In 1689, the reign of the 17-year-old Tsar Peter I began. With his genius, hard work, energy and perseverance, as well as his exactingness, sometimes reaching cruelty, and his love for Russia, he managed to decisively change the course of Russian history. From the Muscovite state, which lagged far behind the West due to the Tatar yoke, Peter creates the Russian Empire, which became a great power in the family of European states. When the father of Peter I, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, died, Peter was only four years old. His elder brother Fedor became king. After the death of Fedor, the brothers Ivan and Peter became kings at the same time. Ivan was a weak and sick boy, and Peter was only 10 years old. Instead of them, their older sister Sophia, an intelligent and ambitious woman, ruled the state. She wanted to continue to rule the state even after Peter came of age. Therefore, she sent Peter and his mother to the village of Preobrazhenskoye, not far from Moscow. Peter lived there for seven years. This time did not pass for Peter in vain. In his children's games "soldiers" with the village boys, he creates the basis for the future Russian regular army. Floating along the river and lake in a small sailing boat, he is already thinking about creating a Russian fleet. At the same time, Peter met foreigners - "Germans" (at that time the Russians called all foreigners that), who lived near the village of Preobrazhenskoye. Acquaintance with them was the first meeting of Peter with Western Europe, showing him how much Europe was ahead of Russia. Peter learned a lot from these foreigners. He studied arithmetic, geometry, and artillery; he also got acquainted with other sciences, learned to build a fortress and ships. So Peter, as a young man, received a wide education for that time. When Peter turned 17, Sophia's supporters decided to kill him and declare Sophia queen. Peter found out about this in time and fled to a nearby monastery. Soon his young army and part of the old troops, boyars and other influential people arrived to him. In the fight against Sophia, Peter was the winner. Having received power, the young tsar decided to immediately begin to carry out his extensive plans for the transformation of Russia. To become a European state, Russia needed access to the sea. At first, Peter made an attempt to gain access to the Black Sea. Peter himself led two campaigns against Turkey. He took the fortress of Azov and began to strengthen the shores of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov in order to penetrate through it into the Black Sea. Wishing to conclude an alliance with European states against Turkey, Peter sent a "Great Embassy" to Western Europe. The tsar himself went incognito, like a simple soldier Pyotr Mikhailov. In Holland, he worked for four months at a shipyard as a simple worker. He then studied shipbuilding in England for four months. At the same time, he negotiated with the governments of European powers, studied various crafts, attended lectures, museums, factories, hospitals. Peter failed to conclude an alliance against Turkey, but he returned to Moscow as a mature man, with a ready plan for state reforms. Wasting no time, Peter immediately set about implementing his reforms. They actually covered all areas of the life of the Russian people. Peter decided to Europeanize even appearance Russian person. He ordered the boyars and courtiers to shave their beards, wear European clothes, drink coffee and go to parties, as in Europe. At the same time, Peter set about creating a regular army and navy according to the European model. His reforms of central and local government were aimed at strengthening the centralization of power in the country. He even subjugated the Orthodox Church state power . The latter caused discontent not only among the clergy, but also in the general population. Wanting to complete all the reforms during his life, Peter demanded exceptional efforts and sacrifices from his assistants. He himself set an example for them by his tireless activity. By decisive and sometimes cruel measures, Peter the Great in a short time gave a new direction to the whole of Russian life. Breaking the old, he sometimes destroyed the good, replacing Russian customs and traditions with foreign ones, not always suitable for Russia. This created strong opposition to his reforms. But in the main, Peter achieved his goal: during his reign, he made Russia a great power. Under Peter, about 200 enterprises in the metallurgical, textile, shipbuilding and other industries were created. Peter personally participated in all this: he taught, helped and observed the execution. Under Peter, the first Russian newspaper appeared and the Academy of Sciences was founded. At the same time, a new, simpler Russian alphabet was created. To be closer to Western Europe, Peter decides to establish a new capital on the coast of the Baltic Sea. In 1703, he begins to build on the banks of the Neva River, at its confluence with the Gulf of Finland, the city of St. Petersburg, which has become, by all accounts, one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Tsar Peter was not only a teacher and builder of a new empire, but also an outstanding diplomat and commander. After two campaigns against Turkey, Peter had to pay attention to the north: there was a strong enemy - Sweden. In 1700, the Northern War with Sweden began, which lasted 21 years. In 1703, the young and inexperienced army of Peter was defeated near Narva near the Baltic Sea by a talented commander, the young Swedish king Charles XII. Except for the two guards regiments created by Peter in his youth, his entire army fled in complete disarray. Peter did not lose heart. He saw in practice all the shortcomings of his young army and in the shortest possible time created a new strong army. A few years later, Charles XII with his army appeared in the south of Russia. In 1709, the most famous battle of the Northern War took place near the city of Poltava. Peter himself led the battle. Before the battle, he gave the following order to the troops: “Let the Russian army know that the hour has come for a decisive battle not for Peter, but for the state entrusted to Peter, for the All-Russian people. And know about Peter that life is not dear to him, if only Russia lives in fame and fortune." Near Poltava, the Russians defeated the Swedes. Charles XII fled to Turkey. Many Swedish generals and officers were taken prisoner. Having made peace with Sweden and secured possession of the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea for Russia, in 1721 Peter proclaimed the Moscow state the All-Russian Empire, and himself the Emperor. The offspring called Peter the Great - the Great. Peter died the way he lived: not sparing himself and sacrificing himself for Russia and the Russian people. In 1725, he personally rescued soldiers drowning during a flood in the Gulf of Finland, caught a bad cold and died soon after.

The first quarter of the 17th century in Russia was marked by transformations directly related to the "Europeanization" of the country. The beginning of the Petrine era was accompanied by serious changes in manners and way of life. They touched upon the transformation of education and other spheres of public life. All reforms were carried out at the first stage extremely hard, often by force. Consider further the main events of the Petrine era.

Prerequisites for reforms

It must be said that the active penetration of Western European values ​​was noted in the country throughout the entire 17th century. However, the direction of this influence was changed precisely by the Petrine era. The 18th century was a period of introduction of new values ​​and ideas. The key object of the transformation was the life of the Russian nobility. The intensity of the reforms was determined primarily by state goals. Peter the Great sought to transform the administrative, military, industrial and financial spheres. To do this, he needed the experience and achievements of Europe. He associated the success of state reforms with the formation of a qualitatively new worldview of the elites, the restructuring of the life of the nobility.

First experience

The Petrine era was influenced by the Western way of life. The sympathy of the ruler of Russia appeared for European values ​​in his youth. In his early years, Peter often came to German settlement where he made his first friends. After his first visit abroad, he had the idea to transfer customs, institutions, forms of entertainment and communication from Europe to Russia. However, he did not take into account that all this would be perceived with certain difficulties, since the soil and organic background for this in the country had not been created. The Petrine era, in short, is associated with the forcible introduction of European values ​​into Russian life. As records show, the sovereign actually demanded that his subjects step over themselves and abandon the centuries-old traditions of their ancestors.

First conversions

If we talk about what the Petrine era was like, briefly, then rapprochement with the West was expressed in the government's concern that people in Russia even outwardly resemble Europeans. After arriving from abroad, Peter ordered to bring scissors and cut off the beards of the shocked boyars himself. This operation was performed by the sovereign more than once. The beard for him became a symbol of antiquity. He negatively perceived her presence on the face of the boyars. Although the beard has long acted as an inviolable decoration, a sign of honor and generosity, a source of pride. A decree of 1705 obliged all men, except for priests and monks, to shave their mustaches and beards. Thus, society was divided into 2 unequal parts. One - the nobility and the elite of the urban population, which was under pressure from Europeanization, while the other retained its usual way of life.

Painting

The artists of the Petrine era in their own way reflected the patterns of this historical period. I must say that painting as a whole reached a new level with a certain delay in comparison with other advanced countries. The art of the Petrine era becomes secular. Initially, the new painting is approved in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Prior to this, the masters painted only icons. The culture of the Petrine era demanded the image of solemn battles glorifying victories, portraits of the tsar and subjects. Russian engravers could only illustrate church books. At a new historical stage, views of St. Petersburg, engravings for textbooks on artillery, architecture and maritime affairs were needed. The culture of the Petrine era was freed from the power of the church, trying to catch up with European countries that had gone far ahead.

Reform Specifics

Features of the culture of the Petrine era were manifested in a sharp transformation of the usual way of life of people. First of all, Russia began to join Western trends in painting. The transformations were carried out not only in order to attract foreign artists and craftsmen to the country. One of the key goals was the education of the domestic public, the introduction of the best European traditions. The training time for Russian masters did not last long. In the second half of the 18th century The artists who returned from Holland and Italy showed the world their talent and acquired skills, starting to create magnificent masterpieces. The new painting was distinguished by an increase in interest in man. Much attention has also been given to inner world, and body structure. Russian artists began to own technical advances European masters. In their work they now use new materials: marble, oil, canvas. In painting, a direct perspective appears, capable of showing the volume and depth of space. The first artists of the new era were Matveev and Nikitin.

Engraving

She took a separate place in art in the first half of the 18th century. Engraving was considered the most accessible type of painting. She quickly responded to the events that took place in life. The range of subjects was reduced to portraits of great people, views of cities, battles, ceremonial events. The Petrine era gave Russia and the world such masters as Rostovtsev, Alexei and Ivan Zubov.

miniature portraits

They also began to appear at the beginning of the century. The first authors were Ovsov and Musikisky. At first, miniature portraits of statesmen and their relatives were created. However, after a while, the demand for these works grew so much that a special class was created at the Academy of Arts in the last quarter of the 18th century.

Books

The literature of the Petrine era most clearly reflected the trends of the new time. In 1717, "Reasoning ..." was published, which described the reasons for the war with Sweden. The publication was prepared by Vice-Chancellor Shafirov on behalf of the sovereign. This "Reasoning" became the first domestic diplomatic treatise on Russia's foreign policy priorities. Economic transformations were reflected in the works of Pososhkov. His most famous publication was The Book of Wealth and Poverty. Feofan Prokopovich, a supporter of church reform, was a brilliant writer, orator, church and public figure in the Petrine era. He developed the "Spiritual Regulations", "The Truth of the Monarchs' Will". Another prominent figure was Stefan Yavorsky. He created such religious treatises as "The Stone of Faith", "The Sign of the Coming of the Antichrist". These writings were directed against Protestantism and reformism.

Entertainment

During the reforms, attempts were made to create public theaters in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Comedy and historical plays were staged on the stage (for example, Amphitryon and Dr. Enforced by Molière). The first domestic dramatic works began to appear. Thus, the Petrine era was marked by the creation of Prokopovich's tragicomedy "Vladimir", Zhukovsky's play "Glory of Russia". Changes in morals were manifested in the emergence of new types of entertainment. By the end of 1718, the elites of Petersburg society were informed of the introduction of assemblies. This idea was born by Peter after visiting French living rooms. Major political and scientific figures, painters and other representatives of high society gathered and talked in them. By establishing assemblies in Russia, Peter sought to accustom the nobles to secular behavior, as well as to introduce the women of the state to public life. In the process of organization, the reformer used both the practical and theoretical achievements of Europe. The decree, which regulated the order of meetings in the houses, provided a list of rules, described the schedule of entertainment that those present had to follow.

chronology

"Utility" was the main idea that permeated the entire Petrine era. The years of the reign of the great reformer were marked by the introduction of a new chronology. Now the countdown was not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. New Year started on January 1, not September 1. Holidays were also established. So, Peter introduced the New Year. His celebration was to be carried out from 1 to 7 January. At the same time, the gates of the yards should be decorated with spruce, pine and juniper trees or branches. In the evenings it was prescribed to burn bonfires along the large streets, and people who met were supposed to congratulate each other. Fireworks were arranged in the capital on New Year's Eve. Peter thus became the founder of many public holidays. Victory celebrations began to take place following the example of the triumphs of Rome. In 1769, in the celebrations of the victory at Azov, key elements of future events appeared. Roman signs were quite clearly visible in them. By order of the sovereign, the triumphal gates were built.

Introducing women to secular life

Carrying out his reforms, Peter did not take into account that the population was not quite ready for them. So, for example, it was extremely problematic for women to move away from the house-building way of life at one moment. However, the reformer showed concern for them. He told women how to behave, dress, and speak. At first, at the assemblies, according to the memoirs of contemporaries, Russian ladies, tightly drawn into corsets, could not only dance gracefully and easily, but also did not know how they should sit or stand. For the most part, they were clumsy, clumsy.

The value of the Petrine era

The transformations of the sovereign allowed the country to reach a qualitatively new level. First of all, the backlog of cultural and economic spheres from the advanced countries of Europe. In addition, Russia began to turn into a great and powerful power. Due to the introduction of European values, the country began to be perceived in the international arena. Thanks to Peter's reforms, now not a single important event was decided without the participation of Russia. The changes that took place in the life of the state in the first quarter of the 18th century were very progressive. However, they further widened the gap between the nobility and the lower classes. Boyars have become a noble elite class. The use of cultural achievements and benefits has become only their privilege. All this was accompanied by the spread of contempt for the Russian language and ancient culture among the nobility. Many historians note that Europeanization intensified the negative cultural manifestations of pre-Petrine Russia. The innovations introduced were hard to perceive by the nobility. Often, transformations have provoked actions that are quite the opposite of what was expected. Politeness and courtesy by order could not become an internal need, they gave rise to rudeness and obscenity. The changes affected only the top of society. For a very long time after the end of the Petrine era, the Russian peasant did not go to the theater, did not read newspapers, did not know about the existence of assemblies. Thus, the reforms changed the social position of the privileged class towards the West, and the life of the lower classes - in the opposite direction, towards the East. On the one hand, transformations in the sphere of everyday life and culture formed the conditions for the development of education, science, and literature. However, many European values ​​and stereotypes were transferred in a violent and mechanical way. This created significant obstacles to the full development of native Russian culture based on ancient national traditions. Representatives of the nobility, accepting European values, quite sharply departed from the people. The keeper of Russian culture - the Russian peasant - was attached to national traditions. And this connection of his only intensified in the course of the modernization of the state. As a result, a deep socio-cultural split in society began. All these phenomena largely predetermined the sharp contradictions and the strength of the social upheavals that arose at the beginning of the 20th century.

Conclusion

Peter's transformations in the cultural, public sphere of the life of the state were distinguished by a pronounced political character. Often the reforms were carried out by violent methods. People were forced to accept alien values, sciences. All this was done in the interests of the state, which was formed according to the strict orders of the monarch. Fundamental difference Russian Empire, created in a quarter of a century, should have been emphasized by the external attributes of the Petrine era. The reformer tried to give majesty to the state, to bring it into international relationships as European country. That is why Western values ​​were so actively introduced into life. The reforms affected absolutely all spheres of life of the nobles. In the early stages of innovation caused stiff resistance. However, disobedience to the monarch was not allowed. The elite classes had to obey and learn to live by the new rules. By introducing reforms, Peter sought to ensure that the nobility received practical European experience. Therefore, he often traveled abroad himself, sent his subjects abroad, invited foreigners to Russia. He sought to bring the country out of political isolation. In the era of Peter, a huge number of works of art appeared. Russian craftsmen, having adopted the experience and skills of Europeans, created masterpieces that later became known to the whole world. Significant changes were noted in the architecture. Despite the rather harsh introduction of innovations, Russia was able to get closer to Europe. However, as mentioned above, the reforms affected only the upper classes. The peasantry continued to be uneducated. The lower classes were the keepers of the ancient traditions and held them sacred. The identity of Peter is considered controversial by many historians. His reforms are also ambiguously perceived by researchers. His transformations affected not only customs and life, art and architecture. The military sphere and the administrative apparatus underwent significant changes. Many innovations are firmly rooted in the country. Subsequent generations improved the system created by Peter. The monarch became a symbol of decisive transformations, fruitfulness and efficiency in the use of Western European achievements.
Peter did a tremendous job in the country. Despite the fact that he did not take into account many circumstances and features of the Russian mentality, historians admit that the state during his reign took a huge step forward. Society has become progressive, secular, educated, educated. Among the descendants, Peter the Great, one might say, is practically the only ruler who retained the title of Great, bestowed on him during his lifetime.

Russian culture in the first half of the 18th century

Tatyana Ponka

Education. Before Peter I, enlightenment was imbued with religious medieval ideology and was in the hands of the church. The transformations of Peter I required specialists in various branches of science and technology. The old school could not provide such specialists. Under Peter I, the attitude to education changes. The enlightenment of the people becomes the concern of the state.
The great achievement of Peter I was that he forced the nobles to study. The tsar sent young nobles abroad to study various sciences, mainly navigational (marine), mechanics, artillery, and foreign languages. He ordered teachers from abroad. But these measures did not solve the problem of education. Then Peter I began to create a network of schools in Russia. In 1701, the first in Russia School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened in Sukharev Tower in Moscow under the guidance of Professor Forvarson of the Scottish University of Aberdeen - the first secular state educational institution. In 1715, under the name of the Naval Academy, it was transferred to St. Petersburg. It accepted children from 12 to 17, then up to 20 years old. Hundreds of engineers, navigators, hydrographers, topographers, scorers, etc. came out of the Navigational School. In 1705, the captive Saxon Gluck opened a general education gymnasium, which studied geography, Latin rhetoric, oratory, philosophy, foreign languages, ethics, politics, theater arts and horseback riding. In 1707, the Medical Academy was opened at the Moscow military hospital. Under the Ambassadorial order, a school was created for the training of translators. In 1711, the School of Engineering was established in Moscow.
Initially, these schools were classless, and both children of nobles and commoners could study in them. But soon the children of raznochintsy were no longer accepted, and the schools turned into privileged ones. educational establishments for the nobles. Education for the nobility and clergy under Peter I became mandatory. The sovereign decree of January 20, 1714 forbade the marriage of nobles who had not graduated from any school. A priest who did not graduate from a diocesan school did not receive a parish.
In addition to Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational institutions approaching primary general education school, were also created in the provinces: diocesan (for children of priests), digital (for commoners), garrison and admiralty (for soldiers and sailors). At the largest manufactories in Karelia and the Urals, mining schools were created, where qualified craftsmen were trained for the metallurgical industry. For the children of peasants, especially serfs, there was a strict ban on studying in public schools. But in cities and villages, the old forms of education were preserved - the so-called literacy schools, in which the children of commoners learned the beginnings of education. In noble families, home schooling began to spread. In schools, teachers were usually foreigners invited to serve by Peter I, graduates of the schools themselves.
The content of education began to change. Instead of theology, in the first place were those subjects that gave knowledge useful for practice: mathematics, astronomy, engineering, fortification. Since the time of Peter the Great, enlightenment has become more and more secular and practical.
In the second quarter of the XVIII century. the main attention was also paid to the education of noble children in closed educational institutions. In 1731, an educational institution of a closed type, the Land Gentry Cadet Corps, was opened for gentry (noble) children. Translated from French, the word "cadete" means junior, minor. So called in France the young nobles enrolled in military service before promotion to officers. Initially designed for 200 pupils, the corps accepted up to 360 people in the first year. AT Cadet Corps only literate children of nobles between the ages of 13 and 18 were accepted. The curriculum was designed for 5–6 years and included the study of the Law of God, Russian and French(in all classes), German and Latin - at will, calligraphy, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, folding writing, rhetoric, jurisprudence and music (for the especially gifted), morality, heraldry, fortification and artillery. At the end of the course, after a rigorous examination, graduates were to enter military or civil service. Depending on the successes, officer ranks or non-commissioned officer ranks were assigned. For the civil service, the Cadet Corps trained officials, judges and diplomats. The cadet gentry corps was often called a "hotbed of great people." Field Marshals P.A. came out of its walls. Rumyantsev and M.F. Kamensky, writers A.P. Sumarokov and M.M. Kheraskov, the first Russian actor F. Volkov, historian I.P. Elagin, heroes Patriotic War 1812 generals D.S. Dokhturov, Ya.P. Kulnev, I.S. Dorokhov and others.
In the first half of the XVIII century. professional art schools appeared. So, in 1738, the Dance School was opened in St. Petersburg, now the Choreographic School. AND I. Vaganova.
Book business. The development of education required the publication of textbooks. Educational literature, primers, manuals on mechanics and mathematics, manuals on military engineering were issued for schools. In 1703, teacher of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences L.F. Magnitsky published the famous textbook - "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals", according to which Russian schoolchildren have been studying mathematics for more than 50 years. The "Primer" by F.P. Polikarpov, F. Prokopovich's "The First Teaching to Youths", Skornyakov-Pisarev's manual on mechanics. The bulk of the textbooks were either translations or the work of foreign teachers. Dictionaries, various manuals on mechanics, technology, and architecture were published. All of them, as a rule, were illustrated with engravings, diagrams, drawings.
The need to publish a large number of books on a secular topic required a reform of the alphabet. The drawings of the new alphabet were made in 1707-1708. draftsman and draftsman Kulenbach based on the sketches of Peter himself. In 1710, Peter I approved the new alphabet. The number of letters was reduced from 43 to 32 (then, under pressure from the church, some letters were restored), the spelling of letters changed and became more beautiful (the complex Cyrillic alphabet was latinized), Arabic numerals were introduced to indicate numbers (instead of the inconvenient system of designating letters of the church alphabet). From now on, secular books were printed in a new font, books of religious content were printed in the old, Church Slavonic font.
In 1703, the first newspaper "Vedomosti about military and other matters worthy of knowledge and memory, which happened in the Muscovite state and other neighboring countries" appeared in Russia. The king himself took part in editing the newspaper. Vedomosti published domestic and foreign chronicles, information about military, economic and cultural events. The circulation of Vedomosti ranged from 100 to 2500 copies. Since 1708, mass production of annual calendars began. The calendars contained a variety of information. Together with information on agronomy, mathematics, history, data on the weather, "fertility and non-fertility", "diseases of this year", one could find out one's own horoscope and the interpretation of dreams.
In 1705, in Moscow, near the Spassky Bridge in Kitai-Gorod, the first printing house was founded to print secular books. Kipriyanov was placed at its head. At the printing house, Peter ordered the opening of a library. Due to the fire and the death of Kipriyanov, the library was unfinished. Then the son of Kipriyanov Vasily got down to business. Vasily completed the library at his own expense and asked that the use of books be free. When one of Peter’s dignitaries suggested introducing a fee in the European manner, Peter objected to him: “I order not only to let everyone in here for free, but if anyone comes with a company, then treat them to my account with a cup of coffee, a glass of vodka, or something else. in these companies." Another printing house was opened in 1712 in St. Petersburg. Printing houses were headed not by clergy, but by secular persons. Other printing houses were also opened, their specialization in the type of publication of literature (textbooks, maps, tables, official materials, spiritual books, etc.) began. The printing industry has taken on an unprecedented scale. The peculiarity of printing was that all of it was put at the service of the country's transformations. Bookstores opened. In 1714, a state bookstore was opened in the St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor. Here they sold printed decrees, educational alphabets, "comfortable reading", i.e. multiplication table, engravings, calendars. In Moscow, books could be bought in the Printing House shop, in the malls. However, the book trade in the first decades of the XVIII century. was still underdeveloped.
Among the people, a handwritten, Old Believer book, popular print continued to exist. A well-known political lubok of the time of Peter the Great was the famous picture "How We Buried the Cat", created among the opponents of the reforms.
The science. Great value for development Russian science had the establishment of the Academy of Sciences. The idea of ​​organizing a scientific center came to Peter as early as 1718, after visiting and getting acquainted with the activities of the French Academy. In January 1724, the project for the creation of the Academy of Sciences and Arts, as it was originally called, was approved by Peter I. The official opening of the Academy took place in 1725 after his death.
The creation of the Academy of Sciences was a major event in the social and cultural life of Russia. First appeared in the country science Center, which had a sufficiently equipped base for research in various areas knowledge. The Academy had three departments: mathematics, physics and "humanities". The first members of the Academy were 12 people, they had to follow the new literature in their specialty, make "inventions" and make presentations and "advice". Along with Russian scientists, foreigners were invited to the Academy, among whom were prominent scientists. The Academy had a library, a museum, a printing house, a botanical garden, an observatory, physical and chemical laboratory.
Many prominent scientists emerged from the walls of the academic university, whose names became widely known in Russian science and education in the second half of the 18th century. Academic University graduated from M.V. Lomonosov, who became the first Russian academician.
In 1698, the creation of the collection of the first museum in Russia began, which Peter called the "kunstkamera" ("kunst" in German - art, "kamers" - room). The basis of the collection was an anatomical collection brought by Peter from Holland. Peter I issued decrees that ordered the inhabitants of Russia to collect and hand over "unusual stones, human or animal bones, fish or bird bones ... yes, big or small before ordinary ones, as well as old signatures on stones, iron and copper, or what an old and now unusual gun, dishes and other everything that is very old and unusual. In addition to the collection, the Kunstkamera had a rich library with 11,000 volumes. In 1719 the Kunstkamera was opened to the public. In 1714, Peter I created a museum based on his personal collections, calling it the "Kunstkamera"). In 1718-1734, according to the project of architects Zemtsov and Matarnovi, a special building was built near the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island.
In the first decades of the 18th century significant progress was made in geographical science, which was associated with the practical needs of the state in the development of new territories, minerals, and urban planning. In 1697, V. Atlasov led an expedition to Kamchatka and compiled its geographical and ethnographic description. In 1711, the northern group of the Kuril Islands was discovered and a drawing of the entire Kuril ridge was drawn up. In 1711, from the Chukchi, it became known about the "land beyond the strait" (the first information about America). In 1715, an expedition was sent to Central Asia to search for gold. Peter I dreamed of laying a trade route to India through the territory of Russia. For this purpose, an expedition to the Caspian region was organized. Soon, a map of the western coast of the Caspian Sea was drawn up for the first time, for the first time the Aral Sea, which the Europeans did not know about, was mapped. Maps of the Sea of ​​Azov and the Don basin were also drawn up. During the expeditions, they studied Natural resources countries, collected collections on ethnography, mineralogy, botany, biology.
Geological surveys were carried out on a wide scale. The study of minerals led to the discovery of deposits of sulfur and oil in the Volga region, coal in the Donbass, lead-silver ores in Transbaikalia, were widely explored iron ores in the Urals. For 1700-1711. 121 ore deposits were discovered in Russia. The Kamchatka expeditions of V. Bering (30s of the 18th century) discovered the strait dividing Europe and Asia. The result of the work of Russian cartographers was the "Atlas of the All-Russian Empire", compiled in 1732 by I.K. Kirillov.
One of the achievements of technical thought was the creation of A.K. Nartov, an outstanding mechanic of his time, the world's first screw-cutting lathe. Scientific and technical data were used in the construction of dams and mechanisms in manufactories, in the construction of canals, docks, and shipyards. In 1702, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal system began, and in 1709 a new waterway was opened.
In the time of Peter the Great, attempts were made to write national history, a work was created on the history of the Northern War. Peter I was interested in Russian history and forced his associates to study it. In 1722, Peter I issued a decree "On ancient chronicles and chronographs", according to which the dioceses and monasteries were to collect and send ancient books to Moscow for making copies from them. Synopsis, the first educational and historical work published in Kyiv in 1674, remained the main guide to the history of Russia in schools. general history.
Socio-political thought. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. Russia's scientific and cultural contacts with Western Europe are actively expanding. The works of major naturalists and philosophers became known in Russia: Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Descartes, Hobbes, and others. This led to the emergence of humanistic and rationalistic teachings in Russia. There are also changes in the public consciousness.
In the socio-political thought of the XVIII century. reflected a number of new political, socio-economic and cultural problems. In Peter's reforms, the state played a leading role. The fate of transformations depended on the state. The understanding of the role of the state in the life of society grew in society. This found expression in the development of the ideology of absolutism. The approval or rejection of the absolute monarchy was the main watershed in the ideological clashes in the Petrine era.
One of the most prominent associates of Peter I and the greatest thinkers of his time was the vice-president of the Synod, F. Prokopovich (1681–1736). After graduating from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, he went to Poland, where he accepted the Uniatism, then to Rome, to the Jesuit school, he takes monasticism. For unknown reasons, he fled Rome and returned to Kyiv in 1702 as a staunch opponent of the Jesuits and the "pape spirit". In Kyiv, he converted to Orthodoxy under the name Feofan and became a teacher of poetics and rhetoric at the academy, from 1711 - rector. In Kyiv, at the solemn ceremony of meeting the winners of the Poltava battle in front of the king, he delivered a vivid speech. Theophan's personality attracted the tsar by the fact that the young priest was a staunch supporter of Peter's reforms. When establishing the Synod, the tsar made F. Prokopovich vice-president of the Synod. F. Prokopovich was a supporter of European science, customs, laws, he was alien to Russian Orthodoxy. All his activities were aimed at separating the church from the state, which weakened the position of the church in society. After the reforms of Peter the Great, the Russian Church will never occupy its former position in society.
The most famous are two political works by F. Prokopovich "Spiritual Regulations" (1721) and "The Truth of the Monarchs' Will" (1722). In them, he substantiates the monarchical system of government as the most expedient type of state in Russia. Prokopovich considers such forms of government as "people's power", in which the most important issues are resolved "by the consent of all the inhabitants", and the aristocracy, when "a few elected men rule the fatherland". Prokopovich defended the idea of ​​a hereditary monarchy, where the throne is bequeathed to the heir, regardless of the degree of kinship. In the "Spiritual Regulations" the main idea is to uphold the priority of secular power over the spiritual. The idea of ​​the independence of the church from the state is explicitly Catholicism. The power of the monarch was declared "not subject to any laws", i.e. limitless, absolute. In substantiating the replacement of the patriarchate by the Synod, Prokopovich dwells in detail on the merits of collegiate church government, which meets the principles of "cathedral government."
After the promulgation in 1722 of the Decree on the succession to the throne, he wrote the book "The Truth of the Will of Monarchs", in which he argues that the right to transfer the throne to one or another person belongs exclusively to the personal will of the autocrat.
In the time of Peter the Great, the beginnings of bourgeois relations were laid. The ideologist of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie was the merchant I.T. Pososhkov. The son of a silversmith I.T. Pososhkov by the end of his life became a wine merchant. In 1724 he wrote The Book of Poverty and Wealth, which became an outstanding work of Russian economic thought. Pososhkov believed that the country could be rid of poverty by a reform of governance. To do this, all estates should be elected elected to create a single set of laws - a new code. He attached great importance to the merchant class and proposed measures to encourage trade and industry. In his opinion, engaging in trade should have been the exclusive privilege of the merchants; nobility and peasants should be prohibited from engaging in trade; Russian merchants must be protected from foreign competition. Imports should be sharply reduced and exports should be increased. He demanded that the state support the merchants with loans and the transfer of ownership of state-owned factories. He also advocated the creation of a single merchant organization. He condemned class division, considering it useful to allow public service people from various walks of life, not just nobles. He condemned the excessive burdening of the peasants with work, proposed to limit the amount of duties by law and abolish the poll tax. He considered it expedient to spread literacy among the peasants. perfect state structure he considered an absolute monarchy, which he opposed to those countries where the kings "cannot do anything of their own free will, but their subjects are autocratic." Projects by I.T. Pososhkov seemed suspicious, in 1726 he was captured by the Secret Chancellery and died in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
Literature. Changes in social life were also reflected in literature. Old forms continued to exist in literature, but the content literary works changed, a new hero appeared.
Early 18th century was the beginning of the heyday of the story ("History"). A fundamentally new hero appears, he is educated, brave, lucky, loves traveling. The "History of the Russian sailor Vasily Kariotsky and the beautiful Princess Heraclius of Florence" gained great popularity. The son of a nobleman, Vasily Kariotsky, is sent to the naval service. He travels to Holland, where he succeeds in the service of a merchant. Having been captured by the robbers, he soon becomes their chieftain, having discovered his prowess and sharp mind. With gallant treatment, he conquers the noble captive - the Florentine princess. After freeing her, he marries her and lives "in great glory". This story was supposed to convince the reader that respect, honor and wealth are achieved through the personal qualities of a person, and not the nobility of the family.
Theatre. Peter I in childhood saw the first theatrical performances at the door of his father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In 1702 - 1703, by decree of Peter I, a public theater was opened in Moscow "Comedy Temple" - a large building that gathered up to 500 people; it was located near the Nikolskaya tower of the Moscow Kremlin. The directors and actors in it were mostly foreigners, but Russian actors also performed with them. The theater was supposed to contribute to the enlightenment of the people, so it turned into a public spectacle. In 1702, a wandering German theater was invited to Russia under the direction of the actor and playwright I. Kunsht. The theater was opened in 1702. Secular plays were staged in the theater, mainly tragedies of the ancient period, plays by J.-B. Molière. Like her father, the sister of Peter I, Tsarevna Natalia Alekseevna, maintained her own theater. The theater was also started by the court nobility for a narrow circle of spectators. But the theater was still quite a rare phenomenon of cultural life.
Music. At the beginning of the XVIII century. there have been changes in the art of music. This was the beginning of the emergence of secular music in Russia.
Polyphonic singing was in full bloom. Important state events are taking place, and musical responses were needed to glorify both the power of the tsar and the military victories he won. During the period of Peter's transformations, V. Titov's creativity flourished. The composer responds "to the topic of the day." So, in honor of the victory of the Russian troops in the Battle of Poltava, he writes a twelve-voice concert "Rtsy us now", which later was given the name "Poltava triumph". The concert spoke of the victory of the Russian troops and the capture of the Swedish army. V. Titov became the first Russian musician at the court of Peter I. Then the choir of the sovereign's singing clerks, created two centuries ago, was transferred to St. Petersburg. Petersburg, it was transformed into the Court Chapel. Soloists of the choir accompanied the king everywhere and glorified his activities.
The most widespread musical genre of the time of Peter the Great was edging- three-part song without musical accompaniment. The cantes were varied in content, but in the time of Peter the Great, cantes, vivatas, or panegyric cantes, developed rapidly. These songs spoke about the victory near Poltava, Narva or Riga, about the betrayal of the vile hetman Mazepa, about the flight of the Swedish king to Turkey, about the brave military leader Menshikov, etc. In cantes, religious symbolism was very often intertwined with ancient mythology (Peter was often compared to Mars). The Kants abounded with standard "officials": "Orle Russian, triumph with us!", "Vivat, Russia, glorious in name!".
There are lyrical cants, which were based on Russian intimate poetry of that time.
In the era of Peter the Great, Western European instrumental music became widely used in cultural life. Time abounded with masquerades, balls, fireworks, and they needed music. Already in the first years of his reign, Peter ordered the maintenance of brass bands in each military regiment. So, in the Preobrazhensky Regiment, there were up to 40 drummers and 32 flutists. Almost the same number of musicians were in the Semyonovsky regiment. In addition to military groups, musical groups belonging to noble nobles were also famous. The home orchestras of Count A.D. were especially famous. Menshikov, Admiral F.M. Apraksin, Count G.A. Stroganov. In the salons, music was performed by well-known European authors - Telemann, Corelli, Tartini. There was no national instrumental music in Russia in those days, just as there was no opera.

Russian art of the 1st third of the 18th century. (“Petrine era”): Trezzini architecture, portrait painting by I. Nikitin, A. Matveev.

The reforms of Peter 1 concerned all aspects of Russian life, they manifested themselves with particular clarity in the fine arts and architecture. The main trends are the transition from the Middle Ages to the new time, pro-Western and secular orientation, accelerated development. Back in the 17th century, the sprouts of a new culture appeared (parsuna, popular print, round plastic), realistic features were growing, and contacts with the West were intensified. But only thanks to the progressive deeds of Peter did they develop and lead to a complete renewal artistic culture.

The reforms concerned all types and genres of art, all aspects of artistic life. While young Russian artists (“pensioners”) were studying abroad, invited Western masters were working in Russia. One of them was an architect D. Trezzini. His buildings (Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712 - 1733) and the Peter and Paul Gates in the Peter and Paul Fortress, the building of the Twelve Colleges (1722-1742), Gostiny Dvor (1723-1735, was located near the building of the Twelve Colleges, has not survived) Summer Palace,) . solved in the style of restrained northern, Peter's baroque, reminiscent of Dutch architecture. french master J.-B. Leblon developed building plan of St. Petersburg , as well as standard projects of residential buildings. New Construction Materials, compositional techniques corresponding to Western European architectural traditions.

The general direction of construction in the middle of the 18th century is fundamentally different than at the beginning of the century. During these years of the rise of noble culture, palace and church buildings were decisive. The greatest architect of the time was Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli(1700-1771), son of a famous sculptor. Its most characteristic buildings were three large complexes - Catherine Palace (1752 - 1756) in Tsarskoye Selo Winter Palace (1754-1762) and Smolny Monastery (1748-1764) Petersburg, representing, as it were, three types of palaces: suburban, city and palace-monastery.

Similar processes took place in the visual arts. The most original painters were “pensioners” Nikitin(studied in Italy, n-you Peter 1, Tsesarevna Anna Petrovna, "Outdoor Hetman" ) and Matveev(studied in Flanders and Holland, self-portrait with his wife, Golitsyna ). Both worked in the portrait genre, in a baroque style that evolved towards realism. Matveev was the first of the Russian masters to lead the “picturesque team” of the Office of Buildings, which carried out all the monumental and decorative work in the capital.

In the sculpture of this time, a noticeable mark left Rastrelli-father invited from Italy to create equestrian monument of Peter 1 . In addition to which he made many spectacular baroque portraits, laid the foundations of Russian secular sculpture ( bust of Peter 1, “Anna Ioannovna with a black child”).

Russian art of the first half of the 18th century is usually divided into three time periods: the Petrine era (the first quarter of the 18th century), the end of the 1720s - the beginning of the 1740s and the 1740s - 1750s. The first stage is characterized by the development of secular forms of fine arts, the creation new system art education, solving urban problems. The second stage is the time when Peter's reforms bring tangible results in the field of architecture and fine arts, when many Peter's pensioners return from abroad and start working, the foundations for the development of art in the middle of the 18th century are laid. The third stage is a period of further rise in national artistic culture, a certain return to the traditions of the art of Ancient Russia, the flourishing of baroque architecture.

Trezzini. Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Trezzini. Peter's Gate in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Trezzini. Gostiny yard.

Trezzini. Gostiny yard.

Trezzini. building of the Twelve Collegia.

Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Catherine Palace.

Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Winter Palace.

Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Smolny Monastery.

The Petrine era is the most interesting period of Russian history. Russia is changing and strengthening, becoming great empire. The country is undergoing reforms one after another. Enormous successes have been achieved in industry and the economy. Constant wars are going on in the country, which is not surprising, because it was wars that Peter I considered necessary to gain access to the sea and strengthen Russia. Peter himself, a rebel and a reformer, makes some admire him, while others infuriate. After all, he gave such a powerful impetus to the development of his country that, as historians say, "almost broke her back."

• - The development of the country and its transformation into a European power required not only numerous reforms, but also economic independence in foreign trade relations. For this, the empire needed access to the sea shores.
• - Historians call Peter's foreign policy impeccable. He shows himself to be a loyal ally and a man who kept his word. In military affairs, Peter was a brilliant organizer and commander. As a result of the reforms, the Russian army not only increased, but also qualitatively changed in better side.
• - The personality of Peter, as well as his reforms, is ambiguously assessed by descendants and contemporaries. Giving all his strength to the service of the state, Peter demanded the same from his subordinates. In public administration, he sought to introduce the principle of legality. Peter suffered many failures, great were the sacrifices, but also great were his achievements.
• - Peter tried his best to give the officers a privileged position, to make them the elite of society. For special merits, the military was awarded orders. The army under Peter did not experience difficulties with weapons and food. Great importance given discipline and guard duty.
• - After an unsuccessful attempt to find a way to India through Central Asia, Peter decides to go from the other side. As a result Persian campaign The coast of the Caspian Sea was annexed to Russia. However, Peter's successors saw no benefit in this. After the death of Peter the Russian troops were withdrawn from the conquered lands.
• - Russia's great success was the Treaty of Nystadt concluded in 1721. Under this agreement, Russia received land on the coast of the Baltic Sea, thus solving an important foreign policy problem. Sweden has lost its status as a great power. The borders of Russia moved far to the west, a powerful navy appeared on the Baltic Sea.
• - In 1712, Russia continues the war and conducts successful operations, having won a number of victories. Peter negotiated an alliance with the king of Sweden, but the king dies, and his sister decides to continue the war with Russia. Active hostilities at sea begin. The Russian fleet wins at Grengam, which becomes the last battle of the war.
• - Despite the supply problems that have arisen, Peter decides to move forward. Turkish Sultan offers him peace in exchange for land, Peter refuses and launches an offensive. The “allies” of Russia fled in the very first battle, the position of the Russian army becomes difficult, but the Turks agree to negotiations, as a result of which the Prut Peace was concluded, which was extremely unfavorable for Russia.
• - After defeating the Swedes, Peter decides to continue the conquest of the Baltic coast. In 1710, Livonia was finally conquered, the capture of Vyborg and Kexholm created a bridgehead that reliably covered St. Petersburg. However, further successes of Russian weapons were stopped as a result of the intrigues of Charles XII in Turkey.
• - On September 28, at the Battle of Lesnaya, the Swedish troops were utterly defeated and suffered heavy losses. After several unsuccessful attempts to capture Belgorod, Karl decides to capture Poltava. However, the siege is not successful. On June 27, the decisive battle took place. As a result, the Swedish army was completely defeated, Karl fled to the Turks.
• - Russian troops continued fighting in the western direction. Under Golovchino, the Russian army is defeated as a result of the wrong choice of position. In the future, the situation developed favorably for the Russians. Karl, having no news from General Lewenhaupt, retreated to Ukraine.
• - By the beginning of the Northern War, the Russian army was not sufficiently prepared and suffered heavy losses. After that, on the orders of Peter, the feverish construction of industrial enterprises began, and the recruitment system was completed. Thanks to this, as well as more effective tactics, the Russian army soon won a number of victories, capturing strategically important territories and gaining a foothold on them.
• - The primary task for Peter the Great was to provide Russia with a reliable access to the sea. Arkhangelsk in the north and Azov in the south did not fully solve this problem. Since the Black Sea, according to Peter, presented many inconveniences, his main attention was directed to the Baltic.
• - Peter sought not only to introduce European customs in Russia, but also to raise Russian technology and education to European level. For this, young people were sent to study abroad. Various educational institutions were established. Books of secular content were printed in large quantities, the beginning of the periodical press was laid. In the capitals, on the orders of Peter, evening public meetings were held.
• - High military spending forced Peter to look for new sources of government revenue. Since 1704, an endless series of new taxes has been introduced. To increase the productivity and quality of people's labor, Peter took a number of measures to improve the quality and productivity of labor in agriculture, took care of the development of mining, large-scale factory industry and achieved considerable success in these areas.
• - Under Peter the Great, the boyars disappear. He appointed officials, regardless of origin. The official service of the nobility not only did not become easier, but became more difficult than in the Muscovite state. Relations between peasants and landlords were not regulated by Peter's legislation, but the introduction of the "poll tax" worsened the situation of the peasants.
• - Peter the Great saw in his son Alexei the future heir. However, Alexei did not share the views of his father and renounced the throne, subsequently fleeing abroad. Peter tricked him into returning to Russia, where Alexei was arrested and died from torture. After the death of Peter the Great, the issue of succession to the throne became controversial.
• - As a result of the church reform carried out by Peter, the patriarchate was replaced by a collegiate form of government. According to historians, the events experienced by Peter in his childhood had a significant impact on his personality. Therefore, his desire to equip everything according to the Western model touched the church.
• - After the Azov campaigns, Peter was convinced of the low suitability of the troops for military operations. In 1698 the military reform began. The principle of recruiting troops has changed, most command posts have been given to foreigners. In 1703, preparations began for the creation of a navy.
• - In the process of the reform carried out by Peter government controlled The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate. State control bodies were established. In 1708 Russia was divided into 8 administrative districts called provinces. Attempts were made to create city self-government.
• - In 1705, after the order on new emergency taxes in Bashkiria, an uprising broke out, as a result of which not only royal officials, but also ordinary peasants suffered. Hundreds of Russian villages were devastated. The Bashkirs were negotiating the transition to the power of the Crimean Khan. It was not until 1711 that the rebellion was put down.
• - Peter I is dissatisfied with the settlements on the Don and sends a detachment there led by Prince Dolgoruky. The Don Cossacks opposed the government troops. Cossack troops were led by Kondraty Bulavin and Lukyan Maksimov. There was no unity among the Cossacks and they were defeated.
• - Residents of Astrakhan are dissatisfied with the governor's rule and the high taxes that he introduced. In 1705, a riot began, as a result of which members of the Astrakhan government were killed, including the voivode Rzhevsky himself. All decrees and taxes introduced by Rzhevsky were cancelled.
• - Russian manufactories used forced labor of serfs, the homeless, and convicts. Some manufactories in the country, primarily metallurgical ones, were fully serviced only by them. This is due to the fact that work in metallurgy was exhausting.
• - Good luck in the industry of Russia under Peter I. The sale of metal is growing. The rapid development of the Urals, the construction of new metallurgical plants. metal is needed for Russian army and fleet. Construction of manufactories at the expense of the treasury. Benefits for all successful manufactories.
• - The layer of serfs in Russia was heterogeneous. Among them were both wealthy peasants and the poor. Peasants could engage in crafts in the city: trade or work in manufactories. Few managed to get rich and they could ransom themselves and their families.
• - Under Peter, the nobility received large land holdings. The peasants paid the landowners in kind and in cash dues, worked out corvée on their lands. The situation of the peasants worsened even more when the government switched to poll taxation (instead of household taxation).
• - In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, which increased the trade balance of Russia due to a large duty on foreigners. The duty on goods that were not produced in Russia was 10%. The largest duty was paid for the import of iron, silk, wax and canvas.
• - Crafts are developing rapidly in Russian cities, but the level of development of crafts is very far behind the European one. Crafts in the city are mainly carried out by former peasants. Famous Russian fairs and their features. Expanding trade with Europe.
• - State control absolutely over all spheres of life. Trade between Russian cities is developing. Trade relations with the East are expanding. The state monopoly on trade has led to the replenishment of the treasury, but at the same time smuggling in the country is flourishing.
• - Russian trade continues to develop, but European countries are trying to put pressure on the country. Russia is trying to maintain independence in trade and dictate its terms. Russian merchants turn their faces to the eastern countries, which are the most open.
• - The long absence of the sovereign, as expected, led to uprisings and attempts to overturn power. However, upon his return, young Peter I showed all the makings of a strong ruler, who was waiting for great achievements ahead. He announced a "shooter's wanted list".
• - The king should have shown himself as a great commander. This is partly why the Azov campaign was carried out, which became a significant event in Russian history. He strengthened Peter I on the throne, and also had far-reaching consequences for the state itself.
• - Sophia, the elder sister of the future Emperor Peter I, passionately desired power, but was not mentally ready for it. As a result, the years before the accession of the king were full of turmoil and contradictions, as well as riots and uprisings. In such an atmosphere, the future great sovereign was brought up.
• - The first years of the reign of Peter I were distinguished by complexity and inconsistency. Russia at the end of the 17th century was not at all the country that it had become by the end of the emperor's reign. What she got to the very young Peter, it becomes clear from the further narration.
• - What kind of innovations and transformations did the emperor introduce into the life of the Russian people? Everything that changed with his reign disappeared forever, appeared and settled down in politics, economics, and everyday life became an impetus for the further development of statehood in Russia.