Cheboksary College

food technology and commerce

ESSAY

in the discipline "World History"

on the topic: China in the Middle Ages

student group PK-5-17

Gurianova Alexandra

Supervisor:

A.G. Botnikova

Cheboksary

C content:

Introduction

Tang dynasty

Song dynasty

Yuan dynasty

Conclusion

Introduction

China in the Middle Ageswas a huge country, comparable in territory, population, cultural achievements with all of Europe. Nomads constantly attacked the country from the north, but China each time revived its former power.

In the history of medieval China, several periods are distinguished, named after the then ruling dynasties of emperors.

Tang dynasty

Tang Dynasty (Li Dynasty) 李 ) ( June 18, 618 - June 4, 907 , whale. 唐朝 , Tanchao ) - Chinese imperial dynasty based Li Yuan . His son, emperor Lee Shimin , after the final suppression of peasant uprisings and separatist feudal forces began to pursue a progressive policy. It is the Tang era that is traditionally considered in China to be the period of the highest power of the country, when it was ahead of the rest of the contemporary countries of the world in its development.

The Li dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, a large landowner from the northern borderlands of China, inhabited by the Tabgach people - Sinicized descendants of the steppe-toba, at one time characterized by the orientalist L. Gumilyov as an ethnic group "equally close to China and the Great Steppe." Li Yuan, together with his son Li Shi-min, won the civil war, the reason for which was the harsh and reckless policy of the last Sui emperor Yang-di ("Fair War"), and soon after his death in 618, he ascended the throne in Chang'an under the dynastic name Gaozu. Subsequently, he was removed from power by Li Shimin, but the dynasty he founded survived and was in power until 907 with a short break in 690-705 (the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, distinguished in the special era of Zhou).

From the very beginning, the Li dynasty relied on the combination of the original Chinese and the steppe principles. The founder of the dynasty himself, whom L. Gumilyov compares in this respect with Alexander the Great, was a man who was well acquainted with the peoples of the Great Steppe, their customs and customs; so were many of the people around him. The first part of the Tang reign became a period of intense cultural exchange between the two regions; the steppe gave Tang China an advanced army in the form of heavy armored cavalry, in turn, the descendants of the nomads were carried away by its wealth and ancient, refined culture. For the nomads, the Tang emperor simultaneously acted as a khan / kagan of the Tabgach people equal to them; It is this perception, in particular, that is enshrined in the epitaph of the Turkic Khan Kul-Tegin, who refers to himself and his people as “kul” (vassals, slaves) of the Tabgach Khagan and the Tabgach people, and not Chinese subjects.

The imperial idea of ​​uniting China and the Steppe under the rule of the Tang emperor determined the domestic and foreign policy of the state for centuries. At the same time, over time, the Tang (Tabgach) court began to be perceived by the ethnic Chinese (Han), who constituted the numerical majority in the Empire, as something alien, and its policy towards the “barbarians”, in particular, patronage of Buddhism, was perceived as unacceptable. According to L. Gumilyov, it was the consistent implementation of this idea of ​​“combining the incongruous” that led the Tang to a rapid rise and flourishing, and to an equally rapid and bloody fall.

Song dynasty

Song Empire (Chinese ex.宋朝 , pinyin: Sòng Cháo, pall.: Song chao) is a state in China that existed from 960 to 1279. The ruling dynasty is Zhao (趙 ), by the name of the family of sovereigns.

Base empire put an end to the fragmentation of China that had continued since the fall of the Tang Dynasty (唐朝 ) in 907. The emergence of the empire was preceded by the era of five dynasties and ten kingdoms (五代十国 ). The turning point in the history of the dynasty is 1127, when the troops of the Jurchen state of Jin captured the capital of the empire, Bianliang. The imperial house was taken captive to Manchuria, but one of the sons of the abdicated monarch managed to escape south to Jiangnan. He moved the capital to Lin'an, and his commander Yue Fei stopped the further advance of the Jurchens to the south. The history of the Song is thus divided into the Northern and Southern periods, respectively, before and after the transfer of the capital.

Southern Song struggle against the Jin state

After the peace treaty of 1141, the Jin Empire did not give up hope of conquering all of China, and the Song at times dreamed of revenge. In 1161, the Jin ruler Hailing-wang gathered an army of 300,000 and invaded the Song, but the Chinese burned the Jin fleet with flamethrowers. The Jurchen ground forces were also defeated. In 1208 the war resumed, the Suns lost several battles and were forced to make peace. In 1217, the Jin invaded the Song, captured many cities, but failed to capture the fortress of Dean, defended by the talented commander Chen Gui. In response, the Chinese captured southern Shandong. In 1234, the Sung contingent participated in the siege of Kaifeng. The Jin Empire fell, but as a result, the Song Empire found itself face to face with the warlike and merciless Mongols.

Mongol invasion

Mongol conquest of the Southern Song Empire

The first conflicts with the Mongols took place in the 1230s. But decisive action began in 1258 - Khan Mongke launched a large-scale offensive. The Chinese army was defeated, but many cities offered fierce resistance. Möngke died in 1259 and the Mongols retreated. However, Möngke's heir Kublai made the conquest of the Song his primary goal. He went on a campaign in 1267, but his army was fettered by the heroic defense of the cities of Xiangyang and Fancheng, which dragged on for five years. In 1275, the Song army was destroyed at Dingjiazhou, and Lin'an fell the following year. In 1279, the remnants of the Sung fleet were destroyed at Yaishan, and by 1280, all of China was captured by the Yuan dynasty.

Yuan dynasty

Empire (in Chinese tradition - dynasty) Yuan (Ikh Yuan Mong. Their Yuan Uls, Great Yuan State, Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus. Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus; Chinese exercise.元朝 , pinyin: Yuáncháo; Vietnamese Nhà Nguyên (Nguyên triều), House (Dynasty) Nguyen) is a Mongolian state, the main part of whose territory was China (1271-1368). Founded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Khan Kublai, who completed the conquest of China in 1279. The dynasty fell in the Red Turban Rebellion of 1351-1368. The official Chinese history of this dynasty is recorded during the subsequent Ming Dynasty and is called "Yuan shi".

Late Yuan

Last years The Yuan dynasty was marked by riots and famine among the population. Over time, the heirs of Khan Kublai lost all their influence on other lands of the former Mongol Empire, and the Mongols outside the Celestial Empire saw them as Chinese. Gradually they lost influence in China. The reigns of the Yuan emperors during this period were short, filled with intrigue and rivalry. Uninterested in government, they were separated from both the army and the common people. China was torn apart by strife and unrest; the criminals ravaged the country without encountering resistance from the weakened Yuan armies.

Despite the merits of his reign, Shidebala reigned for only two years (1321-1323); his reign ended with a coup d'état of five princes. They put Yesun-Temur on the throne, and after an unsuccessful attempt to appease the princes, he was also killed. Prior to the reign of Yesun Temür, China was relatively free from major uprisings after Khubilai's reign. At the beginning of the XIV century, the number of uprisings grew. The emergence of these uprisings and their subsequent suppression was exacerbated by the financial difficulties of the government. The government was forced to take some revenue-raising measures, such as selling positions, raising taxes, and cutting spending on some items.

When Yesun-Temur died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh-Temur was recalled to Dadu by the commander of El-Temur. He was appointed emperor in Dadu, while the son of Yesun-Temur Rajapik ascended the throne in Shangdu with the support of Daulet Shah, the favorite of the late emperor. With the support of princes and officials in northern China and some other members of the dynasty, Tugh Temür eventually defeated the Rajapika (1329) in the civil war. Then Tugh-Temur abdicated in favor of his brother Khoshila, supported by the Chagataid Eljigidei, and announced Dadu's intention to greet him. However, Khoshila died suddenly 4 days after the banquet with Tugh Temür. Presumably, he was poisoned by El-Temur, and Tugh-Temur was returned to the throne. Tugh-Temuru sent his representatives to the western Mongol khanates - the Golden Horde and the Khulaguid state, to be recognized as the supreme ruler of the Mongolian world. However, by and large, in the last three years of his reign, Tugh-Temur was only a puppet of the powerful El-Temur. The latter purged Hoshila's supporters and handed power over to warlords whose despotic rule marked the dynasty's decline.

While the bureaucracy was controlled by El-Temur, Tugh-Temur is known for his cultural contribution. He took a series of measures for Confucianism and the promotion of Chinese cultural values. He patronized the Chinese language and founded the Academy of Literature (Chinese:奎章阁 学士院 ). The academy was responsible for the collection and publication of a number of books, but the most important achievement was the compilation of a huge institutional collection called "Jingshi dadian" (Ch.经 世大典 ). He supported Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism and converted to Buddhism himself.

After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332, followed by the death of Irinjibal at the end of the same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür, the last of Khubilai's nine heirs, was recalled from Guangxi and ascended the throne. Bayan eliminated opposition to the young emperor, then closed the Hanlin Academy and canceled the exams for the position, and in 1340 was executed as a result of intrigues. Togto showed himself as an active politician: he resumed the examination, lowered taxes and continued the construction of the Grand Canal. When he was also executed in 1355 as a result of court intrigues, the central government lost control of the country. A number of Mongol commanders in the north pursued an independent policy (including Bolod Temür, Tsagaan Temür and Khukh Temür).

In the second half of the reign of Togon Temur, the country suffered a series of floods, massive famine, epidemics, public policy dissatisfaction with inflation and forced labor (including the construction of the canal). This served to raise the national liberation movement on the basis of eschatological sentiments. In 1351, it resulted in the so-called. Rise of the Red Bands. In 1356, one of the rebel leaders, Zhu Yuanzhang (the future Hongwu Emperor), occupied Nanjing and established a state apparatus, spreading his power in southern China and eliminating competitors. After this, civil strife among the Mongol rulers in northern China in the 1360s attracted the attention of Zhu Yuanzhang, and in 1368 Beijing fell under the blows of his troops, and Togon Temur with his wife and court fled to northern capital dynasty, Shangdu. In the same year, Zhu Yuanzhang moved his capital from Nanjing to Beijing and proclaimed himself emperor of the Ming Dynasty. The next year, he took Shanda, and Togan Temur fled to Yingchan (Chinese).应 昌 ), where he died in 1370. His son Ayushiridara ascended the throne, proclaiming the Northern Yuan era.

Basalawarmi, Prince of Liang, created a separate pocket of resistance against the Ming forces in Yunnan and Guizhou provinces, but his forces were finally defeated by the Ming in 1381.

Conclusion

The end of the Middle Ages came in the 15th century. At this time, important events took place: the Byzantine Empire, which had existed for almost a thousand years, fell under the blows of the Ottoman Turks, the formation of united states in England and France was completed, the Reconquista ended, the Renaissance began in Italy, Spanish and Portuguese sailors set off in search of new, unknown lands . These travelers had no idea that outside of Europe there were strong states with a high culture, which were also part of the medieval world - China, India, Japan, the states of pre-Columbian America. The Middle Ages were gone. The world was entering the era of modern times.

The Middle Ages were a difficult time. It was time formidable wars, terrible epidemics, blazing bonfires of the Inquisition. But at the same time, it is precisely to the Middle Ages that we owe the appearance of parliament and jury trials, schools and universities, paper and mechanical clocks. It was at that time that outstanding literary works- "Elder Edda", "Song of Side", "Song of Roland", "Divine Comedy", Chinese and Japanese poetry. We never cease to be amazed at the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals erected in the Middle Ages, American pyramid temples, Chinese pagodas, Muslim mosques, striking in their beauty, grandeur and grace.

The Middle Ages have passed, but have not disappeared without a trace. It left a deep imprint on human culture, created the foundation on which the modern world stands.

Feudal society in China began to emerge in the III-IV centuries, much earlier than in Europe. All lands were the property of the emperor. Peasants rented land from the state and paid money for it to the treasury. “Strong families” (large landowners), who had relative independence, increased the number of peasants dependent on them, thereby reducing the number of the taxable population. Therefore, the government from time to time confiscated the lands of these families and distributed them among the peasants. As a result, state feudalism developed in China. The state handed out land and subject to service in the army. The owners of these lands paid only rent to the treasury, and the income went into their pocket.
Feudal lords gradually gaining strength from the 8th century began to seize state lands. Meanwhile, the raids of the Turkic tribes from the north did not stop. At the end of the 6th century, the warlord Yan Zan founded the dynasty
Sui (586-618) and created a single state with the capital Chang'an. In 589, he also annexed South China. During the reign of this dynasty, a 1700 km long Grand Canal was dug, connecting the Yangtze and the Yellow River. The unification of all of China contributed to the development Agriculture, crafts and trade. In 618, the Sui dynasty was replaced by the Tang dynasty. The emperor of the Tang Dynasty was called the "son of Heaven". This dynasty took over Korea and Vietnam, controlled the Silk Road until Central Asia. Since 751, after the defeat of the Arabs, China lost this right. Existence centralized state during the reign of Sui and Tang had a positive impact on the country's economy. Beginning in the 8th century, peasants paid dues to both the treasury and the feudal lord. The life of a peasant was hard. When the cup of patience overflowed, the peasants rose to revolt in 874 under the leadership of Huang Chao. The rebels captured the cities of Canton and Chang'an. Having proclaimed himself emperor, Huang Chao abolished taxes and distributed grain from state granaries to the peasants. However, the feudal lords called for help from nomadic tribes from the north, who in 884 defeated the rebels. Huang Chao died. But even after that, for about 20 years, the struggle of the peasants continued in various parts of the empire. During the uprising, part of the lands of the murdered feudal lords passed into the hands of the peasants. The life of the masses was temporarily eased. After the uprising of Huang Chao, internecine wars broke out in the country. There were five dynasties in northern China. In 960, the Song Dynasty established itself in China. In the northeast of China, the Jurchen tribes also formed their own state and called it the “Jin Empire” (golden). Long wars with the Jurchens weakened China. Under an agreement between the Song and Jin, the captured Chinese lands remained with the Jurchens. The Chinese emperor recognized himself as a vassal of the Jurchens and undertook to pay them a huge tribute in silver and silk.
From the beginning of the XIII century, the conquest of China by the Mongols began. And only as a result of the "red bandage uprising" in 1368, the Mongol yoke was put to an end. The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) came to power. During the first years of its reign, this dynasty implemented progressive reforms:

• peasants were exempted from taxes and duties for three years;
• the lands taken from the Mongol feudal lords were distributed to the peasants;
• taxes on artisans and merchants were reduced.

This contributed to the economic upsurge in the XV-XVI centuries. In those years, the borders of China included the hinterland of modern
China and Manchuria. Korea, Vietnam and Tibet were dependent on China. Under the Ming Dynasty, the land was mostly state-owned. There was a form of ownership called "special" or "folk". The feudal lords and small proprietors who owned such land paid tax to the state. Beijing and Nanjing were the two capitals. New cities were also founded - Shanghai and others.
In the years 1626-1643, taking advantage of the weakening of the Ming Dynasty, the Jurchens overcame the Great Wall of China three times and, having killed the population, got a lot of booty. In 1626, an uprising broke out in Shanxi Province. Expanding, this rebellion ended the Ming dynasty in 1644. To suppress the uprising, the Chinese feudal lords called for the help of the Manchus, who for a long time entrenched themselves in the country. The Manchu dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911. The country was ruled by emperors from the Qin dynasty. They were called Bogdykhans and they relied on the "eight banner army". The Manchus and the Chinese who proved their loyalty to them served in this army.

For thousands of years, a huge cultural China existed surrounded by barbarian nomadic tribes in the North and relatively small and weak state formations in the South and East. the earth and the rest of humanity, from which the cultured Chinese have nothing to learn. The complex of ethno-civilizational superiority was reflected even in such a pragmatic sphere of activity as diplomacy.

Official Chinese diplomacy proceeded from the concept of "predetermined vassalage" of the rest of the world from China, since "Heaven is one over the world, the Mandate of Heaven is issued to the Chinese emperor, therefore, the rest of the world is a vassal of China ... The emperor received a clear order from Heaven to rule the Chinese and foreigners.. "Since Heaven and Earth have existed, there has been a division into subjects and sovereigns, lower and higher. Therefore, there is a certain order in China's relations with foreigners."

The hieroglyph "fan" speaks about the essence of such a "certain order", denoting at the same time a foreigner, a stranger, a subordinate, a savage. According to the Chinese, their country is a circle inscribed in the square of the world, and in the corners of the square there are the aforementioned fan, which cannot be treated humanely, since "the principle of morality is to control China, the principle of attack is to control the barbarians." The corners of the world square conquered by China were given the corresponding names: Andong (Pacified East), Annam (Pacified South).

The Chinese elite had knowledge of the world, but it was fundamentally ignored: the entire non-Chinese world was regarded as something peripheral and monotonous, the diversity of the world and reality were obscured by chauvinistic Chinese-centric dogma.

In practice, the apologists for the "predetermined vassalage" were satisfied with nominal vassalage: the main duties of the "vassal" were visiting Beijing (officially interpreted as a manifestation of loyalty) with gifts to the Chinese emperor (treated as a tribute) and receiving by the "vassal" even more valuable gifts from the emperor, called "mercy and salary."

This phenomenon of Chinese diplomacy is explained by the fact that the concept of "predetermined vassalage" was designed not so much for foreigners as for the Chinese themselves: the appearance of vassalage is additional evidence of the sanctity of the power of the dynasty, which thus convinced the people that before it "all foreigners obeyed in awe" , "countless states rush to become vassals ... to bring tribute and see the Son of Heaven." Thus, in China, foreign policy is at the service of domestic policy directly, and not indirectly, as in the West. Parallel to the conviction of the masses in the desire of most countries to "join civilization," a feeling of external danger from inveterate barbarians from the North was also inflated to unite society and justify harsh tax exploitation: "The absence of external enemies leads to the collapse of the state."

In order to strengthen the psychological and ideological impact of diplomacy in the right direction on foreigners and their own people, the ceremonial side of diplomatic contacts was absolutized. In accordance with the diplomatic ritual of kou-tou, which lasted until 1858, foreign representatives had to fulfill a series of conditions of an audience with the Chinese emperor that humiliated their personal and state dignity, including 3 kneeling and 9 prostrations.

In 1660, the Qing emperor commented on the arrival of the Russian mission of N. Spafaria in Beijing in the following way: “The Russian tsar called himself the Great Khan and in general there is a lot of immodest in his letter. the western outskirts and is not civilized enough, but in the sending of the ambassador one can see the desire to fulfill the duty. Therefore, the White Tsar and his ambassador are ordered to reward mercifully." N. Spafariy's refusal to kneel when receiving the emperor's gifts was regarded as "insufficient appeal of Russians to civilization." The Chinese dignitary frankly declared to the Russian ambassador that "Russia is not a vassal, but the custom cannot be changed." To which Spafarius replied: "Your custom differs from ours: we go to honor, and you go to dishonor." The ambassador left China with the conviction that "it would be easier for them to lose their kingdom than to leave their custom."

While official diplomacy played the role of an attribute of China's imperial greatness, the specific tasks of foreign policy were solved by the methods of secret unofficial diplomacy, that is, Chinese diplomacy - with a double bottom (secret diplomacy in other countries solves only a few delicate specific tasks). The secret diplomacy of old China is imbued with the spirit of legalism with its priority of state interests at any cost (the end justifies the means) and proceeds from the real state of affairs, and not from the dogmas of official policy.

Since war has always been a burden for huge agricultural China, he always proceeded from the premise that "diplomacy is an alternative to war": "first break the plans of the enemy, then his alliances, then himself." Diplomacy - a game without rules - China quite successfully turned into a game by its own rules, using a stratagem approach as a diplomatic karate, fatal for the opponents of the Celestial Empire. Stratagem - a strategic plan in which a trap or trick is laid for the enemy. Diplomatic stratagem - the sum of purposeful diplomatic and other measures designed to implement a long-term strategic plan for solving the cardinal tasks of foreign policy; philosophy of intrigue, the art of misleading, active foresight: the ability not only to calculate, but also to program the moves in a political game (see Harro von Zenger's monograph).

The tools of Chinese diplomacy consisted not only of ingenious traps, but also of specific foreign policy doctrines developed for all cases of dangerous international life:

• - horizontal strategy - at the very beginning and in the decline of the dynasty. Weak China enters into alliances with neighbors against the distant for China, but close neighbors enemy. Thus, the neighbors are distracted in the opposite direction from China;
• - vertical strategy - at the apogee of the dynasty, strong China attacks its neighbors "in alliance with those far away against those close";
• - combinational strategy of changing allies like gloves;
• - a combination of military and diplomatic methods: "the pen and the sword must act simultaneously";
• - "the use of poison as an antidote" (barbarians against barbarians);
• - simulation of weakness: "pretending to be a girl, rush like a tiger into open doors."

A constant topic of discussion in the Chinese leadership was the question of the size of the empire. From an ecological point of view, China was a well-defined natural zone, which called into question the expediency of annexing new territories unsuitable for farming in the ways familiar to the Chinese. On the other hand, the annexation of these new territories created a buffer zone between the forward defense line and the agricultural metropolis, in which the vast majority of the country's population was concentrated. Here, the economic calculations of maintaining the front line of defense and the army, "the wings, claws and teeth of the state," had their say.

Most historians believe that with the fall of the Han Empire at the turn of the II-III centuries. In China, there is a change of eras: the ancient period of the country's history ends and the Middle Ages begins. The first stage of early feudalism went down in history as the time of the Three Kingdoms (220-280). On the territory of the country there were three states, the power in which was approaching a military dictatorship. But already at the end of the III century. political stability in China is again being lost, and it becomes an easy prey for the nomadic tribes that poured in here, mainly settling in the northwestern regions of the country. From that moment on, for two and a half centuries, China was divided into northern and southern parts, which affected its subsequent development.

Political changes in China III-VI centuries. are closely related to shifts in ethnic development. Although foreigners penetrated before, but it was in the 4th century. becomes a time of mass invasions, comparable with the Great Migration of Peoples in Europe. The tribes that came from the central regions of Asia settled not only on the northern and western outskirts, but also on the Central Plain, mixing with the indigenous Chinese population. In the south, the processes of assimilation of the non-Chinese population were faster and less dramatic, leaving significant areas uncolonized. This was reflected in the mutual isolation of the parties, and two main dialects of the Chinese language developed in the language.

The process of ethnic consolidation of the Chinese, which began in the 7th century, early XII 1st century leads to the formation of the Chinese people. Ethnic self-consciousness manifests itself in the singling out of the Chinese state, which opposes foreign countries, in the spread of the universal self-name "Han Ren" (Han people). The bureaucracy has grown. The highest government institution was the Department of Departments, which headed the six leading executive bodies of the country: Chinov, Taxes, Rituals, Military, Judicial and Public Works. Along with them, the Imperial Secretariat and the Imperial Chancellery were established. The power of the head of state, officially called the Son of Heaven and the emperor, was hereditary and legally unlimited.

The economy of China in the 7th-12th centuries. based on agricultural production. The land use system included the state land fund with imperial estates, large and medium-sized private land ownership, small peasant land ownership and estates of state land holders. The development of trade was facilitated by the introduction at the end of the 6th century. standards of measures and weights and the issuance of a copper coin of a fixed weight. Tax revenues from trade have become a tangible item of government revenue.

In Chinese medieval society, the demarcation went along the lines of aristocrats and non-aristocrats, the service class and commoners, free and dependent. The peak of the influence of aristocratic clans falls on the 7th-8th centuries. But by the beginning of the XI century. the power of the aristocracy is weakening and the process of merging it with the bureaucratic bureaucracy begins.

There were three religious doctrines in medieval China: Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Over time, the persecution of Buddhism intensified and neo-Confucianism was established, which claimed to be the only ideology that substantiated the social hierarchy and correlated it with the concept of individual duty.

In 1280, China was completely dominated by the Mongols. With accession to the throne Khan Khubilai(1215-1294) the rate was moved to Beijing. In 1271, all the possessions of the great khan were declared Yuan Empire according to the Chinese model. Mongol domination in the main part of China lasted for more than a century and is noted by Chinese sources as the most difficult time for the country. Despite the military power, the Yuan empire was not distinguished by internal strength, it was shaken by civil strife, as well as the resistance of the local Chinese population, the uprising of the secret Buddhist society "White Lotus".

A characteristic feature was the division of the country's population into four unequal categories. The Chinese of the north and the inhabitants of the south of the country were considered, respectively, the people of the third and fourth grade after the Mongols themselves and immigrants from the Islamic countries of western and central Asia. Thus, the ethnic situation of the era was characterized not only by national oppression by the Mongols, but also by the legalized opposition of northern and southern Chinese. The dominance of the Yuan Empire rested on the power of the army. Each city contained a garrison, and in Beijing there was a khan's guard of 12 thousand people. Tibet and Korea were in vassal dependence.

Ming China (1368-1644). Erupted in the middle of the XIV century. the anti-Mongol uprisings very quickly revealed the internal weakness of the Yuan regime. Among the rebels, the greatest threat to the Yuan court was the detachments of the so-called "red troops". Their leader managed, having defeated the Mongol troops, to proclaim himself emperor of a new dynasty - the Ming (1368-1644).

In this era, the Mongol domination was finally abolished and the foundations of the economic and political systems, corresponding to traditional Chinese ideas about the ideal statehood. In the Ming era, neo-Confucianism occupies a dominant position in religion. From the end of the XIV century.

the desire of the authorities to put restrictions on Buddhism and Taoism is traced, which led to the expansion of religious sectarianism. Other features of the country's religious life were the Chineseization of local Muslims and the spread of local cults among the people.

The peak of the power of the Ming Empire fell on the first third of the 15th century, but by the end of the century, negative phenomena began to grow. The growth of crisis phenomena begins with the gradual weakening of imperial power, the concentration of land in the hands of large private owners, and the aggravation of the financial situation in the country. The emperors were weak rulers, and temporary workers ran all the affairs at the courts. The center of the political opposition was the Chamber of Censors-Procurators, whose members demanded reforms and accused the arbitrariness of the temporary workers. Activities of this kind met with a severe rebuff from the emperors. A typical picture was when another influential official, submitting an incriminating document, was simultaneously preparing for death, waiting for a silk lace from the emperor with an order to hang himself.

Period XVI - the first half of the XVII centuries. It was characterized by a protracted crisis, which by the end of the era had acquired a comprehensive character. Starting with changes in the economy and social structure, the crisis manifested itself most visibly in the area of ​​domestic politics.

The turning point in the history of Ming China is associated with a powerful peasant uprising of 1628-1644. led by Li Tzu-chen. In 1644, his troops occupied Beijing, and he himself declared himself emperor.

Thus, the history of medieval China is a real kaleidoscope of events: a frequent change of ruling dynasties, long periods of domination by conquerors, who, as a rule, came from the north and soon dissolved among the local population, having adopted not only the language and way of life, but also the classical Chinese model of governing the country. . Not a single state of the medieval East could achieve such a level of control over the country and society, which was in China. Not the least role in this was played by the political isolation of the country, as well as the ideological conviction that prevailed among the administrative elite about the chosenness of the Middle Empire, whose natural vassals are all other powers of the world.

From the 16th century the penetration of Europeans into the country begins. As in India, the championship belonged to the Portuguese. Their first possession on one of the South Chinese islands was Macau (Maomen). From the second half of the XVII century. the country is flooded by the Dutch and the British, who assisted the Manchus in conquering China. At the end of the XVII century. in the suburbs of Guangzhou, the British founded one of the first continental trading posts, which became the center for the distribution of British goods.