King of the Roman country. Charles I the Great, King of the Franks, Emperor of the West (Holy Roman Empire) (742 (or 743) -814). What have we learned

Holy Roman Empire, for each new monarch, at least a double procedure became traditional: election in Germany and coronation in Rome (sometimes between them there was a coronation in Milan as king of Italy). The trip of the king from Germany to Rome in the Middle Ages, as a rule, turned into a military campaign. In addition, it was required to enlist the support of the pope, or wait for death or organize the overthrow of a hostile pope. From the election to the coronation in Rome, the pretender to the imperial throne was called the Roman king.

This title had another function. To ensure the transfer of power from father to son, almost every emperor tried to organize the election of a Roman king during his lifetime. Thus, the title of king of Rome often meant crown prince.

Otto II the Red, 961-967 (son of Otto I)
Otto III, 983-996 (son of Otto II)
Henry II the Saint, 1002-1014 (second cousin of Otto III)
Conrad II, 1024-1027
Henry III, 1028-1046 (son of Conrad II)
Henry IV, 1054-1084 (son of Henry III)
Rudolf of Swabia, 1077-1080 (Henry IV's sister's husband)
Hermann von Salm, 1081-1088
Conrad, 1087-1098 (son of Henry IV)
Henry V, 1099-1111 (son of Henry IV)
Lothair II, 1125-1133
Conrad III, 1127-1135
Conrad III, 1138-1152 (aka)
Henry Berengar, 1146-1150 (son of Conrad III)
Frederick I Barbarossa, 1152-1155 (nephew of Conrad III)
Henry VI, 1169-1191 (son of Frederick I)
Philip of Swabia, 1198-1208 (son of Frederick I)
Otto IV, 1198-1209
Frederick II, 1196-1220 (son of Henry VI)
Henry (VII), 1220-1235 (son of Frederick II)
Heinrich Raspe, 1246-1247
William of Holland, 1247-1256
Conrad IV, 1237-1250 (son of Frederick II)
Richard of Cornwall, 1257-1272
Alphonse of Castile, 1257-1273
Rudolf I, 1273-1291
Adolf of Nassau, 1292-1298
Albrecht I, 1298-1308 (son of Rudolf I)
Henry VII, 1308-1312
Louis IV, 1314-1328
Friedrich of Austria, 1314-22, 1325-30
Charles IV, 1346-47
Charles IV, 1349-55 (aka)
Günther von Schwarzburg, 1349
Wenzel I, 1376-1378 (son of Charles IV)
Ruprecht of the Palatinate, 1400-1410
Sigismund, 1410-1433 (son of Charles IV)
Yost, 1410-1411
Albrecht II, 1438-1439
Frederick III, 1440-1452
Maximilian I, 1486-1508 (son of Frederick III)
Charles V, 1519-1530
Ferdinand I, 1531-1558 (brother of Charles V)
Maximilian II, 1562-1564 (son of Ferdinand I)
Rudolf II, 1575-1576 (son of Maximilian II)
Ferdinand III, 1636-1637 (son of Ferdinand II)
Ferdinand IV, 1653-1654 (son of Ferdinand III)
Joseph I, 1690-1705 (son of Leopold I)
Joseph II, 1764-1765 (son of Franz I)

Napoleon II, 1811-1832 (son of Napoleon I)

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Notes

An excerpt characterizing the Roman king

Anna Pavlovna's presentiment was indeed justified. The next day, during a prayer service in the palace on the occasion of the sovereign's birthday, Prince Volkonsky was summoned from the church and received an envelope from Prince Kutuzov. It was Kutuzov's report, written on the day of the battle from Tatarinova. Kutuzov wrote that the Russians had not retreated a single step, that the French had lost much more than ours, that he was reporting in a hurry from the battlefield, without having had time to collect the latest information. So it was a victory. And immediately, without leaving the temple, gratitude was rendered to the creator for his help and for the victory.
Anna Pavlovna's premonition was justified, and a joyfully festive mood reigned in the city all morning. Everyone recognized the victory as complete, and some have already spoken of the capture of Napoleon himself, of his deposition and the election of a new head for France.
Away from business and amid the conditions of court life, it is very difficult for events to be reflected in all their fullness and strength. Involuntarily, general events are grouped around one particular case. So now the main joy of the courtiers was as much in the fact that we had won, as in the fact that the news of this victory fell on the sovereign’s birthday. It was like a successful surprise. Kutuzov's message also spoke of Russian losses, and Tuchkov, Bagration, Kutaisov were named among them. Also, the sad side of the event involuntarily in the local, St. Petersburg world was grouped around one event - the death of Kutaisov. Everyone knew him, the sovereign loved him, he was young and interesting. On this day, everyone met with the words:
How amazing it happened. In the very prayer. And what a loss for the Kutays! Ah, what a pity!
- What did I tell you about Kutuzov? Prince Vasily was now speaking with the pride of a prophet. “I have always said that he alone is capable of defeating Napoleon.
But the next day there was no news from the army, and the general voice became anxious. The courtiers suffered for the suffering of the uncertainty in which the sovereign was.
- What is the position of the sovereign! - the courtiers said and no longer extolled, as on the third day, and now they condemned Kutuzov, former cause the sovereign's anxiety. Prince Vasily on this day no longer boasted of his protege Kutuzov, but remained silent when it came to the commander in chief. In addition, by the evening of that day, everything seemed to have come together in order to plunge the residents of St. Petersburg into alarm and anxiety: another terrible news had joined. Countess Elena Bezukhova died suddenly from this terrible disease, which was so pleasant to pronounce. Officially, in large societies, everyone said that Countess Bezukhova died from a terrible attack of angine pectorale [chest sore throat], but in intimate circles they told details about how le medecin intime de la Reine d "Espagne [medical physician of the Queen of Spain] prescribed Helene small doses some medicine to perform a certain action; but how Helen, tormented by the fact that the old count suspected her, and by the fact that the husband to whom she wrote (that unfortunate depraved Pierre) did not answer her, suddenly took a huge dose of the medicine prescribed for her and died in torment before they could help.It was said that Prince Vasily and the old count took up the Italian, but the Italian showed such notes from the unfortunate deceased that he was immediately released.
The general conversation focused on three sad events: the unknown of the sovereign, the death of Kutaisov and the death of Helen.
On the third day after Kutuzov's report, a landowner from Moscow arrived in St. Petersburg, and the news spread throughout the city that Moscow had been surrendered to the French. It was terrible! What was the position of the sovereign! Kutuzov was a traitor, and Prince Vasily, during the visites de condoleance [condolence visits] on the occasion of the death of his daughter, which they made to him, spoke of Kutuzov, who had previously been praised by him (it was forgivable for him to forget in sadness what he had said before), he said, that nothing else could be expected from a blind and depraved old man.
- I am only surprised how it was possible to entrust the fate of Russia to such a person.
While this news was still unofficial, one could still doubt it, but the next day the following report came from Count Rostopchin:
“The adjutant of Prince Kutuzov brought me a letter in which he demands police officers from me to escort the army to the Ryazan road. He says that he leaves Moscow with regret. Sovereign! Kutuzov's act decides the fate of the capital and your empire. Russia will shudder when it learns of the surrender of the city, where the greatness of Russia is concentrated, where are the ashes of your ancestors. I will follow the army. I took everything out, it remains for me to cry about the fate of my fatherland.
Having received this report, the sovereign sent the following rescript to Kutuzov with Prince Volkonsky:
“Prince Mikhail Ilarionovich! Since August 29, I have not had any reports from you. In the meantime, on September 1, through Yaroslavl, from the Moscow commander-in-chief, I received the sad news that you had decided to leave Moscow with the army. You yourself can imagine the effect this news had on me, and your silence deepens my surprise. I am sending with this Adjutant General Prince Volkonsky in order to learn from you about the state of the army and about the reasons that prompted you to such a sad determination.

Nine days after leaving Moscow, a messenger from Kutuzov arrived in Petersburg with official news of the abandonment of Moscow. This one was sent by the Frenchman Michaud, who did not know Russian, but quoique etranger, Busse de c?ur et d "ame, [however, although a foreigner, but Russian at heart,] as he himself said to himself.

In 962, Otto I founded a state unique in its structure, which is a union of smaller countries united by the power of one person. Consider the history of this state.

State formation

The formation of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) happened in 962, however, the phrase "Roman Empire" was fixed only by the 11th century. Emphasizing its heredity to the ancient power, the double-headed eagle was chosen as the coat of arms of the empire, stretching its wings to the east and west. The appearance of the prefix "Sacred" is associated with the name of Frederick I Barbarossa, who first used it in 1157.

Rice. 1. Map of the Holy Roman Empire in 1250.

According to the idea of Otto I, the creation of the Holy Roman Empire was supposed to be the revival of the empire of Charlemagne. So, in the 10th century, the young state included the lands of Germany, which became the core of statehood, the Low Countries (Netherlands), Northern and Central Italy, and Burgundy.

Name HRE great empire relatively difficult. Outside the German lands, the power of the emperor over the vassals was weak and was intended mainly to work on administrative mechanisms.

In 1046, Emperor Henry III received the exclusive right to appoint church ministers to the post of Pope of Rome, as well as bishops of the German church. During his reign, the Cluniac reform was carried out, introducing the ideas of church administration in accordance with the norms of canon law. In 1075-1122, between the Pope and the emperor, a “struggle for investiture” begins, in which the Church tried to reduce the influence of the monarch over itself.

Hohenstaufen dynasty

In 1122, the first representative of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Frederick Barbarossa, became the ruler of the HRE. He, as well as his successors, made the management system of state territories more centralized. In foreign policy, he participated in the 3rd crusade, conquered the Italian cities and forced many border states to recognize him as their overlord.

Decline of the empire

The reason for the weakening of the position of the empire was that imperial dynasty interrupted that in 1250 and until 1312 the emperors of the HRE were not crowned.

1400 - the date of the official adoption of the flag of the empire, duplicating the coat of arms with the image of a double-headed eagle on a yellow background.

The French rulers repeatedly tried to get the crown, but each time it was kept by the Germans. Pope Boniface VIII tried to lower the status of imperial power, but by his actions only aroused its support from various estates.

By the 15th century, the HRE had completely soured relations with the Papacy. The idea for what and how the Holy Roman Empire was formed was lost, and its borders narrowed to the territory of Germany. In 1356, a new procedure for choosing the ruler of the HRE was fixed. According to the law, the 7 kyrfusts with the greatest influence in the HRE elected the emperor and put forward their demands for his rule.

In 1438, the Austrian Habsburgs came to power in the HRE. Throughout the 15th century, attempts were made to strengthen the role of the Reichstag, but to no avail. The Reformation, which began in the 16th century, deprived the empire of hope for modernization and reorientation. In the HRE, social tension began to form on religious grounds. The empire was a shaky union of many small German principalities.

In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg was concluded, formalizing the union between Lutherans and Catholics within the empire.

Rice. 3. Imperial districts of the HRE in the early 16th century.

In 1618-1648, the religious Thirty Years' War took place on the territory of the empire, which destroyed more than a third of the population of the empire, securing the freedom of choice of religion in different subjects of the empire.

In 1806, Francis II renounced the crown, formalizing the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire.

What have we learned?

The Holy Roman Empire throughout its existence was more of a decorative spot on the map of Europe, never taking shape in a serious military-political power.

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Kings of Italy is a title worn by the rulers of the kingdoms located on the territory of the modern state. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in northern Italy, the Italian (Lombard) kingdom was formed. For almost 800 years, it was part of the Holy Roman Empire, when the title of the Italian king was carried by its emperors.

In 1804 it was created by the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. The last king of Italy, Umberto II, ruled from 05/09/1946 to 06/12/1946.

First Roman king

The title of king appears in the early Middle Ages. They were called the rulers of a number of historical kingdoms that arose in 395 after the collapse of the Roman Empire into two parts: Western and Eastern, known as Byzantium, which lasted another thousand years. Western was attacked by barbarians. The leader of one of these peoples, Odoacer, deposed the last Roman emperor in 476 and was proclaimed the first king of Italy.

Zeno made him his viceroy. The entire structure of the Roman Empire was preserved. Odoacer became a Roman patrician. But the power under the control of Byzantium did not suit him, and he supported the commander Ill, who staged a rebellion against Zeno. The latter turned for help to Theodoric, the leader of the Ostrogoths. His army, having crossed the Alps in 489, captured Italy. Theodoric becomes its king.

Duchy of Friuli - state of the Lombards

In 534, Byzantium declared war on the Ostrogoths, after 18 years their state ceased to exist, Italy became part of it. After 34 years, the Lombards invaded the Apennine Peninsula. They captured the interior of Italy, forming the state of the Lombards - the Duchy of Friul. It is from this time that the name of the northern region of Italy - Lombardy - comes from. The Byzantines from the territory of the former Western Roman Empire had coastal lands.

Incorporation into Francia

The actual rulers of the Italian lands under the rule of Byzantium were the popes, who feared the strengthening of the Lombards and the capture of Rome. The only ones who could resist these warlike long-bearded Germans were the Franks. The founder of the ruling dynasty of the Carolingian Franks, Pepin the Short, who was crowned by Pope Stephen III and became King of Italy, helped win back the Italian possessions of Byzantium for the papal throne. The Duchy of Rome, Umbria, the Exarchate of Ravenna, Pentapolis became the foundation of the Papal States.

The capture by the Langobars of part of the papal territories in 772 forced the king of the Franks, Charlemagne, to enter into war with them. In 774 the state of the Langobars ceased to exist. Charlemagne declared himself king of Italy, or rather its northern part. After 5 years, Pope Adrian I officially crowned him.

In 840, the lands of the Franks were seized by unrest, as a result of which Frankia was divided into several states. Italy became part of the Middle Kingdom, whose king was Lothair I. The Franks did not pay much attention to Italy, considering it an insignificant outskirts. The country was governed in the same way as under the Lombars. The control center was in the city of Pavia, which was considered its capital.

Incorporation of northern Italy into the Holy Roman Empire

Gradually, Italy, which did not have much importance among the Franks, unofficially broke up into several feudal states, the control of which was in the hands of the local elite. In 952, the Italian king Berengar II fell into the hands of the German emperor Otto I. An attempt to free himself from subjugation to the Germans led to the fact that in 961 the emperor Otto at the head of the army took Pavia, deposed King Berengar and was crowned with the "Iron Crown of the Longobars." Northern Italy became part of the Holy Roman Empire for many years.

Southern Italy

In the south of Italy, events developed in a different way. Local princes often recruited the Normans. As a result of his marriage in 1030 to the sister of the ruler of Naples, Sergius IV, the Norman Rainulf received as a gift the county of Aversa, in which the first Norman state was formed. The Normans, gradually subjugating the territory of the South of Italy, ousting the Arabs, the Byzantines, created a single state. Their power was blessed by the pope.

By the beginning of the 15th century, the entire territory of Italy was divided into five large states that played a significant role (two republics - Florence and Byzantium, the Duchy of Milan, the Papal States, the Kingdom of Naples), as well as five independent dwarf states: Genoa, Mantua, Lucca, Siena and Ferrara. Since the end of the 15th century, the so-called italian wars, as a result of which some cities and provinces were ruled by the French, Spaniards, Germans.

Unification of Italy, creation of a kingdom

After the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor of France in 1804, he becomes king of all possessions in Italy and is even crowned with the iron crown of the Langobarres. The papacy is deprived of secular power. Three states were formed on the territory of Italy: the North-West was part of France, in the north-east and the Kingdom of Naples.

The struggle for the unification of Italy continued, but only in 1861 did the all-Italian parliament, which met in Turin, publish a document on the creation of the kingdom. It was headed by Victor Emmanuel, the king of Italy, previously the former king of Turin. As a result of the unification of Italy, Lazio and Venice were annexed. The formation of the Italian state continued.

But the days of monarchies are over. Revolutionary trends also touched Italy. First World War and the crisis of the 30s led to the rule of the nationalists under the leadership of Mussolini. King Victor Emmanuel III stained himself with shameful non-interference in the internal affairs of the country, which led to the creation of a fascist regime. This completely turned the people away from royal rule. His son Umberto II ruled the country for 1 month and 3 days. In 1946, a republican system was established by popular vote in the country.

A complex political union that lasted from 962 to 1806 and potentially represented the largest state, the founder of which was Emperor Otto I. At its peak (in 1050), under Henry III, it included German, Czech, Italian and Burgundian territories. She grew out of the East Frankish kingdom, proclaiming herself the heiress of the Great Rome, in accordance with the medieval idea of "translatio imperii" ("transition of the empire"). The Sacred represented a conscious attempt at the revival of the state.

True, by 1600 only a shadow of its former glory remained from it. Germany was its heart, which by this period represented many principalities, successfully asserting themselves in their independent position under the rule of the emperor, which never had absolute status. Therefore, from the end of the fifteenth century, it is better known as the Holy Roman Nation.

The most important territories belonged to the seven electors of the emperor (the King of Bavaria, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Saxony, the Count Palatine of the Rhine and the three archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne), who are referred to as the first estate. The second consisted of unelected princes, the third - from the leaders of 80 free imperial cities. Representatives of the estates (princes, princes, lords, kings) were theoretically subject to the emperor, but each had sovereignty on their lands and acted as they saw fit, based on their own considerations. The Holy Roman Empire was never able to achieve the kind of political unification that existed in France, developing instead into a decentralized, limited electoral monarchy made up of hundreds of subblocs, principalities, districts, free imperial cities, and other areas.

The emperor independently also owned lands in Inner, Upper, Lower and Front Austria, controlled Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia. The most significant area was the Czech Republic (Bohemia). When Rudolf II became emperor, he made Prague its capital. According to contemporaries, he was a very interesting, intelligent, reasonable person. However, unfortunately, Rudolf suffered from bouts of insanity, which developed from his tendency to depression. This had a profound effect on the government structure. More and more privileges of power fell into the hands of Mattias, his brother, despite the fact that he had no authority over it. The German princes tried to take advantage of this problem, but as a result (by 1600) they not only did not unite their efforts, but, on the contrary, a split occurred between them.

So, let's summarize what has been said. The main milestones of the political union of the territories: the formation of the Holy Roman Empire took place in 962. Otto, its founder, was crowned by the pope in Rome. Since the power of the emperors was only nominal.

Although some of them tried to change their position, to strengthen their positions of power, their attempts were prevented by the papacy and the princes. The last was Franz II, who, under pressure from Napoleon I, renounced the title, thereby putting an end to its existence.

Holy Roman Empire

Rome is rightly called the Eternal City. So, one empire replaced another, and the majestic Rome remained the capital. The ancient Roman power, numbering centuries, fell under the onslaught of the barbarians, but traditions ancient state continued to live. Only the western part of the Roman Empire completely ceased to exist, and the eastern part began to be called Byzantium and occupied a special place in world history.

In place of two huge powers, the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, in the VIII century. a new state arose - the Holy Roman Empire. This state, which existed for almost 10 centuries and had a significant impact on the formation of other states and nations, included vast territories and a large number of Western European peoples.

The emperors of the Holy Roman Empire sought to achieve world domination. At the same time, some of them were able to subjugate only the German lands, part of Italy and Burgundy to their full power. Due to the fact that most of the emperors had German roots, over time, the country began to bear the proud name of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. In the era of its power, a huge state was a unique combination of Roman and Germanic cultures and customs, laws and features of government. This combination gave birth to a new Western European country, a new medieval civilization.

At the origins of civilization

Lombards and Saxons

The Lombards are a warlike tribe that belonged to the Germanic peoples. At the end of the 4th century, the Lombards were conquered by the Huns. After the death of the leader of the Huns, Attila, they nevertheless gained independence. These tribes were on friendly terms with the neighboring Eastern Roman Empire. The Lombards even provided military assistance to the Romans in the conquest of the Goths: the Lombard king Alboin sent a large detachment to help the Roman commander, which was joined by neighboring tribes, including the Saxons, Sarmatians and Bulgarians.

Having captured the Italian lands in 568, the Lombards formed an early feudal kingdom. After the death of Alboin in 573, the Lombards did not elect a king, but ruled their lands with the help of their own squads.

On the territory of the Lombard kingdom, Christianity was preached in two directions - Catholic and Arian. Over time, the Lombard princes nevertheless leaned towards Catholicism and supported a good relationship with the Roman clergy.

In 774, Langobardia, during one of the military campaigns, was captured by the troops of Charlemagne, who appropriated the title of "King of the Franks and Lombards." All the lands of the local rulers were settled by the Franks, and a few years later Charles changed administrative structure, obliging the kings to appoint counts to manage individual areas. It should be noted that the modern Italian region of Lombardy got its name from the ancient kingdom of the Lombards.

By the end of the 5th century The Germans settled in the territory of the former Western Roman Empire: the Vandals settled in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Visigoths in Spain, the Angles and Saxons in Britain, and the Franks in Gaul. Around 500, the Franks formed a state, headed by Clovis I, the most influential of the military leaders, who also converted to Christianity. Clovis, heir to the ancient Merovingian dynasty, with the help of the army kept the population of conquered Gaul in obedience. In each region of the kingdom, he appointed his rulers - counts who collected taxes, controlled military detachments, courts. Approximately at the same time (about 500) the first set of Frankish laws appeared.

The son of Clovis Clothar I managed in 534 to annex Burgundy to the kingdom and strengthen the western borders, which were threatened by the Thuringians. The Frankish state was subjected to devastating raids by the Arabs, which led to its weakening. At the beginning of the 7th century at the head of the Franks stood the powerful ruler Clothar II, who managed to unite all the lands after the destruction of the Visigothic kingdom by the Arabs in 711.

From the middle of the 8th century at the head of the royal military retinue was the mayor - a special official with great power. The mayor was traditionally elected from the noble class and necessarily belonged to an old noble family. Over time, the mayordoms became the new rulers of the Frankish kingdom. Thus, Charles Martel, as mayor of three important regions of the state, managed to practically become the ruler of the kingdom.

In 719, Karl Martel, nicknamed the Battle Hammer, becomes king of the Franks. He fought a number of successful battles with the Saxons, Lombards, coped with the Arabs and even with internal civil strife. After a long presence on the throne of the Frankish kingdom of weak rulers, in 751 the first representative of the Carolingian dynasty, Pepin, became king. He, like Karl Martel, had to constantly fight with the Saxons, Arabs, to defend the borders of the state. By this time, numerous neighboring tribes had passed under the authority of the Frankish state: Thuringians, Bavarians, Alemans. Part of the subjects of the kingdom were Christians, the other - pagans. In addition, due to religious differences, the Franks and Lombards were constantly at war with each other, although most of them recognized Christianity. In addition, the Arabs did not give rest on the eastern borders. To stop all unrest, invasions and strife, the powerful hand of the king was needed.

In 768, Charles, later nicknamed the Great, came to power in the Frankish kingdom. Karl annually made trips to Italy, Spain, Saka lands. Having significantly expanded the borders of the Frankish kingdom and strengthened the supreme power, Charles turned the state into an early feudal empire: fortified castles surrounded by moats and ramparts were built throughout the country. At that time, the area of the new Frankish Empire was approximately equal to the territory of the former Western Roman Empire.

The Saxons are a united Germanic tribe that lived in northern Germany in the area between the Elbe and the Rhine. These included Westphals, Ingris, Ostphals, Frisians and Normans. Before Charlemagne came to these lands, the Saxons did not know a single power: they lived in communities, gathering an army only at the moment of military danger. The Saxons preached paganism and used the ancient People's Assembly to resolve common issues.

Charlemagne decided to seize the lands of the Saxons, guided mainly by two goals - the expansion of the lands of the Frankish state and the spread of Christianity. It is quite natural that the Catholic Church promoted the war in every possible way, justifying it as a necessary religious intervention in the life of backward pagans.

The Frankish army destroyed pagan temples, forced rites of baptism of Saka princes were carried out. The Saxons rebelled many times, trying to resist the invaders, but the forces were clearly on the side of the large and well-trained Frankish army. In general, the war of the Frankish kingdom with the Saxons lasted about 25 years - from 772 to 804.

The great majority of the Saxon lands were conquered by Charlemagne in 785, when their territories were completely devastated by the famous flying troops who returned after the conquest of Lombardy. The conquest of the Saxon lands was also facilitated by the fact that many local princes themselves decided to recognize the authority of Charles in order to stop military robberies.

Charlemagne put the military leader Widukind at the head of the new Saxon state, thus laying the foundation for the statehood of the Saxons.

The rulers of the new state adopted Christianity, after which the baptism of ordinary inhabitants of the Saxon lands began. To obtain full power over the lands of the recalcitrant Saxons, Charlemagne facilitated the resettlement of Saka families to the lands of the Franks, and vice versa. Sources claim that more than 10,000 families were resettled in total.

From 804 the Saxon and Frankish lands were considered to be fully united. It is from this period that the history of a single German nation begins.

Charlemagne

Charlemagne is a legendary ruler. Contemporaries have composed many legends, ballads, tales about him. During the years of his reign (768-814), the Franks went on conquest campaigns more than 50 times and significantly expanded the boundaries of their kingdom. The title "Great" Charles deserved as a brilliant politician, a brave and skillful commander and a just emperor.

Officially, the new emperor became the 68th ruler of the ancient Roman Empire after Constantine VI, the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, who lost power. Charlemagne became the Roman Emperor who created the new Carolingian Empire by forging an alliance with the Pope, ecclesiastical and secular officials, and the king.

Charles, during one of his campaigns, seized the lands of the free Saxons and annexed them to the lands of the Franks. In fact, he did not rule, but owned an empire, had strong power in Rome, and was an ardent defender of the church. Union with Charles was sought by many European states. The powerful ruler felt himself the heir of the Roman emperors, he was recognized by many, but not by the emperors of Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire). So, throughout the reign of Charlemagne there were skirmishes with the Byzantine rulers. In the historical literature, this phenomenon is given a special term - "the problem of two empires."

The headquarters of Charlemagne was not in Rome, but in Aachen. During the years of his reign, the ancient saying "Where the emperor is, there is Rome" acquired a special meaning. Charles himself did not call himself "Roman Emperor", but "emperor ruling the Roman Empire," and did not consider Rome the center of the whole world, as the clergy did.

The government of the country took place at congresses or diets. These meetings were attended not only by princes and counts, but also by bishops, and later by archbishops. Seimas accepted all major decisions, made decrees, which were then approved by the emperor.

Charlemagne united previously disparate and warring lands into a mighty empire thanks to the authority and strength of his personality, the organization of rational management, the appointment of trusted people to leadership positions and the implementation of a unified religious policy with the Catholic Church.

The empire of Charlemagne collapsed after his death. The heirs of the great state, who ruled its separate parts, were constantly at enmity with each other. In 843, in Verdun, an agreement was concluded between the three grandsons of Charlemagne on the division of the empire. Later, on the site of the former Carolingian state, three kingdoms were formed: France, Italy and Germany. A few decades after the partition, the eastern part of the former empire of Charlemagne, the future Germany, became a powerful military and political entity in Europe, subjugating the Italian kingdom.

Birth of an empire

The birth of the empire took place under the slogan of the unification of the Western European peoples. The idea of the unity of the Western European nations developed over the centuries and became especially topical during the reign of Charlemagne and his successors. The Catholic Church, interested in increasing the number of its followers, tried to bind the peoples of Europe with a single idea of the Christian world.

The unification of various peoples under the rule of one empire took place on a solid foundation of the great ancient past and the history of the Germanic world. Since ancient times, the peoples of the future empire had economic, political, cultural ties that connected them into a single civilizational system. Even the fact that they were all at different levels of development and sometimes preached a different religion did not interfere with the unification, in particular, many of them remained pagans. Each Western European nation has contributed to the formation of a single powerful state.

The first decision that contributed to the emergence of the Holy Roman Empire was made by King Conrad I: he bequeathed to his brother Eberhard to unite power with the Saxon king Henry, foreseeing the creation of a new powerful state. Henry, in turn, managed to establish relations with the rulers of Swabia and Bavaria and return Lorraine under his own rule. These lands and the Frankish kingdom became the basis of the future great power.

The three Ottos entered the history of the Holy Roman Empire as powerful and successful politicians. Under the Ottons, the neighboring peoples of Eastern Europe joined the Christian peoples of Europe and partly of the Holy Roman Empire on equal terms. three great emperors mighty empire contributed to the cultural development of many peoples and contributed to the "Ottonian revival".

Otto I the Great (912–973)

The history of the Roman Empire spanned centuries, when Otto I, the German king, the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a representative of the Saxon dynasty, came to the throne in 912. Since that time, a new stage in the history of imperial Rome began.

Otto had to fight for his succession after the death of his father in 936. Despite the fact that Otto was the eldest son of the deceased king and was married to the daughter of the English King Edward the Elder, his younger and half-brothers tried to challenge the right to rule. Otto I managed to suppress the rebellion raised by them in 953. In his policy of conquest, the emperor subjugated the dukes, finding supporters among the clergy. The army under the command of Otto I won numerous victories, strengthening the power of the emperor. After the victory over the Hungarians in 955, Otto began to be called the savior of Christians.

Having subjugated the entire Italian kingdom, Otto I in 962 solemnly accepted the title of emperor from the hands of Pope John XII in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. The people, the nobility, and the Pope swore allegiance to the new ruler. It was a significant year: the Roman state again became a strong empire and received the name of the Holy Roman Empire (from the end of the 15th century - the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation). The son of the Saka king restored the empire of Charlemagne, losing only the lands of France. Since 962, two official titles - Emperor of Rome and King of Germany - were assigned to one person.

Having become emperor of Rome, Otto I decided to subjugate the entire Apennine Peninsula, which was partially under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire, to his power.

In order to gain power over the new lands, Otto married his son to the Byzantine princess Theophane, the daughter of the Byzantine emperor John Tzimisce.

Under Otto I, a revival of the culture and art of the conquered peoples and countries began in the state, which was called the "Ottonian revival".

Otto I managed not only to retain the power inherited from his father, but also to strengthen it by concluding dynastic marriages and winning military victories.

Otto II (955–983)

After the death of Otto the Great, Otto II ascended the throne, having received power over Byzantium by the right of the next of kin. The son of the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was on the throne from 967 to 983.

Otto II was crowned with the imperial Roman crown during the life of his father in 961. During the first seven years of his reign, the new emperor had to constantly fight for the strength of the throne with internal and external enemies.

In 974, Otto II defeated the Danish prince Harald Sinezub, forcing him to stop raiding the lands of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto fought with the Slavic princes Boleslav II of Czech and Mieszko I of Poland, who plotted against the imperial power in the southern part of the state.

Otto II continued the work begun by his father to strengthen and expand the possessions of the Roman Empire. One of the largest conquest campaigns of Otto II was the expansion into the southern Italian lands in 981. The emperor's army was defeated, but the ruler managed to maintain his power, enlisting the support of influential German princes.

Emperor Otto II died of malaria in Rome in 983. He became the only German emperor to be buried in Rome. Otto left behind three daughters and a three-year-old son, Otto, the future Emperor Otto III.

Otto III (980-1002)

Otto III remained on the throne from 996 to 1002. In fact, his grandmother Adelgeida and his mother Theophan, who had significant influence on the clergy, helped him rule the country. Having become the full-fledged ruler of the empire in 994, the young ruler did a lot to raise the country.

In foreign policy, Otto III continued the work of his father and grandfather - he decided to expand the borders of the empire. In 996, Otto III went with an army to Italy with the aim of placing his cousin Bruno on the papal throne. After a series of battles, he managed to achieve this. Under the name of Pope Gregory V, Bruno became the first highest German Catholic priest. True, later Otto III had to suppress rebellions against the new Pope more than once.

Otto III was distinguished by his practical mind, perseverance, and perseverance in achieving goals. Naturally endowed with beauty and courage, he received an excellent education, knew several languages. The goal of the young emperor was to turn Rome into the "heart of the world." Contemporaries called Otto III "Wonder of the World".

Since 988, Rome has become the permanent residence of the new Roman emperors. Otto III improved the system of state administration, introduced Byzantine court customs and assumed the title of "king of kings" in a new magnificent palace. At the court, the bull "Renewal of the Roman Empire" was prepared. Otto, the main author of the document, planned to revive the powerful Christian Roman Empire on the basis of a combination of ancient Roman and ancient Carolingian traditions. Otto III ruled over a vast country, trying to maintain strong relations with the spiritual authorities.

The ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, Otto III, died of a serious infectious disease at the age of 22 full of dreams and plans.

At the peak of power

Roman or Frankish Empire?

After the Ottons, Henry II ascended the German throne, supported by the local princes and the Archbishop of Mainz. The new ruler in every possible way strengthened his power in Germany, fought the Slavs and made Italian campaigns. The long struggle with the Slavs ended with the signing of a peace treaty with Poland. Henry managed to finally conquer Italy in 1004. On May 14, in the church of St. Michael in Pavia, Henry was proclaimed the Italian king. This was the first and last coronation with the "iron crown" of a representative of the Saxon dynasty as king of the Lombard kingdom. The crown was called "iron" according to ancient tradition, although it had been made of gold for many decades.

After a momentous coronation, Henry assumed the title of "King of the Franks and Lombards". Henry II set himself the task of reviving the Frankish empire and therefore considered the center of the empire not Rome, but the German lands. To resolve Italian issues, Henry sent his representatives to the cities of Italy, and the bishops of Northern Italy and Tuscany themselves arrived in Germany to resolve their issues.

In 1013, Henry II was forced to go with an army to Italy in order to subdue the local rulers, who sought to tear the country into small possessions. In 1014, Henry solemnly arrived in Rome, where he was met by the people and personally by Pope Benedict VIII. On February 14, Henry II, together with his wife, accepted the imperial crown in St. Peter's Cathedral. As a token of the government of the peoples of the empire, the Pope gave Henry a golden power as a gift. Despite obvious successes in Italy, Henry II nevertheless returned to Germany, which he considered the main place of his stay.

The third campaign of Henry II in Italy was made shortly before his death in 1024. Like the previous two campaigns, this one was supported by the church and ended very successfully. Henry II completed the imperial policy of the Saxon dynasty by strengthening the German kingdom. Germany remained the center of the Holy Roman Empire, which generally contributed to the strengthening of the borders of a huge power. Under the rule of the Roman emperor, the Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, Lorraine, Thuringians, Swabians, Italians, Western Slavs lived quietly and adhered to their cultural traditions.

Henry II, who went down in history as Henry the Holy, was, according to his contemporaries, a pious, educated and just king. Under him, the traditions of the “Ottonian revival” continued: the strengthening of the central government and the partial transfer of cultural life to monasteries. Scholars from different countries, beautiful palaces, bridges were built in the state, roads were improved.

Great rulers of a mighty empire

In 1024, after the death of Henry II, the last representative of the Saxon dynasty, the first ruler of the Frankish dynasty, Conrad II, ascended the throne. The new emperor managed to restore peace in the empire, significantly contributed to the development of crafts and trade, by issuing a decree on equipping special merchant ships.

Henry III the Black (1039–1056), son of Conrad II, had strong power and managed to subdue the Popes to his will. It was the sovereign ruler of a vast empire, in charge of not only secular, but also spiritual affairs.

The reign of Henry III in terms of historical power and significance can only be compared with the reign of Charlemagne. The emperor contributed to the improvement of the life of ordinary citizens, fought against the aggressive policy of the Popes.

Henry IV (1056-1106) and Henry V (1106-1124) distinguished themselves during their time in power by constantly fighting the papacy and subduing some of the local rulers. After the death of Henry V, the last Frankish emperor, in 1124 the struggle of the supreme rulers with local princes and barons, who were striving for political independence, intensified.

Roman emperors in the XII-XIII centuries. crowned with four crowns: in Aachen, the emperor received the crown of the Franks, in Milan - the crown of Italy, in Rome - a double crown, and from the time of Frederick I - also the crown of Burgundy. Officially new ruler He was considered emperor only after his coronation in Rome in St. Peter's Basilica.

Under the first Saxon ruler Lothair II, civil strife continued and there was no peace and tranquility in the empire for a long time. The idea of powerful imperial power from the middle of the XII century. until the first half of the thirteenth century. supported by the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In that historical period the empire included, in addition to the vast German lands, Northern Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy. Bohemia and the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania were directly dependent on the empire. With Byzantium, the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were still in tense relations.

The empire reached its greatest prosperity during the reign of the remarkable representative of the Hohenstaufen dynasty Frederick I Barbarossa and his grandson Frederick II, son of Henry IV.

In order to consolidate his power, the just and strong Frederick I (Fig. 6) spent many years in Italy, fighting enemies.

Rice. 6. Frederick I Barbarossa

Barbarossa died during the Third Crusade, in which he took part as a knight.

Frederick II, having inherited power from his father, managed to further strengthen it, regaining the lost German and Sicilian kingdoms with the help of Pope Innocent III. Frederick II rebuilt the magnificent residence of the emperors, which surpassed the palaces of most European rulers in appearance. Unfortunately, the powerful emperor simply did not have enough hands to keep power in the remote German lands. Local princes gradually became full masters in their territories, tearing the country into small principalities.

Medieval Rome - the capital of the Christian faith

From the 10th century Rome becomes not only the center of the Holy Roman Empire, but also the capital of all Christians. For many centuries, priests, being Romans by origin, spoke Latin and were the guardians of the close connection between the two world powers - secular and spiritual.

According to tradition, imperial power was combined with spiritual power. The emperor declared himself not only the vicar of God on earth, but also the protector of the papal church. German kings for centuries protected both the representatives of the church and its secular possessions. The coronation ceremony of the Roman emperors and the announced titles of the rulers of the empire clearly indicated that the power of the emperor was given a divine character.

The Catholic Church achieved its greatest success in the 11th-13th centuries: it owned its own court and a huge administrative system, the Popes of Rome constantly interfered in the affairs of emperors and even in their personal lives. It was the church that organized Crusades that began in the 11th century.

Henry IV, like other emperors, had to compete with the Roman popes for the right to appoint the highest Christian confessors. A particularly sharp struggle flared up between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. On the one hand - the emperor of a huge power with thousands of subjects and a strong army, on the other - the sacred title of the Pope. The courtiers, who sought to remove the strong emperor from the throne, sided with the priest, and Henry had to humbly ask the Pope for an audience. Even after this, Pope Gregory VII supported the enemies of the emperor who fought for independence. Outraged, Henry IV defeated the rebellious nobility, reached Rome, installed a new Pope on the throne and accepted the crowning of the imperial crown. The struggle launched by Pope Gregory IV against the official rulers of the vast Roman Empire marked the beginning of the rise of the Catholic Church over the state, and spiritual power over the secular.

In the Middle Ages, the Roman Empire was considered the last of the earthly states. In no case should it be allowed to disintegrate, which would mark the onset of the end of the world. From Roman antiquity, the Holy Roman Empire adopted the idea of world domination, which was successfully combined with claims to the supreme power of the Christian Catholic clergy.

The confrontation between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII could not but leave a trace in the history of the state. The main result of this struggle was the reform, which led to the fact that the right to elect popes was assigned to the college of cardinals of Rome. The Concordat of Worms of 1122 consolidated the power of papal authority over that of the Roman emperors. It should be noted that Frederick I (1152-1189) was especially prominent in the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Emperor Frederick argued that the power of the secular ruler of a vast state is no less significant for the development of the whole world than the power of the papacy. According to Friedrich, both forms of power are of divine origin and supreme support.

The decline of the papacy began with the decline of the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th century. main reason weakening of the church became a split among the Catholics, and in the XVI century. the church received a crushing blow from the Reformation.

Decline of an empire

Habsburg dynasty

The idea of a strong imperial power lost its relevance with the end of the reign of the representatives of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The Holy Roman Empire existed for nine centuries in the form of several independent states and principalities. In the middle of the XIII century. due to the weakening of the central government, the empire lost all of Italy, and Germany fell apart into several separate principalities.

With the appointment in 1273 as Emperor Rudolf of Habsburg, the Holy Roman Empire was recognized only in Germany. At the same time, Rudolph became the founder of one of the most famous European dynasties - the Habsburg dynasty. In Germany, the new ruler was treated with respect, and even in the lands where the princes sought to defend complete independence, a temporary order reigned.

In the decades following the reign of Rudolph, the princes tried with all their might to prevent the imperial coronation of the German kings. The medieval history of Italy is filled with confrontation that unfolded between the supporters of the German kings and their opponents.

Supporters of the German kings in Italy were called Ghibellines, opponents - Guelphs. Often in the same Italian city, the Ghibellines and Guelphs fought each other for decades.

The confrontation between the two sides also took place in Rome, so some contenders for the imperial chair simply could not get to St. Peter's Cathedral, where the coronation took place.

Under the Habsburgs, the Holy Roman Empire greatly changed its borders: territories were lost in the western and southern parts of the country, where mainly the French and Italians lived. In addition, the rulers of the Habsburg dynasty did not bother to go to Rome for the imperial title, initiating the tradition of coronation in Germany itself.

By the beginning of the XIV century. even in Germany, recognition of the power of a single emperor became nominal due to the strengthening of the power of local feudal lords. The petty princes not only acquired independent principalities, but also divided among themselves the attributes of the supreme imperial power. Since that time, the Roman emperors - Charles IV, Frederick III - were completely suppressed by the spiritual power of the Popes and left practically without funds. At the same time, the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire continued to call themselves the heirs of the Roman Caesars, Christian rulers.

Charles IV of Luxembourg achieved his appointment to the imperial throne through negotiations, and not by military means. He was willingly recognized as King of Italy. Charles' road to Rome was like the triumphal journey of the legendary heroes of antiquity, and after the coronation, the young emperor consecrated more than 1,500 Italians to the knighthood. True, immediately after the solemn ceremony, the emperor of an already weakened power left Rome and never returned there again, making Prague his residence. The most important event of the reign of Charles IV was the adoption of the law of the Holy Roman Empire, which went down in history under the name of the Golden Bull. The law, which was used by all the lands of the empire for many centuries, in fact recorded the feudal fragmentation of Germany.

During the reign of Charles V, the heir to the considerable territories of Spain, the empire again became huge, occupying vast lands in both the North and southern hemisphere. At the same time, the empire was greatly weakened. Therefore, the new emperor was treated in a completely different way than it was appropriate to treat the ruler of a huge powerful state. In order to maintain power, Charles V ceded half of the empire to his brother Ferdinand. This event marked the beginning of the division of the Habsburg dynasty into two branches - Austrian and Spanish.

Frederick III (1440–1493) was the last emperor to take the crown in Rome.

Interregnum era

In Germany, imperial power collapsed during the Great Interregnum after the founding of several separate principalities. During the interregnum, the empire lost part of its territory: Poland "threw" the power of Germany, the Hungarians made huge devastation in the eastern part of the empire. After Henry VII (1308–1313), the first emperor of the Luxembourg dynasty, the emperors lost power over Italy. In the middle of the XV century. Dauphine and Provence finally passed to France. According to the treatise of 1499, Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on an internally weak empire, whose rulers sought to unite the remnants of the country with the Austrian monarchy.

By the end of the XV century. Germany remained the main part of the huge, but greatly weakened by civil strife, the Holy Roman Empire. In Germany, there was neither a strong center capable of uniting the country, nor well-developed trade relations. Despite the fragmentation of the state, the emperors continued to pursue an aggressive foreign policy, making campaigns in neighboring lands.

Beginning of the Reformation

A significant event of the Middle Ages in Europe was the Reformation, which began on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. Germany became the birthplace of the Reformation, in which the Christian religion was divided into two warring parts - Catholicism and Protestantism. In constant struggle, religious fans exterminated a huge number of believers, which further weakened the empire. Emperor Charles V (Fig. 7) tried to fight the Reformation, but could not hold back the onslaught of its supporters and abdicated.

Rice. 7. Emperor Charles V

The Habsburg dynasty, despite the pressure of the Protestants, firmly adhered to the Catholic faith. Most emperors had to reconcile the warring parties in order to preserve the integrity of the empire.

At the beginning of the XVII century. in the empire, two large and serious religious organizations were formed - the Catholic League and the Protestant Union. Their members were many powerful people who wanted a decisive battle.

The result of the militancy of powerful representatives of Catholics and Protestants was the Thirty Years' War, which began in 1618. The war broke out between the Habsburgs, who supported Catholicism, the German Catholic princes adjoining them, supported by the church elite, and the anti-Habsburg coalition, which advocated Protestantism. The anti-Habsburg coalition included German Protestant princes, the ruling circles of France, Sweden, Denmark, England, Holland and Russia. Many people took part in the war European countries, but fighting took place in Germany. The country suffered so much from bloody battles and destruction that in the next 100 years it almost completely stopped its development, restoring what was lost.

As a result of a long war, the empire lost large territories, and on the remaining lands, the civil strife of the princes led to the formation of more than 360 independent possessions.

On the ruins of the former greatness

Peace of Westphalia

According to the Peace of Westphalia concluded in 1648, the Holy Roman Empire turned into an association of independent states. The Westphalian peace agreement consisted of two documents - an agreement concluded in Munster between the Roman emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and the king of Sweden and her allies, on the other; and the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Roman Emperor and his allies on the one hand, and the Emperor of France and her allies on the other.

According to the decisions of the Westphalian Peace Treaty, the Holy Roman Empire lost most of its territories, which went to the winners in the Thirty Years' War - to Sweden and France. At the same time, Sweden received the lands of Western and parts of Eastern Pomerania, the city of Wismar, the island of Rügen, the Archbishopric of Bremen and the Bishopric of Verden, as well as a substantial contribution. The main ports and harbors of the rivers of Northern Germany, the Baltic and North Seas also departed to Sweden. passed into the possession of France former lands Habsburg dynasty in Alsace. In addition, France received official confirmation of sovereignty over several bishoprics in Lorraine. The German principalities of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Braunschweig-Lüneburg, which participated in the war on the side of the victorious powers, managed to increase their lands through secularized bishoprics and monasteries. The Bavarian duke received the title of elector and the city of Upper Palatinate. In addition, the German princes gained complete independence from the Holy Roman Emperor in domestic and foreign policy. The only exception here was the prohibition of alliances against the emperor himself. According to the Peace of Westphalia, the equality of Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans was declared in Germany, the secularization of church lands, carried out before 1624, was legalized.

The main result of the Peace of Westphalia was the official confirmation of the fragmentation of Germany. The once powerful and strong Holy Roman Empire became only a vast territory with common borders. It was a unique phenomenon in history: on the one hand, there was nominally a Roman emperor, on the other hand, he was constantly in Vienna and had absolutely no power outside the German lands. The Reichstag, represented by princes of independent lands, knights and cities, had much more power.

The last period of the empire

After the Peace of Westphalia, the Holy Roman Emperor lost all power of power. Since the 18th century the empire practically ceased to exist, leaving its legendary name. The French Revolution, having destroyed the foundations of the feudal system, thus dealt a crushing blow to the remnants of the once great state. The last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was Franz II (1792-1806), who was unable to repulse the new aggressor who claimed the lands of the empire. It was the time of the Great Napoleon, who considered himself the real heir and successor to the empire of Charlemagne. In March 1805, Napoleon was even crowned in Milan with the "iron crown" and began to call himself "hereditary emperor of Austria." 1806 considered last year existence of the Holy Roman Empire. It can be said that one huge empire was swallowed up by another, already created by the French emperor.