Participants of the Second World War. Participants of the Second World War States that took part in the Second World War. In total, 62 states out of 73 independent states that existed at that time participated in World War II. 11 ... ... Wikipedia

Map of countries that participated in World War II. The countries of the anti-fascist coalition are shown in green (light green shows the countries that entered the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor), the countries of the Nazi bloc in blue, and the countries ... ... Wikipedia

Aviation of the First World War air ... Wikipedia

This table lists the main events that took place during the First World War. Legend Western front Eastern front Italian front Caucasian front Middle East front Balkan front Colonial front Military operations at sea ... ... Wikipedia

Main article: First World War The machine gun became one of the decisive technologies during the First World War. British Vickers machine gun on the Western Front. The technology of the First World War corresponds to ... Wikipedia

Main article: History of cryptography Photocopy of the Zimmermann telegram During World War I, cryptography, and cryptanalysis in particular, becomes one of the tools of warfare. Known facts ... Wikipedia

Contents 1 Major military leaders 1.1 France 1.2 Russia ... Wikipedia

The reliability of this section of the article has been questioned. It is necessary to verify the accuracy of the facts stated in this section. There may be explanations on the talk page ... Wikipedia

Strategic plan of Austria-Hungary on the eve of World War I armed forces Austria-Hungary, in case of a big European war. An outstanding military strategist and head of the General Staff of the Austrian ... ... Wikipedia

Books

• A History of the First World War, Liddell Hart Basil Henry. Sir Basil Liddell Garth is the most famous English military historian and theorist of military art, who had a great influence on the development of the theory of strategy in general. "History of the First World War" ...
• History of the First World War 1914-1918, B. Liddell Hart. Sir Basil Liddell Hart is the most famous English military historian and theorist of military art, who had a great influence on the development of the theory of strategy in general. History of the First World War...

TAKE PART IN THE FATE OF SERBIA

After the presentation of the Austrian ultimatum, the Prince Regent of Serbia, Alexander, sent an urgent telegram to the Russian emperor, in which, in particular, he wrote: “Among the conditions are those that will require a change in our legislation, and for this we need time. The deadline is too short. The Austro-Hungarian army is concentrating near our border and can attack us after the deadline. We cannot defend ourselves. Therefore, we beg Your Majesty to help us as soon as possible. Your Majesty has given us so much evidence of his precious favor, and we firmly hope that this appeal will find a response in his Slavic and noble heart. I am the spokesman for the feelings of the Serbian people, who, in these difficult times, beg Your Majesty to take part in the fate of Serbia.”

Nicholas II inscribed on the text of the telegram: “A very modest and worthy telegram. What to answer him?

MAURICE PALEOLOGUE ON THE TERRITORIAL CLAIMS OF NICHOLAS

How, Your Majesty, do you imagine the general foundations of the world?

After a moment's thought, the emperor replies:

The most important thing that we must establish is the destruction of German militarism, the end of the nightmare in which Germany has been keeping us for more than forty years. Every possibility of revenge must be taken away from the German people. If we allow ourselves to be moved to pity, it will be a new war in a little while. As for the exact terms of the peace, I hasten to tell you that I approve in advance everything that France and England consider it necessary to demand in their own interests,

I am grateful to Your Majesty for this statement, and I am confident for my part that the Government of the Republic will meet in the most sympathetic way the wishes of the Imperial Government.

This prompts me to tell you my thought in its entirety. But I will only speak for myself personally, because I do not want to decide such questions without listening to the advice of my ministers and generals.<...>

This is how, approximately, I imagine the results that Russia has the right to expect from the war and without which my people would not understand the labors that I forced them to endure. Germany will have to agree to the correction of the borders in East Prussia. My General base I would like this correction to reach the banks of the Vistula; this seems excessive to me; I'll see. Posen and perhaps a part of Silesia will be necessary for the reconstruction of Poland. Galicia and the northern part of Bukovina will allow Russia to reach its natural limits - the Carpathians ... In Asia Minor, I will naturally have to deal with the Armenians; it will not be possible, of course, to leave them under the Turkish yoke. Should I annex Armenia? I will add it only at the special request of the Armenians. If not, I will set up an independent government for them. Finally, I will have to secure free passage for my empire through the straits.

Since he pauses at these words, I ask him to explain himself. He continues:

My thoughts are still far from established. After all, the question is so important ... There are still two conclusions to which I always return. First, that the Turks must be expelled from Europe; the second is that Constantinople must henceforth become a neutral city, under international administration. It goes without saying that the Mohammedans would receive a full guarantee of respect for their shrines and graves. Northern Thrace, up to the Enos-Media line, would have been annexed to Bulgaria. The rest, from this line to the seashore, excluding the vicinity of Constantinople, would have been given to Russia.

Paleolog M. Tsarist Russia during the World War. M., 1991.

Georges Maurice Palaiologos - French diplomat; in 1914 he was the ambassador of France in St. Petersburg

THE HIGHEST MANIFESTO ON RUSSIA'S ENTRY INTO THE WAR

By the grace of God, we, NICHOLAS II,
Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia,
king of Poland Grand Duke Finnish
and other, and other, and other.

We declare to all our faithful subjects:

Following its historical precepts, Russia, united by faith and blood with the Slavic peoples, has never looked at their fate indifferently. With complete unanimity and special strength, the fraternal feelings of the Russian people for the Slavs have awakened in recent days, when Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with demands that are obviously unacceptable for the Sovereign State. Despising the compliant and peaceful response of the Serbian government, rejecting the benevolent mediation of Russia, Austria hastily launched an armed attack, opening the bombardment of defenseless Belgrade.

Forced, by virtue of the circumstances, to take the necessary precautions, We ordered that the army and navy be brought to martial law, but, cherishing the blood and property of Our subjects, We made every effort to achieve a peaceful outcome of the negotiations that had begun. In the midst of friendly relations, Germany, allied with Austria, contrary to Our hopes for an age-old good neighborhood and not heeding Our assurance that the measures taken have no hostile aims, began to seek their immediate cancellation and, having met with a refusal of this demand, suddenly declared war on Russia.

Now it is no longer necessary to intercede only for the unjustly offended country related to Us, but to protect the honor, dignity, integrity of Russia and its position among the Great Powers.

We unshakably believe that all Our faithful subjects will unanimously and selflessly stand up to defend the Russian Land.

In the terrible hour of testing, let them be forgotten, internal strife. May the unity of the Tsar with His people be strengthened even more closely, and may Russia, which has risen as one man, repulse the daring onslaught of the enemy.

With deep faith in the righteousness of Our cause and humble hope in the Almighty Providence, We prayerfully call on Holy Russia and Our valiant troops for God's blessing.

Given in St. Petersburg, on the twentieth day of July, in the summer of the Nativity of Christ, one thousand nine hundred and fourteenth, while Our reign is in the twentieth.

On the original of His Own Imperial Majesty is signed by hand:

NIKOLAI

BAYONE AND FEATHER

Vladimir Mayakovsky

War is declared

“Evening! Evening! Evening!
Italy! Germany! Austria!"
And on the square, darkly outlined by black,
a stream of crimson blood spilled!

The coffee house broke the muzzle into the blood,
the beastly cry of Bagrim:
"Let's poison the games of Rein with blood!
Thundering cannonballs on the marble of Rome!

From the sky, torn on bayonets sting,
the tears of the stars were sifted like flour in a sieve,
and soles of compressed pity squealed:
"Ah, let go, let go, let go!"

Bronze generals on a faceted plinth
they prayed: “Unchain, and we will go!”
The kisses of the farewell cavalry clicked,
and the infantry wanted to kill - victory.

The towering city was born in a dream
the laughing voice of a cannon bass,
and red snow falls from the west
juicy shreds of human meat.

The company swells at the square behind the company,
the angry veins bulge on the forehead.
"Wait, checkers on silk cocotte
wipe, wipe in the boulevards of Vienna!

Newspapermen were tearing themselves up: “Buy evening!
Italy! Germany! Austria!"
And from the night, darkly outlined by black,
crimson blood flowed and flowed stream.

Both sides pursued predatory goals. Germany sought to weaken Great Britain and France, seize new colonies on the African continent, seize Poland and the Baltic States from Russia, Austria-Hungary - to establish itself on the Balkan Peninsula, Great Britain and France - to keep their colonies and weaken Germany as a competitor in the world market, Russia - to seize Galicia and take control of the Black Sea straits.

The reasons

Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted German support. The latter believed that the war would take on a local character if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if she helps Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military formations be allowed into Serbian territory in order to prevent hostile actions together with Serbian forces. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. After the Germans invaded Belgium on August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war.

The course of the war

1914

The war consisted of five campaigns. During the first campaign in the city, Germany invaded Belgium and the northern regions of France, but was defeated in the battle of the Marne. Russia captured part of East Prussia and Galicia (the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia), but then was defeated as a result of the German and Austro-Hungarian counter-offensive. As a result, there was a transition from maneuverable to positional forms of struggle.

1915

Italy, the disruption of the German plan to withdraw Russia from the war and bloody inconclusive battles on the Western Front.

During this campaign, Germany and Austria-Hungary, concentrating their main efforts on the Russian front, carried out the so-called Gorlitsky breakthrough and ousted Russian troops from Poland and part of the Baltic states, but they were defeated in the Vilna operation and were forced to switch to positional defense.

On the Western Front, both sides conducted a strategic defense. Private operations (at Ypres, in Champagne and Artois) were not successful, despite the use of poison gases.

On the Southern Front, Italian troops launched an unsuccessful operation against Austria-Hungary on the Isonzo River. The German-Austrian troops managed to defeat Serbia. Anglo-French troops successfully carried out the Thessaloniki operation in Greece, but failed to capture the Dardanelles. On the Transcaucasian front, as a result of the Alashkert, Hamadan and Sarykamysh operations, Russia reached the approaches to Erzurum.

1916

The campaign was connected with the entry of Rumania into the war and the waging of an exhausting positional war on all fronts. Germany again shifted efforts against France, but did not succeed in the battle of Verdun. The operations of the Anglo-French troops on the Somna were also unsuccessful, despite the use of tanks.

On the Italian front, the Austro-Hungarian troops undertook the Trentino offensive operation, but were driven back by the counteroffensive of the Italian troops. On the Eastern Front, the troops of the Southwestern Russian Front conducted a successful operation in Galicia on a wide front with a length of up to 550 km (Brusilovsky breakthrough) and advanced 60-120 km, occupied the eastern regions of Austria-Hungary, which forced the enemy to transfer up to 34 divisions to this front from the Western and Italian fronts.

The decisive Battle of Jutland took place on the Baltic Sea. As a result of the campaign, conditions were created for the Entente to seize the strategic initiative.

1917

The campaign was connected with the US entry into the war, Russia's revolutionary exit from the war, and the conduct of a number of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Operation Nivelle, operations in the Messines region, on Ypres, near Verdun, near Cambrai). These operations, despite the use in them of large forces of artillery, tanks and aviation, practically did not change the general situation in the Western European theater of operations. In the Atlantic, at this time, Germany launched an unrestricted submarine war, during which both sides suffered heavy losses.

1918

The city's campaign was characterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive by the armed forces of the Entente. Initially, Germany undertook the Allied March offensive in Picardy, private operations in Flanders, on the rivers Aisne and Marne. But due to lack of strength, they did not develop.

From the second half of the year, with the entry into the war of the United States, the allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miyel, Marne), during which they liquidated the results of the German offensive, and in September, they launched a general offensive, forcing Germany to surrender ( Compiègne truce).

Results

The final terms of the peace treaty were worked out at the Paris Conference of 1919-1920. ; during the sessions, agreements on five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28; 2) Saint-Germain peace treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly peace treaty with Bulgaria on November 27; 4) Trianon peace treaty with Hungary on June 4; 5) Sevres peace treaty with Turkey on August 20. Subsequently, according to the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, amendments were made to the Treaty of Sevres.

As a result of the First World War, the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were liquidated. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were divided, while Russia and Germany, having ceased to be monarchies, were cut down territorially and economically weakened. Revanchist sentiment in Germany led to World War II. The First World War accelerated the development of social processes, was one of the prerequisites that led to revolutions in Russia, Germany, Hungary, Finland. As a result, a new military-political situation was created in the world.

In total, the First World War lasted 51 months and 2 weeks. It covered the territories of Europe, Asia and Africa, the waters of the Atlantic, the North, Baltic, Black and Mediterranean seas. This is the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. Two-thirds of the world's population participated in the war. The number of warring armies exceeded 37 million people. The total number of those mobilized into the armed forces amounted to about 70 million people. The length of the fronts was up to 2.5-4 thousand km. The casualties of the parties amounted to about 9.5 million killed and 20 million wounded.

In the war, new types of troops were developed and widely used: aviation, armored troops, anti-aircraft troops, anti-tank weapons, and submarine forces. New forms and methods of armed struggle began to be used: army and front-line operations, breaking through the fortifications of the fronts. New strategic categories arose: operational deployment of the Armed Forces, operational cover, frontier battles, initial and subsequent periods of the war.

Used materials

• Dictionary "War and Peace in Terms and Definitions", World War I
• Encyclopedia "Circumnavigation"

global conflict XX century, which influenced the entire world history. Prerequisites for the conflict, its course and outcome.

World War I: the tragedy of the turn of the century

At the beginning of the 20th century, disagreements between world powers reached their peak. A comparatively long period without major European conflicts (since about the 1870s) allowed contradictions to accumulate between the leading world powers. There was no single mechanism for resolving such issues, which inevitably led to "detente". At that time, it could only be war.

Background and background of the First World War

The prehistory of the First World War is rooted in the 19th century, when the German Empire, which gained strength, entered into colonial competition with other world powers. Late to the colonial division, Germany often had to enter into conflicts with other countries in order to secure a "piece of the pie" of the African and Asian capital markets.

On the other hand, the decrepit Ottoman Empire also caused a lot of inconvenience to the European powers, who were eager to take part in the division of its inheritance. This tension eventually culminated in the Tripolitan War (in which Italy took possession of Libya, formerly held by the Turks) and in the two Balkan Wars, during which Slavic nationalism in the Balkans reached its highest point.

Closely followed the situation in the Balkans and Austria-Hungary. Losing prestige of the empire, it was important to regain respect and consolidate heterogeneous national groups in its composition. It was for this purpose, as well as for an important strategic foothold from which Serbia could be threatened, that Austria occupied Bosnia in 1908, and later included it in its composition.

At the beginning of the 20th century, two military-political blocs almost completely took shape in Europe: the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy). These two alliances united states primarily in terms of their foreign policy goals. Thus, the Entente was mainly interested in maintaining the colonial redivision of the world, with minor changes in its favor (for example, the division of the colonial empire of Germany), while Germany and Austria-Hungary wanted a complete redivision of the colonies, the achievement of economic and military hegemony in Europe and expanding their markets.

Thus, by 1914 the situation in Europe had become quite tense. The interests of the great powers clashed in almost all areas: trade, economic, military and diplomatic. In fact, already in the spring of 1914, the war became inevitable, and all that was needed was a "push", a pretext that would lead to a conflict.

June 28, 1914 in the city of Sarajevo (Bosnia) was killed the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, along with his wife. The killer was Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip, who belonged to the Young Bosnia organization. Austrian reaction was not long in coming. Already on July 23, the Austrian government, believing that Serbia was behind the Young Bosnia organization, presented the Serbian government with an ultimatum, according to which Serbia was required to stop any anti-Austrian actions, ban anti-Austrian organizations, and also allow the Austrian police to enter the country to investigation.

The Serbian government, rightly believing that this ultimatum was an aggressive diplomatic attempt by Austria-Hungary to limit or completely destroy Serbian sovereignty, decided to satisfy almost all Austrian demands except for one: the admission of the Austrian police to the territory of Serbia was clearly unacceptable. This refusal was enough for the Austro-Hungarian government to accuse Serbia of insincerity and preparation of provocations against Austria-Hungary and start concentrating troops on the border with it. Two days later, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.

Goals and plans of the parties in the First World War

The military doctrine of Germany at the beginning of the First World War was the well-known "Schlieffen Plan". The plan involved inflicting a swift, crushing defeat on France, as in 1871. The French campaign was supposed to be completed within 40 days, before Russia could mobilize and concentrate its army on the eastern borders of the German Empire. After the defeat of France, the German command planned to quickly transfer troops to the Russian borders and launch a victorious offensive there. The victory, therefore, had to be achieved in a very short time - from four months to six months.

The plans of Austria-Hungary consisted of a victorious offensive against Serbia and, at the same time, a strong defense against Russia in Galicia. After the defeat of the Serbian army, it was supposed to transfer all available troops against Russia and, together with Germany, carry out its defeat.

The military plans of the Entente also provided for the achievement of a military victory in the shortest possible time. So. It was assumed that Germany would not be able to withstand a war on two fronts for any long time, especially with the active offensive actions of France and Russia on land and the naval blockade by Great Britain.

Beginning of World War I - August 1914

Russia, which traditionally supported Serbia, could not remain aloof from the outbreak of the conflict. On July 29, a telegram from Emperor Nicholas II was sent to Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, proposing to resolve the Austro-Serbian conflict through international arbitration in The Hague. However, the German Kaiser, fascinated by the idea of ​​hegemony in Europe, left his cousin's telegram unanswered.

Meanwhile, mobilization began in the Russian Empire. It was initially carried out exclusively against Austria-Hungary, but after Germany also clearly indicated its position, mobilization measures became universal. The reaction of the German Empire to the Russian mobilization was an ultimatum demand under the threat of war to stop these massive preparations. However, it was no longer possible to stop mobilization in Russia. As a result, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia.

Simultaneously with these events, the German General Staff initiated the implementation of the Schlieffen Plan. On the morning of August 1, German troops invaded Luxembourg and the next day completely occupied the state. At the same time, an ultimatum was presented to the Belgian government. It consisted in demanding the unhindered passage of German troops through the territory of the Belgian state for operations against France. However, the Belgian government refused the ultimatum.

A day later, on August 3, 1914, Germany declared war on France, and the next day on Belgium. At the same time, Great Britain entered the war on the side of Russia and France. On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. Italy unexpectedly for countries tripartite alliance refused to join the war.

World War I flares up - August-November 1914

By the beginning of the First World War, the German army was not fully prepared for active hostilities. Nevertheless, already two days after the declaration of war, Germany managed to capture the cities of Kalisz and Czestochowa, in Poland. At the same time, Russian troops with the forces of two armies (1st and 2nd) launched an offensive in East Prussia with the aim of capturing Koenigsberg and leveling the front line from the north in order to eliminate the unsuccessful configuration of the pre-war borders.

Initially, the Russian offensive developed quite successfully, but soon, due to the uncoordinated actions of the two Russian armies, the 1st Army came under a powerful German flank attack and lost about half of its personnel. The commander of the army, Samsonov, shot himself, and by September 3, 1914, the army itself retreated to its original positions. From the beginning of September, Russian troops in the northwestern direction went on the defensive.

At the same time, the Russian army launched a major offensive against the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia. On this sector of the front, five Russian armies were opposed by four Austro-Hungarian ones. The fighting here initially developed not entirely favorable for the Russian side: the Austrian troops put up fierce resistance on the southern flank, due to which the Russian army was forced to retreat to their original positions in mid-August. However, soon, after fierce battles, the Russian army managed to capture Lvov on August 21. After that, the Austrian army began to withdraw in a southwestern direction, which soon turned into a real flight. The catastrophe in front of the Austro-Hungarian troops rose to its full height. It was not until mid-September that the offensive of the Russian army in Galicia ended about 150 kilometers west of Lvov. In the rear of the Russian troops was the strategically important fortress of Przemysl, in which about 100 thousand Austrian soldiers took refuge. The siege of the fortress continued until 1915.

After the events in East Prussia and Galicia, the German command decided to go on the offensive in order to eliminate the Warsaw salient and level the front line by 1914. Already on September 15, the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation began, during which German troops came close to Warsaw, but with powerful counterattacks, the Russian army managed to push them back to their original position.

In the West, on August 4, German troops launched an offensive into Belgian territory. Initially, the Germans did not meet with serious defense, and pockets of resistance were managed by their forward detachments. On August 20, having occupied Brussels, the Belgian capital, the German army came into contact with French and British forces. Thus began the so-called Frontier Battle. During the battle, the German army managed to inflict a serious defeat on the Allied forces and capture the north of France and most of Belgium.

By the beginning of September 1914, the situation on the Western Front for the Allies became threatening. German troops were 100 kilometers from Paris, and the French government fled to Bordeaux. However, at the same time, the Germans were already acting with full exertion of forces, which were fading away. To deliver the final blow, the Germans decided to carry out a deep bypass of the Allied forces covering Paris from the north. However, the flanks of the German strike group were not covered, which was what the allied leadership took advantage of. As a result of this battle, part of the German troops was defeated, and the chance to take Paris in the fall of 1914 was missed. The "Miracle on the Marne" allowed the Allies to regroup their forces and build a strong defense.

After the failure near Paris, the German command launched an offensive to the coast of the North Sea in order to envelop the Anglo-French troops. Simultaneously with them, the Allied troops were moving to the sea. This period, which lasted from mid-September to mid-November 1914, was called the "Run to the Sea".

In the Balkan theater of operations, events for the Central Powers developed extremely unsuccessfully. From the very beginning of the war, the Serbian army put up fierce resistance to the Austro-Hungarian army, which managed to capture Belgrade only in early December. However, a week later, the Serbs managed to return the capital back.

The entry into the war of the Ottoman Empire and the prolongation of the conflict (November 1914 - January 1915)

From the very beginning of the First World War, the government of the Ottoman Empire closely followed its course. At the same time, the government of the country did not have a consensus on which side to take. However, it was clear that the Ottoman Empire would not be able to refrain from entering the conflict.

In the course of numerous diplomatic maneuvers and intrigues in the Turkish government, supporters of the pro-German position took over. As a result, almost the entire country and the army were under the control of German generals. The Ottoman fleet, without declaring war on October 30, 1914, fired on a number of Russian Black Sea ports, which was immediately used by Russia as a pretext for declaring war, which happened already on November 2. A few days later, France and Great Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire.

Simultaneously with these events, the offensive of the Ottoman army began in the Caucasus, with the goal of capturing the cities of Kars and Batumi, and in the long term, the entire Transcaucasus. However, here the Russian troops managed to first stop and then push the enemy back beyond the border line. As a result, the Ottoman Empire was also embroiled in a large-scale war with no hope of a quick victory.

From October 1914 on the Western Front, the troops took up positional defense, which had a significant impact on the next 4 years of the war. The stabilization of the front and the lack of offensive potential on both sides led to the construction of a strong and deep defense by the German and Anglo-French troops.

World War I - 1915

1915 turned out to be more active on the Eastern Front than in the West. This is primarily due to the fact that the German command, in planning military operations for 1915, decided to inflict main blow it is in the East and to withdraw Russia from the war.

In the winter of 1915, German troops launched an offensive in Poland in the area of ​​Augustow. Here, despite initial successes, the Germans encountered stubborn resistance from the Russian troops and were unable to achieve decisive success. After these failures German leadership decided to shift the direction of the main attack to the south, to the region of the south of the Carpathians and Bukovina.

This strike almost immediately reached its goal, and the German troops managed to break through the Russian front in the Gorlice region. As a result, in order to avoid encirclement, the Russian army had to start a retreat in order to level the front line. This withdrawal, which began on April 22, lasted 2 months. As a result, Russian troops lost a large territory in Poland and Galicia, and the Austro-German forces almost came close to Warsaw. However, the main events of the 1915 campaign of the year were yet to come.

The German command, although it managed to achieve good operational success, still failed to bring down the Russian front. It was precisely with the aim of neutralizing Russia that from the beginning of June the planning of a new offensive began, which, according to the plan of the German leadership, should lead to the complete collapse of the Russian front and the speedy withdrawal of the Russians from the war. It was supposed to deliver two blows under the base of the Warsaw ledge with the aim of encircling or displacing enemy troops from this ledge. At the same time, it was decided to advance on the Baltic in order to divert at least part of the Russian forces from the central sector of the front.

On June 13, 1915, the German offensive began, and a few days later the Russian front was broken through. In order to avoid encirclement near Warsaw, the Russian army began to retreat to the east in order to create a new united front. As a result of this "Great Retreat", Warsaw, Grodno, Brest-Litovsk were abandoned by Russian troops, and the front stabilized only by autumn on the Dubno-Baranovichi-Dvinsk line. In the Baltic states, the Germans occupied the entire territory of Lithuania and came close to Riga. After these operations, there was a lull on the Eastern Front of the First World War until 1916.

On the Caucasian front, during 1915, hostilities also spread to the territory of Persia, which, after long diplomatic maneuvers, took the side of the Entente.

On the Western Front, 1915 was marked by a reduced activity of the German troops, with a higher activity of the Anglo-French. So, at the beginning of the year, hostilities took place only in the Artois region, but they did not lead to any noticeable results. In terms of their intensity, these positional actions, however, could not in any way claim the status of a serious operation.

The unsuccessful Allied attempts to break through the German front led, in turn, to a German offensive with limited objectives in the Ypres region (Belgium). Here, for the first time in history, German troops used poison gases, which turned out to be very unexpected and stunning for their enemy. However, not having sufficient reserves to develop success, the Germans were soon forced to stop the offensive, achieving very modest results (their advance was only 5 to 10 kilometers).

At the beginning of May 1915, the Allies launched a new offensive in Artois, which, according to the plan of their command, was supposed to lead to the liberation of most of France and a major defeat of the German troops. However, neither thorough artillery preparation (which lasted 6 days) nor large forces (about 30 divisions concentrated on a 30-kilometer section) prevented the Anglo-French leadership from achieving victory. Last but not least, this was due to the fact that the German troops built a deep and powerful defense here, which was a reliable remedy against the Allied frontal attacks.

The same result ended with the larger offensive of the Anglo-French troops in Champagne, which began on September 25, 1915 and lasted only 12 days. During this offensive, the Allies managed to advance only 3-5 kilometers with a loss of 200 thousand people. The Germans suffered losses of 140 thousand people.

On May 23, 1915, Italy entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. This decision was not easy for the Italian leadership: a year ago, on the eve of the war, the country was an ally of the Central Powers, but refrained from entering into a conflict. With the entry into the war of Italy, a new - Italian - front appeared, to which Austria-Hungary had to divert large forces. During 1915, there were no significant changes on this front.

In the Middle East, the allied command planned operations in 1915 with the aim of withdrawing the Ottoman Empire from the war and finally strengthening its superiority in the Mediterranean. According to the plan, the allied fleet was to break through to the Bosphorus, fire on Istanbul and the Turkish coastal batteries, and prove to the Turks the superiority of the Entente, force the Ottoman government to capitulate.

However, from the very beginning, this operation developed unsuccessfully for the Allies. Already at the end of February, during the raid of the allied squadron against Istanbul, three ships were lost, and the Turkish coastal defense was not suppressed. After that, it was decided to land an expeditionary force in the Istanbul region and with a swift offensive to withdraw the country from the war.

The landing of the Allied troops began on April 25, 1915. But here, too, the allies faced the fierce defense of the Turks, as a result of which they managed to land and gain a foothold only in the Gallipoli region, about 100 kilometers from the Ottoman capital. The Australian and New Zealand units (ANZAC) landed here fiercely attacked the Turkish troops until the end of the year, when the complete futility of the landing in the Dardanelles became absolutely clear. As a result, already in January 1916, the Allied expeditionary forces were evacuated from here.

In the Balkan theater of operations, the outcome of the 1915 campaign was determined by two factors. The first factor was the "Great Retreat" of the Russian army, due to which Austria-Hungary managed to transfer part of the troops from Galicia against Serbia. The second factor was the entry into the war on the side of the Central Powers of Bulgaria, encouraged by the success of the Ottoman troops in Gallipoli and suddenly stabbed Serbia in the back. The Serbian army was unable to repel this blow, which led to the complete collapse of the Serbian front and the occupation of the territory of Serbia by the end of December by the Austrian troops. Nevertheless, the Serbian army, retaining its personnel, managed to retreat to the territory of Albania in an organized manner and subsequently participated in the battles against the Austrian, German and Bulgarian troops.

The course of the First World War in 1916

The year 1916 was marked by Germany's passive tactics in the East and more active tactics in the West. Having failed to achieve a strategic victory on the Eastern Front, the German leadership decided to concentrate the main efforts in the 1916 campaign on the West in order to withdraw France from the war and, by transferring large forces to the East, achieve a military victory over Russia as well.

This led to the fact that for the first two months of the year there were practically no active hostilities on the Eastern Front. Nevertheless, the Russian command planned major offensive operations in the western and southwestern directions, and a sharp jump in military production made success at the front very possible. In general, the whole of 1916 in Russia passed under the sign of general enthusiasm and high fighting spirit.

In March 1916, the Russian command, meeting the wishes of the Allies to conduct a diversionary operation, launched a major offensive in order to liberate the territory of Belarus and the Baltic states and drive German troops back to East Prussia. However, this offensive, which began two months earlier than planned, failed to achieve its goals. The Russian army lost about 78 thousand people, while the German one - about 40 thousand. Nevertheless, the Russian command managed, perhaps, to decide the outcome of the war in favor of the allies: the German offensive in the West, which by that time was beginning to acquire a critical turn for the Entente, was weakened and gradually began to fizzle out.

The situation on the Russian-German front remained calm until June, when the Russian command began a new operation. It was carried out by the forces of the Southwestern Front, and its goal was to defeat the Austro-German forces in this direction and liberate part of Russian territory. It is noteworthy that this operation was also carried out at the request of the allies in order to divert enemy troops from threatened areas. However, it was this Russian offensive that became one of the most successful operations of the Russian army in the First World War.

The offensive began on June 4, 1916, and five days later the Austro-Hungarian front was broken through in several dreams. The enemy began to retreat, alternating with counterattacks. It was as a result of these counterattacks that the front was kept from complete collapse, but only for a short time: already in early July, the front line in the southwest was broken, and the troops of the Central Powers began to retreat, suffering huge losses.

Simultaneously with the offensive in the southwestern direction, the Russian troops delivered the main blow in the western direction. However, here the German troops managed to organize a solid defense, which led to heavy losses in the Russian army without noticeable results. After these failures, the Russian command decided to shift the main attack from the Western to the Southwestern Front.

A new stage of the offensive began on July 28, 1916. Russian troops again inflicted a major defeat on the enemy forces and in August captured the cities of Stanislav, Brody, Lutsk. The position of the Austro-German troops here became so critical that even Turkish troops were transferred to Galicia. Nevertheless, by the beginning of September 1916, the Russian command was faced with a stubborn enemy defense in Volyn, which led to heavy losses among the Russian troops and, as a result, to the fact that the offensive ran out of steam. The offensive, which brought Austria-Hungary to the brink of disaster, received a name in honor of its performer - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.

On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to capture the Turkish cities of Erzurum and Trabzon and reach the line 150-200 kilometers from the border.

On the Western Front in 1916, the German command launched an offensive operation, which later became known as the Battle of Verdun. A powerful grouping of Entente troops was located in the area of ​​this fortress, and the configuration of the front, which looked like a protrusion towards the German positions, led the German leadership to the idea of ​​encircling and destroying this grouping.

The German offensive, preceded by extremely intensive artillery preparation, began on 21 February. At the very beginning of this offensive, the German army managed to advance 5-8 kilometers deep into the Allied positions, but the stubborn resistance of the Anglo-French troops, which inflicted significant losses on the Germans, did not allow to achieve complete victory. Soon it was stopped, and the Germans had to fight hard to keep the territory that they managed to capture at the beginning of the battle. However, everything was in vain - in fact, since April 1916, the Battle of Verdun was lost by Germany, but it still continued until the end of the year. At the same time, the losses of the Germans were about two times less than those of the Anglo-French forces.

Another important event of 1916 was the entry into the war on the side of the Entente powers of Romania (August 17). The Romanian government, inspired by the defeat of the Austro-German troops during the Brusilov breakthrough of the Russian army, planned to increase the country's territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary (Transylvania) and Bulgaria (Dobruja). However, the low fighting qualities of the Romanian army, the configuration of the borders, unsuccessful for Romania, and the proximity of large Austro-German-Bulgarian forces did not allow these plans to come true. If at first the Romanian army managed to advance 5-10 km deep into Austrian territory, then, after the concentration of enemy armies, the Romanian forces were defeated, and by the end of the year the country was almost completely occupied.

Fighting in 1917

The results of the 1916 campaign had a major impact on the 1917 campaign. So, the Verdun meat grinder was not in vain for Germany, and the country entered 1917 with almost completely depleted human resources and a difficult food situation. It became clear that if the Central Powers failed to defeat their opponents in the near future, then the war would end in defeat for them. At the same time, the Entente was planning a major offensive for 1917 with the goal of an early victory over Germany and its allies.

In turn, for the countries of the Entente, 1917 promised truly gigantic prospects: the exhaustion of the Central Powers and the seemingly inevitable entry into the war of the United States was to finally turn the tide in favor of the Allies. At the Petrograd Conference of the Entente, which took place from February 1 to 20, 1917, the situation at the front and action plans were actively discussed. However, the situation in Russia was also discussed unofficially, which worsened every day.

In the end, on February 27, the revolutionary unrest in the Russian Empire reached its peak, and the February Revolution broke out. This event, along with the moral decay of the Russian army, practically deprived the Entente of an active ally. And although the Russian army still occupied its positions at the front, it became clear that it would no longer be able to attack.

At this time, Emperor Nicholas II abdicated, and Russia ceased to be an empire. The new provisional government of the Russian Republic decided to continue the war without breaking the alliance with the Entente in order to bring the hostilities to a victorious end and thus still be in the camp of the winners. The preparations for the offensive were carried out on a grand scale, and the offensive itself was to become a "triumph of the Russian revolution."

This offensive began on June 16, 1917 in the zone of the Southwestern Front, and in the first days of the Russian army, success was accompanied. However, then, due to the catastrophically low discipline in the Russian army and due to high losses, the June offensive “stalled”. As a result, by the beginning of July, the Russian troops had exhausted their offensive impulse and were forced to go on the defensive.

The Central Powers were not slow to take advantage of the exhaustion of the Russian army. Already on July 6, the Austro-German counteroffensive began, which in a matter of days managed to return the territories left since June 1917, and then move deep into Russian territory. The Russian retreat, at first carried out in a fairly organized manner, soon became catastrophic. The divisions scattered at the sight of the enemy, the troops retreated without orders. In such an environment, it became increasingly clear that there could be no talk of any active actions on the part of the Russian army.

After these failures, the Russian troops went on the offensive in other directions. However, both on the North-Western and on the Western fronts, due to the complete moral decay, they simply could not achieve any significant success. At first, the offensive developed most successfully in Romania, where the Russian troops had practically no signs of decay. However, against the background of failures on other fronts, the Russian command soon stopped the offensive here as well.

After that, until the very end of the war on the Eastern Front, the Russian army no longer made serious attempts to attack and, in general, resist the forces of the Central Powers. The October Revolution and the fierce struggle for power only exacerbated the situation. However, the German army could no longer conduct active hostilities on the Eastern Front. There were only separate local operations to occupy individual settlements.

In April 1917, the United States of America joined the war against Germany. Their entry into the war was motivated by closer interests with the Entente countries, as well as aggressive submarine warfare by Germany, which resulted in the death of American citizens. The US entry into the war finally changed the balance of power in the First World War in favor of the Entente countries and made its victory inevitable.

In the Middle East theater of operations, the British army went on a decisive offensive against the Ottoman Empire. As a result, almost all of Palestine and Mesopotamia were cleared of the Turks. At the same time, an uprising was raised in the Arabian Peninsula against the Ottoman Empire in order to create an independent Arab state. As a result of the 1917 campaign, the position of the Ottoman Empire became truly critical, and its army was demoralized.

World War I - 1918

At the beginning of 1918, the German leadership, despite the earlier signed with Soviet Russia armistice, launched a local offensive in the direction of Petrograd. In the area of ​​Pskov and Narva, the Red Guard detachments blocked their path, with which military clashes took place on February 23-25, which later became known as the date of the birth of the Red Army. However, despite the official Soviet version of the victory of the Red Guard units over the Germans, the real outcome of the battles is debatable, since the Red units were forced to retreat to Gatchina, which would have been meaningless in the event of a victory over the German troops.

The Soviet government, realizing the precariousness of the armistice, was forced to sign a peace treaty with Germany. This agreement was signed in Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918. According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic States were transferred under German control, and the independence of Poland and Finland was also recognized. In addition, Kaiser Germany received a huge indemnity in resources and money, which in fact allowed her to prolong her agony until November 1918.

After the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the bulk of the German troops were transferred from the east to the Western Front, where the fate of the war was decided. Nevertheless, the situation in the areas of the former Russian Empire occupied by the Germans was uneasy, and therefore, until the end of the war, Germany was forced to keep about a million soldiers here.

On March 21, 1918, the German army launched its last large-scale offensive on the Western Front. His goal was to encircle and destroy the British troops located between the Somme and the English Channel, and then go to the rear of the French troops, capture Paris and force France to surrender. However, from the very beginning of the operation it became clear that the German troops would not be able to break through the front. By July they managed to advance 50-70 kilometers, but by this time, in addition to the French and British troops, large and fresh American forces began to operate on the front. This circumstance, as well as the fact that the German army finally ran out of steam by mid-July, forced the German command to stop the operation.

In turn, the allies, realizing that the German troops were extremely exhausted, launched a counteroffensive with virtually no operational pause. As a result, the Allied attacks were no less effective than the German ones, and already after 3 weeks the German troops were thrown back to the same positions that they had occupied by the beginning of 1918.

After that, the command of the Entente decided to continue the offensive in order to bring the German army to disaster. This offensive went down in history under the name "hundred-day" and ended only in November. During this operation, the German front was broken through, and the German army had to start a general retreat.

On the Italian front in October 1918, the Allies also launched an offensive against the Austro-German troops. As a result of stubborn battles, they managed to liberate almost all Italian territories occupied in 1917 and defeat the Austro-Hungarian and German armies.

In the Balkan theater of operations, the Allies launched a major offensive in September. A week later, they managed to inflict a serious defeat on the Bulgarian army and begin to advance deep into the Balkans. As a result of this crushing offensive, on September 29, Bulgaria withdrew from the war. By the beginning of November, as a result of this operation, the Allies managed to liberate almost the entire territory of Serbia.

In the Middle East, the British Army also launched a major offensive in the autumn of 1918. The Turkish army was completely demoralized and disorganized, thanks to which the Ottoman Empire already signed a truce with the Entente on October 30, 1918. On November 3, after a series of setbacks in Italy and the Balkans, Austria-Hungary also capitulated.

As a result, by November 1918, the position of Germany became truly critical. Hunger, exhaustion of moral and material forces, as well as heavy losses at the front gradually heated up the situation in the country. Revolutionary fermentation began in the naval crews. The reason for a full-fledged revolution was the order of the German command to the fleet, according to which it was supposed to give a general battle to the British Navy. Given the existing balance of forces, the fulfillment of this order threatened the complete destruction of the German fleet, which caused a revolutionary uprising in the ranks of the sailors. The uprising began on November 4, and on November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated. Germany became a republic.

By that time, the Kaiser government had begun peace negotiations with the Entente. Germany was exhausted and could no longer continue to resist. As a result of the negotiations, on November 11, 1918, an armistice was signed in the Compiègne forest. With the signing of this truce, the First World War ended.

Losses of the parties in the first world war

The First World War caused enormous damage to all the warring countries. The demographic echoes of this conflict are still being felt.

Military casualties in the conflict are generally estimated at about 9-10 million killed and about 18 million wounded. The loss of the civilian population in the First World War is estimated at 8 to 12 million people.

The losses of the Entente in total amount to approximately 5-6 million people killed and about 10.5 million wounded. Of these, Russia lost about 1.6 million dead and 3.7 million wounded. French, British and US losses in killed and wounded are estimated at 4.1, 2.4 and 0.3 million, respectively. Such low losses in the American army are explained by the relatively late time the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente.

The losses of the Central Powers in World War I are estimated at 4-5 million killed and 8 million wounded. Of these losses, Germany accounts for approximately 2 million killed and 4.2 million wounded. Austria-Hungary lost 1.5 and 26 million people killed and wounded, respectively, the Ottoman Empire - 800 thousand killed and 800 thousand wounded.

Results and consequences of the First World War

World War I was the first global conflict in human history. Its scale has become incommensurably greater than that of the Napoleonic Wars, as well as the number of forces involved in the struggle. The war was the first conflict that showed the leaders of all countries a new type of war. From now on, the full mobilization of the army and the economy became necessary for victory in the war. During the conflict, military theory underwent significant changes. It became clear that it was very difficult to break through a well-fortified line of defense and that this required enormous expenditure of ammunition and heavy losses.

The First World War showed the world new types and means of weapons, as well as the use of those means that had not previously been appreciated. Thus, the use of aviation has increased significantly, tanks and chemical weapons have appeared. At the same time, the First World War showed mankind how terrible war can be. Millions of wounded, maimed and maimed for a long time were a reminder of the horrors of war. It was with the aim of preventing such conflicts that the League of Nations was created - the first international community designed to maintain world peace.

Politically, the war also became a kind of turning point in world history. As a result of the conflict, the map of Europe has become noticeably “more colorful”. Four empires disappeared: Russian, German, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian. Independence was gained by such states as Poland, Finland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and others.

The alignment of forces in Europe and the world has also changed. Germany, Russia (soon to be transformed into the USSR along with part of the territories of the former Russian Empire) and Turkey lost their former influence, which shifted the center of gravity in Europe to the west. The Western powers, on the contrary, have seriously strengthened due to war reparations and colonies acquired at the expense of losing Germany.

At the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, French Marshal Ferdinand Foch declared: “This is not peace. This is a truce for 20 years.” The terms of the peace were very difficult and humiliating for Germany, which could not but arouse in her strong revanchist sentiments. Further actions of France, Great Britain, Belgium and Poland (seizure from Germany of the Saar, part of Silesia, occupation of the Ruhr in 1923) only strengthened these grievances. We can say that the Treaty of Versailles was one of the causes of World War II.

Thus, the point of view of a number of historians considering 1914-1945. as a period of one big global world war, is not unreasonable. The contradictions that the First World War was supposed to resolve only deepened, and, consequently, a new conflict was just around the corner ...

If you have any questions - leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them.

Berlin, London, Paris wanted to start a big war in Europe, Vienna was not against the defeat of Serbia, although they did not particularly want a pan-European war. The reason for the war was given by the Serbian conspirators, who also wanted a war that would destroy the "patchwork" Austro-Hungarian Empire and allow the plans to create a "Great Serbia" to be realized.

June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) terrorists kill the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. Interestingly, the Russian Foreign Ministry and Serbian Prime Minister Pasic received a message through their channels about the possibility of such an assassination attempt and tried to warn Vienna. Pasic warned through the Serbian envoy in Vienna, and Russia through Romania.

In Berlin, they decided that this was an excellent reason to start a war. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who learned about the terrorist attack at the celebration of the "Week" in Kiel, wrote in the margins of the report: "Now or never" (the emperor was a lover of high-profile "historical" phrases). And now the hidden flywheel of war has begun to unwind. Although most Europeans believed that this event, like many before (like the two Moroccan crises, the two Balkan wars), would not become the detonator of a world war. In addition, the terrorists were Austrian subjects, not Serbian. It should be noted that the European society of the early 20th century was largely pacifist and did not believe in the possibility of a big war, it was believed that people were already “civilized” enough to resolve controversial issues by war, there are political and diplomatic tools for this, only local conflicts are possible.

In Vienna, they have long been looking for a reason to defeat Serbia, which was considered the main threat to the empire, "the engine of pan-Slavic politics." True, the situation depended on the support of Germany. If Berlin puts pressure on Russia and she retreats, then the Austro-Serbian war is inevitable. During the negotiations in Berlin on July 5-6, the German Kaiser assured the Austrian side of its full support. The Germans sounded the mood of the British - the German ambassador told British Foreign Minister Edward Gray that Germany, "taking advantage of Russia's weakness, considers it necessary not to restrain Austria-Hungary." Gray evaded a direct answer, and the Germans felt that the British would remain on the sidelines. Many researchers believe that in this way London pushed Germany to war, Britain's firm position would have stopped the Germans. Gray told Russia that "England will take a position favorable to Russia." On the 9th, the Germans hinted to the Italians that if Rome took a position favorable to the Central Powers, then Italy could get the Austrian Trieste and Trentino. But the Italians evaded a direct answer and, as a result, until 1915 they bargained and waited.

The Turks also began to fuss, began to look for the most profitable scenario for themselves. Naval Minister Ahmed Jemal Pasha visited Paris, he was a supporter of an alliance with the French. Minister of War Ismail Enver Pasha visited Berlin. And the Minister of the Interior, Mehmed Talaat Pasha, left for St. Petersburg. As a result, the pro-German course won.

In Vienna, at that time, they came up with an ultimatum to Serbia, and they tried to include such items that the Serbs could not accept. On July 14, the text was approved, and on the 23rd it was handed over to the Serbs. The answer had to be given within 48 hours. The ultimatum contained very harsh demands. The Serbs were required to ban print publications that promoted hatred of Austria-Hungary and the violation of its territorial unity; to ban the Narodna Odbrana society and all other similar unions and movements conducting anti-Austrian propaganda; remove anti-Austrian propaganda from the education system; dismiss from the military and civil service all officers and officials who were engaged in propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary; assist the Austrian authorities in suppressing the movement against the integrity of the empire; stop smuggling and explosives into Austrian territory, arrest border guards involved in such activities, etc.

Serbia was not ready for war, she had just gone through two Balkan wars, she was going through an internal political crisis. And there was no time to drag out the issue and diplomatic maneuvering. This was understood by other politicians, Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov, having learned about the Austrian ultimatum, said: "This is a war in Europe."

Serbia began to mobilize the army, and the Serbian Prince Regent Alexander "begged" Russia to help. Nicholas II said that all the efforts of Russia are aimed at avoiding bloodshed, and if the war starts, then Serbia will not be left alone. On the 25th, the Serbs responded to the Austrian ultimatum. Serbia agreed to almost all points except one. The Serbian side refused the participation of the Austrians in the investigation of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on the territory of Serbia, since this affected the sovereignty of the state. Although they promised to conduct an investigation and announced the possibility of transferring the results of the investigation to the Austrians.

Vienna regarded this answer as negative. On July 25, the Austro-Hungarian Empire began a partial mobilization of troops. On the same day, the German Empire began a covert mobilization. Berlin demanded that Vienna begin military operations against the Serbs immediately.

Other powers tried to intervene with a view to a diplomatic settlement of the issue. London came up with a proposal to convene a conference of the great powers and peacefully resolve the issue. The British were supported by Paris and Rome, but Berlin refused. Russia and France tried to persuade the Austrians to accept a settlement plan based on the Serbian proposals - Serbia was ready to transfer the investigation to the international tribunal in The Hague.

But the Germans had already decided on the issue of war, in Berlin on the 26th they prepared an ultimatum to Belgium, which stated that the French army planned to strike Germany through this country. Therefore, the German army must prevent this attack and occupy Belgian territory. If the Belgian government agrees, the Belgians were promised compensation for the damage after the war, if not, then Belgium was declared an enemy of Germany.

In London, there was a struggle between various power groups. Supporters of the traditional policy of "non-intervention" had very strong positions, and public opinion also supported them. The British wanted to stay out of the European war. The London Rothschilds, associated with the Austrian Rothschilds, financed an active propaganda of a non-interference policy. It is likely that if Berlin and Vienna had directed the main blow against Serbia and Russia, the British would not intervene in the war. And the world saw the “strange war” of 1914, when Austria-Hungary crushed Serbia, and the German army directed the main blow against the Russian Empire. In this situation, France could conduct a "positional war", limited to private operations, and Britain could not enter the war at all. London was forced to intervene in the war by the fact that it was impossible to allow the complete defeat of France and German hegemony in Europe. The First Lord of the Admiralty Churchill, at his own peril and risk, after the completion of the summer maneuvers of the fleet with the participation of reservists, did not let them go home and kept the ships in concentration, not sending them to their places of deployment.

Russia

Russia at this time behaved extremely cautiously. For several days, the emperor held lengthy meetings with the Minister of War Sukhomlinov, the Minister of the Navy, Grigorovich, and the Chief of the General Staff, Yanushkevich. Nicholas II did not want to provoke a war with the military preparations of the Russian armed forces.
Only preliminary measures were taken: on the 25th of the holidays, the officers were recalled, on the 26th the emperor agreed to preparatory measures for partial mobilization. And only in a few military districts (Kazan, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa). In the Warsaw Military District, mobilization was not carried out, because. it bordered simultaneously with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Nicholas II hoped that the war could be stopped, and sent telegrams to "cousin Willy" (the German Kaiser), asking him to stop Austria-Hungary.

These fluctuations in Russia became proof for Berlin that “Russia is now unfit for combat,” that Nikolai is afraid of war. Wrong conclusions were drawn: the German ambassador and military attaché wrote from St. Petersburg that Russia was planning not a decisive offensive, but a gradual retreat, following the example of 1812. The German press wrote about "complete decay" in the Russian Empire.

The beginning of the war

On July 28, Vienna declared war on Belgrade. It should be noted that the First World War began on a great patriotic upsurge. General rejoicing reigned in the capital of Austria-Hungary, crowds of people filled the streets, singing patriotic songs. The same mood reigned in Budapest (capital of Hungary). It was a real holiday, women filled up the military, who were supposed to smash the damned Serbs, with flowers and signs of attention. Then people believed that the war with Serbia would be a victory walk.

The Austro-Hungarian army was not yet ready for the offensive. But already on the 29th, the ships of the Danube Flotilla and the Zemlin fortress, located opposite the Serbian capital, began shelling Belgrade.

Reich Chancellor of the German Empire Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg sent threatening notes to Paris and Petersburg. The French were informed that the military preparations which France was about to begin "force Germany to declare a state of threat of war." Russia was warned that if the Russians continued military preparations, "then it would hardly be possible to avoid a European war."

London proposed another settlement plan: the Austrians could occupy part of Serbia as a "collateral" for a fair investigation, in which the great powers would take part. Churchill orders the ships to be moved north, away from a possible attack by German submarines and destroyers, and "preliminary martial law" is introduced in Britain. Although the British still refused to "have their say", although Paris asked for it.

In Paris, the government held regular meetings. The chief of the French General Staff, Joffre, carried out preparatory measures before the start of a full-scale mobilization and offered to bring the army to full combat readiness and take up positions on the border. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the French soldiers, according to the law, could go home during the harvest, half of the army went to the villages. Joffre reported that german army will be able to occupy part of the territory of France without serious resistance. In general, the French government was confused. Theory is one thing, reality is quite another. The situation was aggravated by two factors: firstly, the British did not give a definite answer; secondly, apart from Germany, France could be attacked by Italy. As a result, Joffre was allowed to recall the soldiers from vacations and mobilize 5 frontier corps, but at the same time take them 10 kilometers from the border to show that Paris was not going to be the first to attack, and not to provoke a war with some random conflict between German and French soldiers.

Petersburg, too, there was no certainty, there was still hope that big war can be avoided. After Vienna declared war on Serbia, Russia announced a partial mobilization. But it turned out to be difficult to implement, because. in Russia there were no plans for partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary, such plans were only against the Ottoman Empire and Sweden. It was believed that separately, without Germany, the Austrians would not dare to fight with Russia. And Russia itself was not going to attack the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The emperor insisted on partial mobilization, the head of the General Staff, Yanushkevich, argued that without the mobilization of the Warsaw Military District, Russia risks missing a powerful blow, because. according to intelligence, it turned out that it was here that the Austrians would concentrate a strike force. In addition, if an unprepared partial mobilization is initiated, it will lead to a breakdown in rail transport schedules. Then Nikolai decided not to mobilize at all, to wait.

The information was the most contradictory. Berlin tried to buy time - the German Kaiser sent encouraging telegrams, reported that Germany was inciting Austria-Hungary to make concessions, and Vienna seemed to agree. And then there was a note from Bethmann-Hollweg, a message about the bombing of Belgrade. And Vienna, after a period of wagging, announced the refusal of negotiations with Russia.

Therefore, on July 30, the Russian emperor gave the order to mobilize. But immediately canceled, because. several peace-loving telegrams from "Cousin Willy" came from Berlin, who reported on his efforts to persuade Vienna to negotiate. Wilhelm asked not to start military preparations, because. this would interfere with Germany's negotiations with Austria. Nikolai in response suggested that the issue be submitted for consideration by the Hague Conference. Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov went to the German Ambassador Pourtales to work out the main points for resolving the conflict.

Petersburg then received other information. The Kaiser changed his tone to a harsher one. Vienna refused any negotiations, there was evidence that the Austrians would clearly coordinate their actions with Berlin. There were reports from Germany that military preparations were in full swing there. German ships from Kiel were transferred to Danzig in the Baltic. Cavalry units advanced to the border. And Russia needed 10-20 days more to mobilize its armed forces than Germany. It became clear that the Germans were simply fooling St. Petersburg in order to gain time.

On July 31, Russia announced mobilization. Moreover, it was reported that as soon as the Austrians cease hostilities and a conference was convened, Russian mobilization would be stopped. Vienna announced that a halt to hostilities was impossible and announced a full-scale mobilization directed against Russia. The Kaiser sent a new telegram to Nicholas, saying that his peace efforts had become "illusory" and that the war could still be stopped if Russia canceled military preparations. Berlin got a pretext for war. And an hour later, Wilhelm II in Berlin, to the enthusiastic roar of the crowd, announced that Germany was "forced to wage war." Martial law was introduced in the German Empire, which simply legalized the previous military preparations (they had been going on for a week).

France was sent an ultimatum about the need to maintain neutrality. The French had to answer within 18 hours whether France would be neutral in the event of a war between Germany and Russia. And as a pledge of "good intentions" they demanded to transfer the border fortresses of Tul and Verdun, which they promised to return after the end of the war. The French were simply stunned by such impudence, the French ambassador in Berlin was even ashamed to convey the full text of the ultimatum, limiting himself to the requirement of neutrality. In addition, in Paris they were afraid of mass unrest and strikes that the left threatened to organize. A plan was prepared according to which they planned, according to pre-prepared lists, to arrest socialists, anarchists and all "suspicious".

The situation was very difficult. Petersburg learned about Germany's ultimatum to stop mobilization from the German press (!). The German Ambassador Pourtales was instructed to hand it over at midnight from July 31st to August 1st, the deadline was given at 12 o'clock in order to reduce the opportunities for diplomatic maneuver. The word "war" was not used. Interestingly, St. Petersburg was not even sure of French support, because. the union treaty was not ratified by the French parliament. Yes, and the British offered the French to wait for "further developments", because. the conflict between Germany, Austria and Russia "does not affect the interests of England." But the French were forced to join the war, because. the Germans did not give any other choice - at 7 am on August 1, German troops (16th Infantry Division) crossed the border with Luxembourg and occupied the town of Trois Vierges ("Three Virgins"), where the borders and railway communications of Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg converged. In Germany, they later joked that the war began with the possession of three virgins.

Paris on the same day began a general mobilization and rejected the ultimatum. Moreover, they have not yet talked about the war, informing Berlin that "mobilization is not a war." Concerned Belgians (the treaties of 1839 and 1870 determined the neutral status of their country, Britain was the main guarantor of Belgium's neutrality) asked Germany for clarification about the invasion of Luxembourg. Berlin replied that there was no danger to Belgium.

The French continued to appeal to England, recalling that the English fleet, according to an earlier agreement, should protect the Atlantic coast of France and french navy should concentrate in the Mediterranean. During the meeting of the British government, 12 out of 18 of its members opposed the support of France. Gray informed the French ambassador that France must decide for itself, Britain was not currently in a position to provide assistance.

London was forced to reconsider its position because of Belgium, which was a possible springboard against England. The British Foreign Office asked Berlin and Paris to respect Belgium's neutrality. France confirmed the neutral status of Belgium, Germany remained silent. Therefore, the British declared that in an attack on Belgium, England could not remain neutral. Although London retained a loophole here, Lloyd George opined that if the Germans did not occupy the Belgian coast, then the violation could be considered "minor".

Russia offered Berlin to resume negotiations. Interestingly, the Germans were going to declare war anyway, even if Russia accepted an ultimatum to stop mobilization. When the German ambassador handed the note, he gave Sazonov two papers at once, in both Russia they declared war.

There was a dispute in Berlin - the military demanded to start a war without declaring it, they say, the opponents of Germany, having taken retaliatory actions, would declare war and become "instigators". And the Reich Chancellor demanded the preservation of the rules of international law, the Kaiser took his side, because. loved beautiful gestures - the declaration of war was a historical event. On August 2, Germany officially declared general mobilization and war on Russia. It was the day the "Schlieffen plan" began to be implemented - 40 German corps were to be transferred to offensive positions. Interestingly, Germany officially declared war on Russia, and troops began to be transferred to the west. On the 2nd, Luxembourg was finally occupied. And Belgium was given an ultimatum to let the German troops through, the Belgians had to respond within 12 hours.

The Belgians were shocked. But in the end they decided to defend themselves - they did not believe in the assurances of the Germans to withdraw troops after the war, to destroy a good relationship with England and France were not going. King Albert called for defense. Although the Belgians had the hope that this was a provocation and that Berlin would not violate the neutral status of the country.

On the same day, England was determined. The French were informed that the British fleet would cover the Atlantic coast of France. And the reason for the war will be the German attack on Belgium. A number of ministers who were against this decision resigned. The Italians declared their neutrality.

On August 2, Germany and Turkey signed a secret agreement, the Turks pledged to take the side of the Germans. On the 3rd, Turkey declared neutrality, which was a bluff given the agreement with Berlin. On the same day, Istanbul began the mobilization of reservists aged 23-45, i.e. almost universal.

On August 3, Berlin declared war on France, the Germans accused the French of attacks, "aerial bombardments" and even violation of "Belgian neutrality." The Belgians rejected the German ultimatum, Germany declared war on Belgium. On the 4th the invasion of Belgium began. King Albert asked for help from the guarantor countries of neutrality. London issued an ultimatum: stop invading Belgium or Britain would declare war on Germany. The Germans were outraged and called this ultimatum a "racial betrayal". At the end of the ultimatum, Churchill ordered the fleet to begin hostilities. Thus began World War I...

Could Russia have prevented the war?

There is an opinion that if Petersburg had given Serbia to be torn to pieces by Austria-Hungary, the war could have been prevented. But this is an erroneous opinion. Thus, Russia could only win time - a few months, a year, two. The war was predetermined by the course of development of the great Western powers, the capitalist system. Germany, the British Empire, France, the USA needed it, and sooner or later they would have started it anyway. Find another reason.

Russia could only change its strategic choice - for whom to fight - at the turn of about 1904-1907. Then London and the United States frankly helped Japan, while France adhered to cold neutrality. During that period, Russia could join Germany against the "Atlantic" powers.

Secret intrigues and the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

Film from the series documentaries"Russia of the XX century". The director of the project is Smirnov Nikolai Mikhailovich, a military expert-journalist, author of the project "Our Strategy" and the series of programs "Our View. Russian Frontier". The film was made with the support of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its representative is Nikolai Kuzmich Simakov, a specialist in church history. Involved in the film: historians Nikolai Starikov and Pyotr Multatuli, Professor of St. Petersburg State University and Herzen State Pedagogical University and Doctor of Philosophy Andrey Leonidovich Vassoevich, editor-in-chief of the national-patriotic magazine "Imperial Renaissance" Boris Smolin, intelligence and counterintelligence officer Nikolai Volkov.

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