and at the same time claims to use any tool from the arsenal of administrative means that seems to it the most appropriate."

At first glance, the state, concentrating in its hands the bulk of the resources necessary for economic and social development, can distribute them with the greatest efficiency, satisfying, as far as possible, the most urgent needs of members of society. However, under the conditions of totalitarian rule, paternalism turns into the dominance and lack of control of the bureaucracy, which creates the prerequisites for the emergence of corruption, the adoption of inefficient decisions, and the state's intrusion into the private lives of citizens. An even worse consequence of paternalism is the growth of social passivity of citizens, relying on the state as the highest authority in solving all social problems.

One of the characteristic features of the paternalistic model is strict directive regulation of production, distribution and exchange of social goods and services. The consequence of this in the USSR was not only an exorbitant burden for the state - an attempt to directively balance the volume and structure of supply and demand for goods and services, but also a sharp decrease in the manufacturer's interest in studying the consumer market, which ultimately led to the complete dictate of the manufacturer.

The next feature of the paternalistic model is etatism, nationalization of the social sphere, its individual branches and institutions. Etatism is a logical continuation of paternalism and serves as an instrument of direct state intervention in the functioning of the social sphere and ousting from it any entities that can not only compete, but also offer cooperation in solving social problems.

The famous Russian sociologist O.I. Shkaratan in his work "Type of society, type of social relations" gives the following characteristics etatism as a manifestation of paternalism. He assesses the social structure that developed in the USSR by the early 1930s and persisted until the 1990s. as etacratic. “It was a new social system,” writes Shkaratan, “which was neither capitalist nor socialist, which arose in the USSR and was later extended to other countries.

It has specific and steadily reproducing features that mark the formation of a new independent socio-economic and political system, which can be called etacratic (literally state power from the French and Greek). Etacratism is not a chain of deformations and deviations from some exemplary model of capitalism or socialism, but an independent step and at the same time a parallel branch of the historical development of modern society with its own laws of functioning and development.

O.I. Shkaratan names the main features of the etacratic model:

The isolation of property as a function of power, the dominance of relations such as "power - property";

The predominance of state property, the process of constant deepening of nationalization;

State-monopoly mode of production;

Dominance of centralized distribution;

Dependence of technology development on external incentives (technological stagnation);

Militarization of the economy;

Class-layer stratification of a hierarchical type, in which the positions of individuals and social groups are determined by their place in the power structure and are fixed in formal ranks and associated privileges;

The corporate system as the dominant form of the implementation of power relations, and accordingly - the hierarchical ranking and the volume and nature of the privileges of members of the society;

Social mobility as a selection organized from above of the most obedient and loyal people to the system;

the absence of civil society, the rule of law and, accordingly, the existence of a system of citizenship, partocracy;

Imperial multi-ethnic type of national-state structure, fixation of ethnicity as a status (when defining it "by blood", and not by culture or self-consciousness).

In his consideration of the features of the etacratic system, O.I.

Shkaratan refers to the assessment of this phenomenon by M. Castells, one of the world's leading sociologists: "In the 20th century, we lived, in essence, under two dominant modes of production: capitalism and statism. ... Under statism, control over economic surplus is external in relation to the economic sphere: it is in the hands of the holders of power in the state (let's call them apparatchiks or, in Chinese, ling-dao).Capitalism is focused on maximizing profit, i.e., increasing the amount of economic surplus appropriated by capital on the basis of private control over the means of production and distribution Etacratism is oriented (was oriented?) to the maximization of power, i.e. to the growth of the military and ideological ability of the political apparatus to impose its goals on a larger number of subjects at deeper levels of their consciousness.

O.I. Shkaratan notes that statism was imposed on the countries of Central and Eastern Europe by the USSR. At the same time, the peoples of countries with extensive experience in a market economy, democratic institutions, and belonging to Catholic and Protestant Christian cultures, showed particular resistance to the new system. At the same time, statism quite voluntarily and independently grew in states that did not know mature bourgeois relations that followed a different historical path than Europe - in China and Vietnam, Mongolia and Cuba, which confirms the non-randomness of its occurrence.

According to O.I. Shkaratana, all the variety of lines of social development that currently exists in the world is ultimately based on the differences between the two dominant types of civilization, which can be conventionally called "European" and "Asian". The first comes from the ancient policy. This is a chain of societies characterized by private property, a balance of relations between "civil society and state institutions", a developed personality and the priority of individualism values. The second type is historically associated with Asian despotisms, the dominance of state property, the omnipotence of state institutional structures in the absence of civil society, allegiance, the priority of communal values ​​in the suppression of individuality. In world history, in general, both in space and in time, this type of civilization prevailed. It was in these countries, where this second, non-European line of development historically dominated, that in the middle of the 20th century. established statism.

A direct consequence of etatism - extremely weak development, and often the absence, of market relations in the sectors of the social sphere. Moreover, the level of development of market relations is very different by industry.

In the USSR, in such sectors as education, health care, social security, paid forms were almost completely absent, and resources for their development were directed from the state and local budgets and from the funds of enterprises. In the sectors of culture, communications and physical culture, in passenger transport, market relations took a modified form, providing for paid forms of public service, but at the same time, prices for the services of these industries were set lower than the cost price, requiring constant and ever-increasing subsidies. In the third group of industries - in trade, public catering, consumer services - elements of the real market were historically preserved, there was also a certain share of private property. But especially actively market relations in these sectors developed in the form of a "shadow" economy.

Another essential feature of the paternalistic model is egalitarianism - equality in the consumption of material goods and services.

This principle of social policy has played an important role in ensuring the general availability of social benefits. On its basis, universal literacy was achieved in the USSR, the living conditions of millions of people were improved, the incidence of most diseases was reduced, and life expectancy was increased. At the same time, egalitarianism reduced the incentives to work among the population and negatively affected the quality of services provided. At the same time, the egalitarian principles declared by the state often came into conflict with the numerous privileges of the nomenklatura class.

The next feature of the paternalistic model of social policy is guaranteed universal employment - was due lack of a real labor market. With the intensification of social production, the policy of general employment faced significant difficulties, in particular, in creating new jobs. At the same time, the underdeveloped system of retraining and retraining of personnel, combined with mass primary training of personnel, did not allow prompt response to the demands of the national economy. On the other hand, the country had hidden unemployment, and not only in the form of employment in the household and personal subsidiary plots, but also as a result of the inefficient use of working time, especially on the part of engineering and technical workers and junior management personnel.

It should be recognized that the application of the paternalistic model of social policy to Russian realities was largely predetermined historically, corresponded to the peculiarities of the Russian mentality and, in addition to the nature of the Russian socio-economic and political situation, for several decades gave positive results in various areas of the social sphere. However, at a certain stage in the development of society, the paternalistic model of social policy became a significant brake on improving socio-economic relations. Therefore, as Russian society was being reformed, alternative models of social policy were required.

Returning to the typology of G. Esping-Andersen's social policy discussed above, we note that the social security system in the late 1980s. in Russia, as in other socialist countries, it formally approached the social-democratic model, which implies a large role for local governments; high level of spending on social security; high employment stimulated by the state; availability of private sector organizations providing services; emphasis on compulsory insurance; tax redistribution of funds, with the main sources of funding being the state and municipalities.

However, in reality, under the pressure of the mono-party ideology, the social policy of the socialist regime was practically deprived of independence, therefore, the main characteristics of the socialist system of the welfare state in the interpretation of Esping-Andersen are anti-liberal orientation, hierarchy, static, a mixture of socialist ideas with conservative elements of politics.

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Warm up and caress

Paternalism is a relationship between elders and younger, strong and weak, smart and not very smart, successful and losers, in which the former take responsibility for the fate of the latter, and the latter show loyalty, completely trust the first, as in a family where children completely rely on parents (because "paternalism", from the Latin paternus - paternal)

Wikipedia gives a good example of paternalism: the interaction of a doctor and a patient. The doctor entirely takes care of the health of the patient, who, in turn, relies entirely on the experience and knowledge of the doctor.

State paternalism in Russia

At first glance, the current relationship between the authorities and the population of Russia is pure paternalism. In fact, not everything is so simple. Paternalism is a contract: care in exchange for trust. But in Russia, power and people exist in parallel. And the agreement between them sounds different: do not touch each other.

State paternalism in Europe

There is even less paternalism in Europe.

Paternalism is inequality. But one that everyone puts up with, everyone agrees (after all, children understand that they are no match for their father). In Western democracies, inequality is declared evil. That is why local leaders prefer to call the relationship between the authorities and the crowd a social partnership.

Japanese economy and paternalism

Paternalism is most fully manifested in Japan. Synonymous with Japanese paternalism is the concept of "lifetime employment." On the one hand, Japanese employees associate themselves with a certain firm for life, that is, they take obligations of loyalty and fidelity to it. On the other hand, the company takes care of employees: promotes them, adds salaries, pays pensions. Many associate the success of the Japanese economy with such a “family” system of relations.

Paternalism - the practice of public administration, built on the paradigm of the upbringing and control of the father over children in a patriarchal family

Online TestsTestsSocial SciencesSociologyQuestions

1-15 … 271-285 286-300 301-315 316-330 331-345 … 571-577

302. The basis of social structuring is:
division of people into status groups

303. A feature of the system of socio-political relations in Russia is the need for:
strong state

304. A special manifestation of the phenomenon of leadership is leaderism, based on:
devotion of the broad sections of the people to a leader with charismatic power

305. Particular attention was paid to the study of isolated ethnic groups:
R. Park

306. A special kind of re-examination is the study...
panel

307. Ostracism (psychological exclusion from a society or group) can be attributed to:
informal control

308. Deviation from the norms existing in a group or society, which are socially defined as deviant, is:
secondary deviation

309. He opened the "Law of Three Stages" and considered the development of society as its manifestation:
O. Comte

310. hallmark evolutionary type of social development is:
gradual change

311. Relatively stable types and forms of social practice, through which social life is organized, the stability of ties and relations in society is ensured, are social ...
institutions

312. Relations of coordination in the relationships between the main social groups are:
priority

313. Relations of social paternalism are inherent in:
traditional society

314. Reflected modernization is of the type:
secondary modernization

315. The denial of the progress of society (except technical) is typical for:
L. Wiese

1-15 … 271-285 286-300 301-315 316-330 331-345 …

PATERNALIST MODEL

paternalistic The (authoritarian, traditional) model of the “doctor-patient” relationship is that the doctor manages the treatment, makes a decision, informs the patient to the extent that he considers it necessary, and the patient is passive, completely subordinate to the doctor. The goal of this model is the health of the patient.

This model is the earliest in the history of medicine. It arises simultaneously with medicine and subsequently consolidated due to the following circumstances. First, initially and to the present time, the doctor and the patient are unequal parties, primarily in medical terms: the doctor is a professional, the patient is a layman in most cases. Secondly, by virtue of the foregoing, the patient is forced to trust the doctor. Thirdly, there have always been and will always be situations in medicine when, in order to save the health and life of a patient, a doctor takes full responsibility: ambulance and emergency care, intensive care, resuscitation. Fourthly, in some countries the paternalistic model is fixed as almost the only possible one: authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Thus, in the USSR, the paternalistic attitude of the state towards citizens was fully correlated with state publicly available free medical care.

In the Hippocratic Oath we find a written confirmation of this model. The oath orients the doctor to avoid harming the patient, but at the same time insists on the patient's tacit submission to the doctor. One of the norms of the oath recommends, for example, to a doctor - “one should not tell the patient anything about the current and possible future state of his health.” In accordance with the Hippocratic oath, the doctor is given the full right to solve the problem of informing the patient without the participation of the latter.

The paternalistic model implies that the relationship between the doctor and the patient is similar to the relationship between parents and children (“pater” - lat. - father): patronage, full responsibility and care on the part of the doctor and thus the patient's dependence on him in everything.

The long existence of the paternalistic model testifies to its certain historical justification, to the constant trust in doctors by patients. Opinion polls conducted by the Medical Association of Finland testify to a high level of trust in doctors: 76% of respondents said that a doctor should act in each case at his own discretion, not agreeing with the patient; 90% of those surveyed admitted that they had never disputed the diagnosis.

Due to the fact that the patient in this model acts as an object, the paternalistic model contains the possibility of a neglectful, inattentive attitude towards inner world patient, to his mental and moral state. This is evidenced by the language forms (replicas) that are formed in the process of healing and in domestic medicine: “have lived, grandmother, and that’s enough”, “your heart is older than you”; in the X-ray room - “lay down, mother, now we will remove your head”, etc. Here we see a clear violation of deontological norms, and it is caused, not least, by the low general and professional culture of medical personnel.

For domestic medicine, the dominance of the paternalistic model is due, in addition to the above reasons, the long-term existence of authoritarian social relations, in which the rights of the state, society, collective, and not the individual, the citizen, have always been priority.

In the middle of the 20th century, the paternalistic model of the “doctor-patient” relationship faced serious difficulties, the main of which were the growing self-awareness of a person as a citizen and as a patient; raising the status of health, life as the highest value of a person, threatened by modern medical technologies. The time has come for new models of “doctor-patient” relationships, including the “informed consent” model.

A PATIENT

A patient- a person who has applied for medical help, needs it, or uses it on a permanent or temporary basis.

DOCTOR'S RIGHTS

The rights of a doctor (medical workers) are a set of norms and principles that ensure professional activity doctor (health workers), protection of the rights, honor and dignity of health workers.

The rights of a doctor are guaranteed by domestic civil law documents proclaiming the rights and freedoms of citizens: the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993), the Russian Declaration of the Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen (1991).

The "Fundamentals ..." set out the rights (section X) of medical and pharmaceutical workers. The legislation provides for workers in this area the right to engage in: - medical and pharmaceutical activities (Art.

56); - folk medicine (healing) (Art. 57); — to create professional associations and other public associations(Art. 62); - for social and legal protection (Art. 63); - for wages and compensation (Art. 64).

In the Code of Ethics of the Russian doctor, only Art. 7 directly indicates the right of the doctor to refuse to work with the patient under certain circumstances. The remaining articles of the code require the physician to perform professional duties and duties.

PATIENT RIGHTS

Patient rights- a set of ethical, legal norms aimed at protecting the health and life of the patient, at providing preventive, diagnostic, and curative medical care. According to their content and nature, the rights of the patient belong to the personal and socio-economic rights of a person and a citizen.

The moral rights of the patient are spelled out in Section 2 of the Code of Ethics. Art. 8-15 fix the patient's rights to: - freedom and independence of the individual; - adequate information about their condition; - receiving medical care, not limited by any influences; - consent (refusal) to treatment; — the physical or mental integrity of the individual; - observance of medical secrecy; - a dignified death; — free choice doctor.

In the "Fundamentals of the legislation of the Russian Federation on the protection of the health of citizens" (1993), 6 out of 12 sections spell out the rights of certain groups of citizens; the rights of citizens in the provision of medical and social assistance; the rights of citizens in the field of family planning and regulation of human reproductive function; during a medical examination.

In general, the 90s of the twentieth century turned out to be fruitful for domestic healthcare in terms of legal support. Following the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993), a number of laws are adopted to organize medical practice and protect the interests, freedoms of patients and health workers in accordance with world standards and the level of modern medicine: “On health insurance of citizens in the Russian Federation” (1991) , "On psychiatric care and guarantees of the rights of a citizen during its organization" (1992); "On transplantation of human organs and (or) tissues" (1992); “On donation of blood and its components” (1993); "On Protection of Consumer Rights" (1996) and others.

Violation of the rights, freedoms and values ​​enshrined in the above documents leads to the emergence of bioethical situations and problems. Knowledge of these documents will allow a medical worker not only to solve bioethical problems correctly, but also to foresee and predict them to some extent.

HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights is a system of personal, economic, social, political and legal norms and guarantees aimed at ensuring human life.

Basic rights and freedoms belong to everyone from birth. Fundamental rights should be understood as the rights contained in the constitutions of states and international legal documents on human rights. The latter include: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Human Rights, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Citizens (1950), the European Social Charter (1961), the Helsinki Final Pact (1975 G.).

Domestic civil law documents proclaiming the rights and freedoms of citizens are: the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993), the Russian Declaration of the Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen (1991).

Personal rights human rights include the right to: life; freedom; personal integrity; inviolability of private life, dwelling; freedom of movement; choice of place of stay and residence within Russia; freedom of thought, speech, unhindered expression of one's opinions and beliefs. The legislation guarantees freedom of conscience, religion, religious or atheistic activity.

Political rights include: the right to participate in managing the affairs of society and the state; equal right of access to any positions in state bodies; the right to assemble peacefully and without weapons; hold rallies, street processions, demonstrations; send personal and collective appeals to state bodies and officials; the right to replace military service with the performance of alternative civilian duties in the event that the performance of military service contradicts the convictions of citizens; the right to acquire and terminate citizenship of the Russian Federation.

Socio-economic rights include: the right to be the owner; the right to work and rest; for appropriate working conditions; to qualified medical care; for social security; for education; to protect motherhood, infancy and children.

Every citizen has the right to protect his rights, freedoms and legitimate interests by all means that do not contradict the law, to use qualified legal assistance. Everyone is guaranteed judicial protection of his rights and freedoms. Everyone has the right to compensation for any harm caused by illegal actions of state bodies and their officials.

In social terms, the rights and freedoms of citizens are a limiter to the claims of power, a counterbalance to its omnipotence, designed to ensure its restriction, therefore, the priority of human rights in relation to the state is a defining feature of the rule of law.

THE RIGHT TO LIVE

The existence of a person, considered within its ultimate boundaries, is an interconnected process of birth, life, dying, death. And in this sense, it has always been the subject of religious, philosophical, ethical discussions and the eternal theme of literature and art. Considered through the prism of rights and freedoms, the existence of a person raises two worldview issues: the right to life and the right to dispose of life (the right to a dignified death).

The human right to life, which is one of the inalienable human rights, belongs to everyone from birth. This right is enshrined in both international and national legal documents of modern countries. The former include: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Human Rights (1966), the Helsinki Final Pact (1975) and others. In Russia, the fundamental documents in this regard are: the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993 d.), the Russian Declaration of the Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen (1991), the Federal Law “On Basic Guarantees of the Rights of the Child in the Russian Federation” (1998), etc.

In social terms, the rights and freedoms of citizens (including the right to life) are a limiter to the claims of power, a counterbalance to its omnipotence. The priority of human rights over the interests of the state is a defining feature of a legal society. In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, human rights and freedoms are recognized as the highest value (Article 2).

In medicine, the right to life is fundamental, basic. One of the aspects of this right is the realization by a person of his reproductive function and family planning. Such concepts as reproductive health, reproductive right, reproductive choice are closely related to the above. Reproductive health is a person's ability to produce offspring and lead a sexual life. Reproductive law is a set of principles and guarantees that ensure the protection of reproductive health. Reproductive choice is moral autonomy in matters of family planning, childbearing, sexual life. Medical intervention in human reproductive activity, depending on the purpose, is divided into two types: limiting (abortion, contraception, sterilization) and stimulating (methods of artificial insemination). The right to life permeates such areas of medicine as obstetrics, perinatology, neonatology.

It is directly related to such medical technologies as abortion, sterilization, contraception, assisted reproductive technologies. The right to a dignified death (the right to take control of one's life) is directly related to such areas of medicine as resuscitation, palliative care, and hospice care. The patient's right to a dignified death is enshrined in the Russian Doctor's Code of Ethics (Art. 14). This right is key in the problem of euthanasia and in palliative medicine.

RIGHT TO DEATH

Human existence has two interconnected sides: birth, life and dying, death. The presence of the limits of being determines the meaning of life orientations of a person, the diversity of religious and philosophical systems. Many sages associated the philosophical understanding of life with how a person completes his life. earth path. The ancient Greek reformer Solon taught: "Watch the end of life!"

Life and death, recognized as equal sides of human existence in philosophical terms, do not appear as such in the light of universal human rights and freedoms. The right to life as an inalienable fundamental human right is enshrined in international documents (the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, etc.), in domestic documents (Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 20, etc.), in national documents of other countries. The fact that the right to die is not reflected in the documents, obviously, does not indicate that the end of a person's life is less significant than its beginning, but that such a right has not yet been thought out by mankind in its full scope and significance, although The phenomenon of death has been studied for a long time and by different fields of knowledge. In accordance with biological laws and social accidents, human life is limiting, i.e. ends sooner or later either with natural death (old age, illness), or as a result of injuries incompatible with life, ritual murders, accidents.

Is it even possible to talk about the right to die? Obviously, you can, but about the right to your own dignified death. The right to die is closely connected with the right to life, with the right to dispose of one's life, with life as a right, and not just as a duty.

Without setting ourselves the task of summarizing all the materials on this issue, we will only point out the known main ways of exercising this right: in Everyday life – suicide, in medical practice - euthanasia, hospices.

suicide(lat. sui - “myself”, cido - “I kill”) - suicide. In the history of culture, attitudes towards suicide and suicides have been different and often opposite. For example, the philosophical teachings of the Stoics and Epicureans considered suicide a natural way out of difficult everyday situations. However, most philosophical systems and their representatives (Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Kant, etc.) rejected the idea of ​​suicide. Among religious teachings, some allow suicide (Confucianism, Shintoism, Buddhism, Hinduism), others condemn (Christianity, Islam, Judaism).

Suicide is by no means an isolated phenomenon in the world today. In developed countries, suicide is one of the five main causes of death, after diseases: the circulatory system, leukemia, etc. The phenomenon of suicide is becoming a subject scientific research from the second half of the 19th century.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2002, about 10 million suicide attempts were made in the world, of which about 1 million ended in death. The critical indicator of the suicide rate in the country, according to WHO experts, is 20 suicides per 100,000 population. Indicators and dynamics of suicides are due to many reasons: social, economic, gender and age, etc.

In countries Western Europe at the beginning of the 90s of the last century, the suicide rate fluctuated between 10-15 per 100 thousand of the population. In post-Soviet Russia, this indicator varied depending on the socio-economic transformations of the 1990s: 1990 - 26.4; 1991-40; 1994/1995 - 42; 1999 - 26.4; 2001 - 39.6. In Yekaterinburg - 46 (1997).

In real life, suicides are most often motivated by family problems, illness, unemployment, loss of loved ones, unrequited love, etc. From a philosophical point of view, the motive for suicide in all such cases is the loss of the meaning of life. An exception, obviously, are suicides committed by mentally ill people (25-27%) and people in states of alcohol, drug poisoning (19%).

The phenomenon of suicide as a serious social phenomenon has been the subject of close scientific research for more than a hundred years. Sociology, psychology, ethics, psychiatry, philosophy, and jurisprudence deal with this problem. This problem is addressed by the activities of rehabilitation centers where psychological assistance is provided, helplines, and extensive educational work by social and medical workers.

According to the WHO, suicidal people use 80 ways to escape from life. To date, 999 suicide motives are known. Resuscitator A.P. Zilber, who cites these figures, confidentially reports that he knows the thousandth motive, but will not tell it to anyone (A.P. Zilber. 1998. P. 209).

Definition 1

The model of social policy is a set of measures and means that are used by the state to solve social problems.

Often, models of social policy are based on a certain doctrine, which differs in the level of intervention of the country in the social sphere.

The main models of state social policy

Depending on the content, goals and implementation features, there are following models social policy of the state:

1. paternalistic socialist model. This model is characterized by the comprehensive responsibility of the state for the social and economic situation of citizens. A feature is the monopoly of the state in relation to the realization of all the benefits and needs of the citizens of the country, including social desires. This model provides a centralized distribution of all benefits. Its advantages are the confidence of the citizens of the state in social security and social stability. The disadvantages include the inability to provide a high level of optimal life support for all citizens of the country, as well as an equalizing principle in the distribution of social benefits and a high degree of dependence of a citizen on the state.
2. Swedish model. This model is characterized by a high level of regulation of the social sphere of society, but at the same time the market economy remains. The main advantages of the model are ensuring a high level of social protection of citizens and high rates of decent livelihoods for the population of the country. Disadvantages include tangible tax pressure on businesses, an abundant social unification structure, and citizens' free choice of social benefits.
3. The welfare state model. This model is typical. It is characterized by a market structure with active regulation of the social sphere. The state assumes responsibility for ensuring the social protection of citizens, and also guarantees a wide range of social services that the market system cannot provide.
4. Model of "socially-oriented market economy". This model is characterized by the operation of a system of "social shock absorbers", which does not allow citizens to fall below the poverty line. At the same time, the state does not take on the tasks that can be realized by the population.
5. Market social model. This model is characterized by insignificant social rigidity, as well as the denationalization of the social sphere and the minimization of social transfers (pension payments and benefits).

Problems of the paternalistic model of social policy

The modern history of the formation and development of the social sphere of the Russian Federation is divided into several stages, which represent the implementation of the paternalistic model of social policy.

The first stage, which begins in the mid-90s, is characterized by the active formation and implementation of the paternalistic model, which is borrowed from the practice of the Soviet Union. The disadvantages of this model are the cross-implementation of social programs, which cause the repetition of social assistance and very high costs for the social sphere. At this stage, the social policy of the Russian Federation was focused on increasing the share of social costs in total government spending. Also, the guidelines of the paternalistic model are the implementation of efforts aimed at improving the efficiency of social programs and projects. But the increase in the number of social spending did not prevent the decline in the livelihoods of the population and social workers. This led to a significant development of the budget deficit.

It can be said that the paternalistic model of the state's social policy turned out to be ineffective in the process of regulating social social processes. But its use at the initial stage of socio-economic improvements was based on the following reasons:

• a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population of the state;
• lack of experience in solving global problems in the field of social policy;
• lack of social public structure;
• the unfinished certainty of the country's social and economic priorities;
• lack of a normative-methodical and technical base for solving problems of social reforms;
• the need for the full use of those resources, methods and forms of work that remained from the degraded system of social protection and support.

Remark 1

The aggravation of financial problems in the economic and social sphere has confirmed the aimless increase in funding, which is not supported by structural reforms.

Analysis of the paternalistic model of social policy

Kornai defined paternalism as a model in the implementation of which the leadership takes responsibility for the economic situation in the state and at the same time claims any tool from the entire arsenal of administrative means that are most appropriate for it.

At first glance, it may seem that the state concentrates in its hands all the resources that are necessary for the social and economic development of the country, and can also manage them in order to best meet the urgent needs of the population. But under conditions of total government, the paternalistic model of social policy turns into an uncontrolled bureaucracy, and this, in turn, is a prerequisite for the formation of corruption, making wrong decisions and intrusion into the privacy of citizens of state structures.

A more negative consequence of the invasion of the paternalistic model is an increase in the social indifference of citizens who rely on the state to solve all social problems.

Remark 2

Most feature paternalistic model is a strict directive regulation of production, as well as the exchange of social services and benefits.

Figure 1. Paternalistic social policy. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

The consequence of this invasion was not only a burden for the state to balance the structure and volume of demand for services and goods, but also a significant decrease in the manufacturer's interest in considering the consumer market, which led to the dictatorship of the manufacturer.

An important feature of the paternalistic model of social policy is etatism, in other words, it is the nationalization of the social system, as well as its individual institutions and structures.

Definition 2

Etatism is a logical continuation of paternalism, it is an instrument of direct intervention of the state into the functioning of the social system and the confident displacement of any objects from it that can not only compete, but also offer collaborative activity in resolving social problems.

An important feature of the paternalistic model is the weak development or complete absence of market relations in the development of the social sphere, and the level of development can differ significantly by industry. In such areas as health care, education and social security, paid resources and forms for their development are almost completely absent. Financing was made at the expense of the local and state budget, as well as from the funds of the enterprise.

In the branches of communication, culture, physical culture and passenger types transport, which provides for paid services to citizens, market relations took a modified form, but at the same time, reduced prices were set for these services.

The success of the paternalistic model depends on economic resources. It is focused on material incentives, safety and dependence of employees on the organization. The efforts of the management of the organization are aimed at providing the funds necessary for the payment of salaries and the provision of benefits. Since the physical needs of employees are properly met, the employer considers the need for employees to security.

Guardianship leads to increased dependence of the employee on the organization. The employee feels that his safety and well-being depend much more on the organization than on the immediate supervisor. Within the framework of the paternalistic model, many different programs can be implemented. So, companies provide their employees with the opportunity to do physical education for free, provide therapeutic massage services, conduct psychological seminars, provide vacations for parents, allocate time to care for dependents and children. As a result, the staff turnover rate is significantly reduced, the amount of funds allocated to pay for sick leaves is reduced, and the costs of recruiting and training personnel are reduced. Obviously, the employees of such enterprises are unlikely to want to change employers - "guardians".

At the same time, it often happens that even if an employee commits actions that harm the company (absenteeism, theft), he will be forgiven as a negligent child in need of great care. Usually, wages at such enterprises practically do not depend on the level of personal participation in labor and on its quality, which significantly weakens the motivation of the best workers.

Observations of workers in this EP model show that they are often engaged not so much in the work process as in a lively discussion of benefits, concerned with whether everyone is fairly receiving their share of care from the enterprise.

The most obvious drawback of the model is that the level of labor efforts of most workers is somewhere on the verge of their potential, because they have lack of motivation to develop abilities to a higher level. Employees are satisfied material conditions, but many of them feel that they do not have incentives for self-realization.

This model is most suitable for unambitious workers, people with large families. Professionals do not really welcome this system. They do not want benefits, but monetary rewards for their work in order to spend money there and in the conditions that suit them. For example, they want an apartment not in a factory building, but in a prestigious area, etc. This reduces the motivating influence of the paternalistic model in relation to certain categories of workers.

In the conditions of Russia, the paternalistic model usually gives not very good results. The ego is explained, in particular, by the fact that employees often have low discipline, an orientation towards receiving benefits, and the value of rest is higher than the value of work. Therefore, this OP model quickly leads to a decrease in labor productivity, to an increase in the number of employees per unit of output in comparison with enterprises with supportive and even autocratic models.

supporting model

The supporting model of organizational behavior (OP) is based on the principle of supporting relationships by R. Likert. He convincingly showed that management and other organizational processes should ensure the maximum likelihood that, in all relationships with the organization, each of its members, having their own experience, significance, expectations, feels a supportive approach, provoking and helping to keep the feeling dignity and significance. In accordance with the views of D. McGregor, this model can be implemented by managers whose attitudes towards personnel fall under theory Y.

The supportive model is not based on money and power, but on leadership or leadership, where managers create a climate that helps the individual growth of workers and the use of their abilities in the interests of the organization. The task of management is to support the efforts of employees aimed at completing work tasks, and not just providing benefits and paying bonuses for loyalty (as in the paternalistic model).

It should be noted that we are talking not only and not so much about the psychological support of workers, but about involving them in the process of cooperation in production processes, increasing labor productivity. The manager acts as a person who is ready to lend a helping hand and cooperate with the employee. At the same time, he believes that an employee is a specialist who understands his business and is ready to benefit the enterprise with his work. The manager in the supporting model demonstrates an interest primarily in the results of labor, but does not complain to the employee if his performance does not meet the standards or expectations, but enters into a constructive dialogue with him. The employee acts as expert, tries with the help of a manager (possibly an engineer, technologist) to find out what is the cause of low productivity - problems in the operation of equipment, poor quality of supplied semi-finished products, lack of own technical skills, something else.

Managers actively support those employees who are focused on improving production processes. As a result, it is these employees who become behavioral models for the rest. The attention of workers is concentrated on work, and not on extraneous things. Employees feel the attention of the manager, see his assessment of their work in terms of the level of participation, quantity and quality of the result. Constructive interaction with the manager increases self-esteem, self-respect, contributes to the growth of labor productivity and loyalty to the enterprise.

In cases where the leader supports the efforts of employees, employees have a sense of complicity and involvement in decision-making in the organization, they get reason to talk about the company "we" and not "they". Workers are more motivated to work as their needs for status and recognition are met at a higher level. Thus, they awaken internal impulses to work.

A supportive command does not require the involvement of significant financial resources. It is more about the style of behavior of the management of the organization, which is manifested in the treatment of leaders with people. The role of a manager is to help employees solve problems and complete work tasks.

At the same time, it is clear that far from all managers are capable of implementing the supporting model, which is apparently the most appropriate for the conditions of modern Russia. Those who profess theory X (according to D. McGregor) can work only under the conditions of the first two models. But this opens up great opportunities for improving the procedures for selecting and corporate training of managers. In a supportive model, even subtle nuances of communication with staff are important.

collegiate model

The collegiate model is a further development of the supporting EP model. The term "collegiality" characterizes the partnership of people united in a group and striving to achieve a common goal. This model is gaining ground in organizations whose activities are determined by creative attitude of employees to work duties, since it is most adequate to the conditions of intellectual labor, it gives considerable freedom to the actions of employees.

The success of the collegial model is determined by the possibility of forming (under the guidance of management) among employees feelings of partnership feelings of need and usefulness. When employees see that managers contribute to the achievement of a common goal, they accept leaders in their circle, respect the roles they play.

The feeling of partnership comes in different ways. Some organizations are canceling dedicated parking spaces for senior executives. Others ban the use of words like boss and subordinate, believing that they separate managers from other employees. Still others revoke check-in times, form leisure "committees", pay employees' camping trips, or require managers to go out on a weekly basis.

The management of such an organization is focused on teamwork, the leader is treated as a coach who creates a winning team. The reaction of the employee to such a situation is a sense of responsibility, when the work task is performed at a high level, not because the manager ordered it, not under threat of punishment, but because the employee feels a sense of duty to achieve the highest quality.

The psychological result of using a collegial approach for an employee is the formation of self-discipline, when employees who feel a sense of responsibility set certain limits for their behavior in the team, just as members of a football team must adhere to certain rules of the game. In this kind environment employees usually experience feelings of accomplishment, contribution to the achievement of common goals and self-realization, which, in turn, are expressed in enthusiasm for the performance of work tasks.

The main models of organizational behavior are presented in Table. 1.3.1.

Table 1.3.1. Models of organizational behavior

The following combination of organizational behavior models seems to be optimal in a modern organization:

1. The level of top management is the collegial model of the EP. At this level, a decision is made about how deep this model should be extended, covering various categories of managers. It is advisable to take into account the fact that the collegial model is real in the group of direct interaction. If the group of managers in an organization is too large, collegial work has significant limitations.

2. At the level of structural units, the supporting model is optimal. Its first limitation is that it can only be implemented by managers with Y and Z attitudes. Managers with X attitudes (according to D. McGregor) can declare their adherence to the support model, but they cannot realize it. The staff will quickly understand insincerity and respond with a decrease in loyalty, demotivation. The second limitation is that not all staff can quickly switch to work according to this model. It takes time and patience. Moreover, there are people who do not want to implement the required behavior for one reason or another. In this case, it is advisable to apply an autocratic model in relation to them, leaving the opportunity to switch to a supportive one. This often works well because few people want to work in an autocratic model if there is an alternative to a supportive one.

1.4. Features of the concept of "organization" in the context of organizational behavior

Consideration of the discipline "Organizational behavior" should begin with the definition of the term "organization". Within the framework of this course, by "organization" we will understand a kind of social system that unites individuals for the implementation of certain goals and entry into which imposes significant restrictions on the individual's behavior. Also, an "organization" is a group of people united by some common cause to achieve their goals.

Organization features:

organizational culture. Values, norms of behavior, system of prohibitions.

organizational structure. Ways of distribution of managerial tasks, powers between divisions and officials.

interaction with the external environment. Acquisition of materials from the external environment, their modernization, after - the release of finished products / services. At the same time, an important role is assigned to the opinion of consumers, customers, the requirements of the current legislation, the political situation in the world, etc. If the organization successfully interacts with the external environment, it continues to exist in the market, otherwise the organization is liquidated)

resource usage. Material, financial, personnel;

existence of boundaries. Temporary (concept life cycle organizations), spatial (territorial boundaries), property (powers to dispose of the property of the organization).

There are many types of organizations. Each of them, to varying degrees, influences the formation of relationships within the organization and the behavior of employees in it.