Charles Robert Darwin (eng. Charles Robert Darwin; February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882) - English naturalist and traveler, one of the first to realize and clearly demonstrate that all types of living organisms evolve in time from common ancestors. In his theory, the first detailed presentation of which was published in 1859 in the book "The Origin of Species" (full title: "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Survival of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life"), Darwin called natural selection the main driving force of evolution and indefinite variability. The existence of evolution was recognized by most scientists during the lifetime of Darwin, while his theory of natural selection, as the main explanation for evolution, became generally recognized only in the 30s of the XX century. The ideas and discoveries of Darwin in a revised form form the foundation of the modern synthetic theory of evolution and form the basis of biology, as providing a logical explanation for biodiversity. The orthodox followers of Darwin's teachings develop the direction of evolutionary thought that bears his name (Darwinism).

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Childhood and adolescence

Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on the Mount House family estate. The fifth of six children of wealthy physician and financier Robert Darwin. Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He is the grandson of Erasmus Darwin on his father's side and Josiah Wedgwood on his mother's. Both families were largely Unitarian, but the Wedgwoods were members of the Church of England. Robert Darwin himself was quite open-minded, and agreed that little Charles received communion in the Anglican Church, but at the same time, Charles and his brothers attended the Unitarian Church with their mother. By the time he entered day school in 1817, eight-year-old Darwin had already become familiar with natural history and collecting. This year, in July, his mother dies. Since September 1818, he, along with his older brother Erasmus (eng. Erasmus Alvey Darwin) attends the nearest Anglican Shrewsbury School (eng. Shrewsbury School) as a boarder. Before going with his brother Erasmus to the University of Edinburgh in the summer of 1825, he acts as a student assistant and helps his father in his medical practice, helping the poor of Shropshire.

Edinburgh period of life 1825-1827

Studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. During his studies, he found lectures boring and surgery painful, so he abandoned his medical studies. Instead, he learns taxidermy from John Edmonstone, who gained his experience accompanying Charles Waterton on an expedition to the rainforests of South America, and often referred to him as "very pleasant and erudite person "(English very pleasant and intelligent man).
The following year, as a natural history student, he joined the Pliny Student Society, which actively discussed radical materialism. During this time, he assists Robert Edmund Grant in his research on the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates. At the meetings of the society, in March 1827, he presents brief reports on his first discoveries, which changed the view of familiar things. In particular, he showed that the so-called eggs of the bryozoan Flustra have the ability to move independently with the help of cilia and are in fact larvae; in another discovery, he notices that the small globular bodies, thought to be the young stages of Fucus loreus, are the egg cocoons of the proboscis leech Pontobdella muricata. Once, in Darwin's presence, Grant was praising Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was amazed at this enthusiastic speech, but remained silent. He had recently taken similar ideas from his grandfather, Erasmus, by reading his Zoonomy, and was therefore already aware of the contradictions of this theory. During his second year in Edinburgh, Darwin attended Robert Jameson's natural history course, which covered geology, including the controversy between Neptunists and Plutonists. However, then Darwin did not have a passion for the geological sciences, although he received sufficient training to reasonably judge this subject. During this time he studied plant classification and took part in the extensive collections at the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe of that period.

Cambridge period of life 1828-1831

While still a young man, Darwin became a member of the scientific elite. (Portrait by George Richmond, 1830s.)

Darwin's father, having learned that his son had abandoned his medical studies, was annoyed and suggested that he enter the Cambridge Christian College and receive the priesthood of the Anglican Church. According to Darwin himself, the days spent in Edinburgh sowed in him doubts about the dogmas of the Anglican Church. Therefore, before making a final decision, he takes time to think. At this time, he diligently reads theological books, and ultimately convinces himself of the acceptability of church dogmas and prepares for admission. While studying in Edinburgh, he forgot some of the basics necessary for admission, and so he studied with a private teacher in Shrewsbury and entered Cambridge after the Christmas holidays, at the very beginning of 1828.

Darwin began to study, but, according to Darwin himself, he did not go too deep into his studies, devoting more time to riding, shooting from a gun and hunting (fortunately attending lectures was a voluntary matter). His cousin William Darwin Fox introduced him to entomology and brought him closer to the insect collecting community. As a result, Darwin develops a passion for collecting beetles. Darwin himself, in confirmation of his passion, cites the following story: “Once, tearing off a piece of old bark from a tree, I saw two rare beetles and grabbed one of them with each hand, but then I saw a third, some new kind, which I could not I was unable to let go, and I put the beetle I held in my right hand into my mouth. Alas! He released some extremely caustic liquid, which burned my tongue so much that I had to spit out the beetle, and I lost it, as well as the third. Some of his findings were published in James Francis Stephens's book Illustrations of British Entomology. "Illustrations of British Entomology".

Genslow, John Stephens

He becomes a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. Through his acquaintance with Henslow, he met other leading naturalists, becoming known in their circles as "the man who walks with Henslow". As exams approached, Darwin focused on his studies. During this time, he reads William Paley's Evidence of Christianity, whose language and exposition delight Darwin. literature, mathematics and physics, eventually became 10th in the list of 178 who successfully passed the exam.

Darwin remained at Cambridge until June. He studies Paley's Natural Theology, in which the author makes theological arguments to explain the nature of nature, explaining adaptation as the action of God through the laws of nature. He is reading Herschel's new book, which describes the highest goal of natural philosophy as the comprehension of laws through inductive reasoning based on observations. He also pays special attention to Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative, in which the author describes his travels. Humboldt's descriptions of the island of Tenerife infect Darwin and his friends with the idea of going there, after completing their studies, to study natural history in the tropics. To prepare for this, he takes the Reverend Adam Sedgwick's geology course, and then goes with him in the summer to map rocks in Wales. Two weeks later, returning from a short geologic tour of North Wales, he finds a letter from Henslow recommending Darwin as a suitable man for an unpaid naturalist post to the captain of the Beagle, Robert Fitzroy, under whose command the expedition to the coast is to begin in four weeks. South America. Darwin was ready to immediately accept the offer, but his father objected to this kind of adventure, because he believed that a two-year voyage was nothing more than a waste of time. But the timely intervention of his uncle Josiah Wedgwood II (born Josiah Wedgwood II) persuades his father to agree.

Voyage of a Naturalist on the Beagle 1831-1836

While the Beagle was surveying the coastline of South America, Darwin began to theorize about the wonders of nature that surrounded him.

In 1831, after graduating from university, Darwin, as a naturalist, went on a trip around the world on the expedition ship of the Royal Navy, the Beagle, from where he returned to England only on October 2, 1836. The journey lasted almost five years. Darwin spends most of his time on the coast, studying geology and collecting natural history collections, while the Beagle, under the direction of Fitzroy, carried out hydrographic and cartographic surveys of the coast. During the journey, he carefully records his observations and theoretical calculations. From time to time, as soon as the opportunity presented itself, Darwin sent copies of the notes to Cambridge, along with letters, including copies of parts of his diary, for relatives. During the journey, he made a number of descriptions of the geology of various areas, collected a collection of animals, and also made a brief description of the external structure and anatomy of many marine invertebrates. In other areas in which Darwin was ignorant, he proved to be a skilled collector, collecting specimens for study by specialists. Despite the frequent cases of ill health associated with seasickness, Darwin continued his research on board the ship; most of his notes on zoology were on marine invertebrates, which he collected and described during calm times at sea. During the first stop off the coast of Santiago, Darwin discovers an interesting phenomenon - volcanic rocks with shells and corals, sintered under the action of the high temperature of the lava into a solid white rock. Fitzroy gives him the first volume of "Principles of Geology" by Charles Lyell, where the author formulates the concepts of uniformitarianism in the treatment of geological changes over a long period. And even the very first studies carried out by Darwin in Santiago on the Cape Verde Islands showed the superiority of the method applied by Lyell. Subsequently, Darwin adopted and used Lyell's approach for theoretical constructions and reflections when writing books about geology.

Voyage of the ship "Beagle"

At Punta Alta, in Patagonia, he makes an important discovery. Darwin discovers a fossilized giant extinct mammal. The importance of the find is emphasized by the fact that the remains of this animal were in the rocks next to the shells of modern mollusk species, which indirectly indicates a recent extinction, with no signs of climate change or catastrophe. He identifies the find as an obscure megatherium, with a bony carapace that, to his first impression, looked like a gigantic version of the native armadillo. This find generated great interest when it reached the shores of England. During a trip with local gauchos to the interior of the country to describe the geology and collection of fossil remains, he gains insight into the social, political and anthropological aspects of the interaction of indigenous peoples and colonists during the period of the revolution. He also notes that the two varieties of rhea ostrich have different but overlapping ranges. Moving further south, he discovers stepped plains lined with pebbles and mollusk shells, like sea terraces, reflecting a series of land uplifts. Reading the second volume of Lyell, Darwin accepts his view of the "centers of creation" of species, but his findings and reflections lead him to question Lyell's ideas about the permanence and extinction of species.

On board were three Fuegians who had been taken to England on the Beagle's last expedition about February 1830. They had spent a year in England and were now brought back to Tierra del Fuego as missionaries. Darwin found these people to be friendly and civilized, while their compatriots looked like "wretched, degraded savages" in exactly the same way that domestic and wild animals differed from each other. For Darwin, these differences primarily demonstrated the importance of cultural superiority, not racial inferiority. Unlike his learned friends, he now thought that there was no unbridgeable gulf between man and animals. This mission was abandoned a year later. The fireman, who was named Jimmy Button (born Jemmy Button), began to live the same way as other natives: he had a wife and had no desire to return to England.

In Chile, Darwin witnessed a massive earthquake and saw signs indicating that the ground had just risen. This uplifted layer included bivalve shells that were above the high tide. High in the Andes, he also found shellfish and several types of fossil trees that commonly grow on sandy beaches. His theoretical reflections led him to the fact that, just as when the land rises, shells are high in the mountains, when the seabed sinks, oceanic islands go under water, and at the same time barrier reefs form around the islands from coastal coral reefs, and then atolls.

In the Galápagos, Darwin noticed that some members of the mockingbird family differed from those in Chile and differed from each other on different islands. He also heard that the shells of tortoises vary slightly in shape, indicating an island of origin.

The marsupial kangaroo rats and platypus he saw in Australia seemed so strange that it led Darwin to think that at least two creators were working simultaneously to create this world. He found the Aborigines of Australia to be "suave and nice" and noted their rapid decline in numbers under the onslaught of European colonization.

The Beagle explores the atolls of the Cocos Islands, with the aim of elucidating the mechanisms of their formation. The success of this study was largely determined by Darwin's theoretical reflections. Fitzroy has begun writing an official account of the Beagle's voyage, and after reading Darwin's diary, he suggests including it in the report.

During the trip, Darwin visited the island of Tenerife, the Cape Verde Islands, the coast of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Tierra del Fuego, Tasmania and the Cocos Islands, from where he brought a large number of observations. He reported the results in The Journal of a Naturalist (1839), Zoology of the Voyage on the Beagle (1840), and The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs (The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, 1842) and others. One of the interesting natural phenomena first described by Darwin in the scientific literature was penitentes ice crystals of a special form that form on the surface of glaciers in the Andes.

Captain Robert Fitzroy and Darwin

Before setting off on his journey, Darwin met with Fitzroy. Subsequently, the captain recalled this meeting and said that Darwin very seriously risked being rejected because of the shape of his nose. Being an adherent of the teachings of Lavater, he believed that there was a connection between the character of a person and the features of his appearance, and therefore he doubted that a person with such a nose as Darwin's could have had the energy and determination sufficient to make the journey. Despite the fact that "Fitzroy's temper was the most obnoxious", "he possessed many noble traits: he was faithful to his duty, extremely generous, courageous, resolute, possessed indomitable energy and was a sincere friend to all who were under his command." Darwin himself notes that the captain's attitude towards him was very good, “but it was difficult to get along with this man with the closeness that was inevitable for us, who dined at the same table together with him in his cabin. Several times we quarreled, because, falling into irritation, he completely lost the ability to reason. Nevertheless, there were serious disagreements between them on the basis of political views. FitzRoy was a staunch conservative, defender of Negro slavery, and encouraged the reactionary colonial policy of the British government. An extremely religious man, a blind adherent of church dogma, FitzRoy was unable to understand Darwin's doubts about the immutability of species. He subsequently resented Darwin for "publishing such a blasphemous book (he became very religious) as On the Origin of Species".

Scientific activities after returning

In 1838-1841. Darwin was the secretary of the Geological Society of London. In 1839 he married, and in 1842 the couple moved from London to Down (Kent), where they began to live permanently. Here Darwin led the secluded and measured life of a scientist and writer.

The main scientific works of Darwin
Early work (before On the Origin of Species)

Shortly after his return, Darwin published a book known by the abbreviated title The Naturalist's Voyage Around the World in the Beagle (1839). It was a great success, and the second, expanded edition (1845) was translated into many European languages and reprinted many times. Darwin also took part in writing the five-volume monograph The Zoology of Travel (1842). As a zoologist, Darwin chose barnacles as the object of his study, and soon became the world's best specialist in this group. He wrote and published a four-volume monograph called Barnacles (Monograph on the Cirripedia, 1851-1854), which zoologists still use today.

History of the writing and publication of The Origin of Species

From 1837, Darwin began to keep a diary in which he entered data on breeds of domestic animals and plant varieties, as well as considerations about natural selection. In 1842 he wrote the first essay on the origin of species. Beginning in 1855, Darwin corresponded with the American botanist A. Gray, to whom two years later he presented his ideas. In 1856, under the influence of the English geologist and naturalist C. Lyell, Darwin began to prepare a third, expanded version of the book. In June 1858, when the work was half done, I received a letter from the English naturalist A. R. Wallace with the manuscript of the latter's article. In this article, Darwin discovered an abridged exposition of his own theory of natural selection. The two naturalists independently and simultaneously developed identical theories. Both were influenced by T. R. Malthus' work on population; both were aware of Lyell's views, both studied the fauna, flora and geological formations of the island groups and found significant differences between the species inhabiting them. Darwin sent Wallace's manuscript to Lyell along with his own essay, as well as outlines of his second version (1844) and a copy of his letter to A. Gray (1857). Lyell turned to the English botanist Joseph Hooker for advice, and on July 1, 1859, they together presented both works to the Linnean Society in London. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, where he showed variability species of plants and animals, their natural origin from earlier species.

Later works (after On the Origin of Species)

In 1868, Darwin published his second work on the theory of evolution, The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, which included many examples of the evolution of organisms. In 1871, another important work by Darwin appeared - The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, where Darwin argued in favor of the natural origin of man from animals (monkey-like ancestors). Other notable late works by Darwin include The Fertilization of Orchids (1862); "The expression of emotions in man and animals" (The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872); "The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom, 1876".

Darwin and religion

The death of Darwin's daughter, Annie, in 1851 was the final straw that turned the already doubting Darwin away from the idea of an all-good God.

Charles Darwin came from a nonconformist milieu. Although some members of his family were freethinkers who openly rejected traditional religious beliefs, he himself did not at first question the literal truth of the Bible. He went to an Anglican school, then studied Anglican theology at Cambridge to become a pastor, and was fully convinced by William Paley's teleological argument that the intelligent design seen in nature proves the existence of God. However, his faith began to waver while traveling on the Beagle. He questioned what he saw, wondering, for example, at the beautiful deep-sea creatures created in such depths in which no one could enjoy their view, shuddering at the sight of a wasp paralyzing caterpillars, which should serve as living food for its larvae. In the last example, he saw a clear contradiction to Paley's ideas about the all-good world order. While traveling on the Beagle, Darwin was still quite orthodox and could well invoke the moral authority of the Bible, but gradually began to view the creation story, as presented in the Old Testament, as false and untrustworthy: “... came to the realization that the Old Testament, with its obviously false history of the world, with its tower of Babel, rainbow as a sign of the covenant, etc., etc., ... deserves no more trust than the sacred books of the Hindus or the beliefs of which some savage."

Upon his return, he set about collecting evidence for the variability of species. He knew that his religious naturalist friends regarded such views as heresy, undermining marvelous explanations of the social order, and he knew that such revolutionary ideas would be met with particular inhospitality at a time when the positions of the Church of England were under fire from radical dissenters and atheists. Secretly developing his theory of natural selection, Darwin even wrote about religion as a tribal survival strategy, believing in God as the supreme being who determines the laws of this world. His faith gradually weakened over time and, with the death of his daughter Annie in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to support the local church and helped the parishioners in common affairs, but on Sundays, when the whole family went to church, he went for a walk. Later, when asked about his religious views, Darwin wrote that he was never an atheist, in the sense that he did not deny the existence of God, and that, in general, "it would be more correct to describe my state of mind as agnostic."

Along with this, some of Darwin's statements can be regarded as deistic or atheistic. Thus, the sixth edition of The Origin of Species (1872) ends with words in the spirit of deism: “There is greatness in this view, according to which the Creator originally breathed life with its various manifestations into one or a limited number of forms; and while our planet continues to revolve according to the immutable laws of gravity, from such a simple beginning an infinite number of the most beautiful and most amazing forms have developed and continue to develop. At the same time, Darwin noted that the idea of an intelligent creator as the root cause “had a strong hold on me approximately at the time when I wrote The Origin of Species, but it was from that time that its significance for me began, extremely slowly and not without many hesitation, more and more and weaken more. Darwin's statements in his letter to Hooker (1868) can be regarded as atheistic: “... I do not agree that the article is correct, I find it monstrous to say that religion is not directed against science ... but when I say that it is wrong, I am by no means sure wouldn't it be most reasonable for men of science to completely ignore the whole field of religion? In his Autobiography, Darwin wrote: “In this way, little by little, unbelief crept into my soul, and finally I became completely unbelieving. But it happened so slowly that I did not feel any distress and never since then, not even for a single second, doubted the correctness of my conclusion. Indeed, I can hardly understand how anyone could want the Christian doctrine to be true; for if it is so, then the uncomplicated text [of the Gospel] seems to show that people who do not believe - and among them one would have to include my father, my brother, and almost all of my best friends - will suffer eternal punishment. Disgusting doctrine!

In his biography of Erasmus' grandfather Darwin, Charles mentioned false rumors that Erasmus cried out to God on his deathbed. Charles concluded his story with the words: “Such were the Christian feelings in this country in 1802.<…>We can at least hope that nothing like it exists now” [source not specified 334 days]. Despite these good wishes, very similar stories accompanied the death of Charles himself. The most famous of these was the so-called "story of Lady Hope", an English preacher, published in 1915, which claimed that Darwin had undergone a religious conversion during an illness shortly before his death. Such stories were actively spread by various religious groups and eventually acquired the status of urban legends, but they were refuted by the children of Darwin and discarded by historians as false.

marriage, children

On January 29, 1839, Charles Darwin married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood. The marriage ceremony was held in the traditions of the Anglican Church and in accordance with Unitarian traditions. At first the couple lived on Gower Street in London, then on September 17, 1842, they moved to Down (Kent). The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died at an early age. Many of the children and grandchildren themselves have achieved significant success.
William Erasmus Darwin (December 27, 1839-1914)
Anne Elizabeth Darwin (March 2, 1841-April 22, 1851)
Mary Eleanor Darwin (September 23, 1842-October 16, 1842)
Henrietta Emma "Etty" Desty (September 25, 1843-1929)
George Howard Darwin George Howard Darwin (July 9, 1845-December 7, 1912)
Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin (July 8, 1847-1926)
Francis Darwin (August 16, 1848-September 19, 1925)
Leonard Darwin (January 15, 1850-March 26, 1943)
Horace Darwin (May 13, 1851-September 29, 1928)
Charles Waring Darwin (December 6, 1856-June 28, 1858)

Some of the children were sickly or weak, and Charles Darwin feared that the reason for this was their kinship with Emma, which was reflected in his work on the sickness of offspring from inbreeding and the benefits of distant crosses.

Awards and distinctions

Darwin has received numerous awards from the scientific societies of Great Britain and other European countries. Darwin died at Downe, Kent, on April 19, 1882.

Concepts associated with the name of Darwin, but to which he did not have a hand

Social Darwinism
Darwin Award

Quotes by Charles Darwin

"There is nothing more remarkable than the spread of religious infidelity, or rationalism, during the second half of my life."
"There is no evidence that man was originally endowed with an ennobling belief in the existence of an almighty God."
“The more we know the immutable laws of nature, the more incredible miracles become for us.”
“There is greatness in this view of life with its various forces, originally invested by the Creator in one or a small number of forms ...; from such a simple beginning, innumerable forms have arisen and continue to arise, amazingly perfect and beautiful.

Interesting Facts

The clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church met with hostility the teachings of Charles Darwin, as they considered them to undermine the foundations of religion. Darwin's works were persecuted and destroyed. The priests, fighting against the teachings of Darwin, opposed Darwinism in their sermons, published articles in magazines, books, called Darwin's teachings "blasphemous" and tried to prove his "unscientific", accused Darwin of destroying morality. In parochial schools, priest-teachers inspired the children that Darwin's theory was heretical, since it contradicted the Bible, and that Darwin himself was an apostate who rebelled against Holy Scripture.

In 1872, in Russia, the head of the press department, Mikhail Longinov, tried to ban the publication of the works of Charles Darwin. In response to this, the poet Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy wrote a satirical "Message to M. N. Longinov on Darwinism." In this "Message ..." were the following lines:

... Why not a little
Are we brought into existence?
Or don't you want God
Are you prescribing tricks?

The way the Creator created
What did he consider more appropriate, -
Chairman cannot know
Press Committee.

Limit so boldly
The omnipotence of God's power
After all, this, Misha, is the thing
Smells like heresy...

In Victor Pelevin's story "The Origin of Species", Charles Darwin is depicted as the main character.
In 2009, the biopic about Charles Darwin "The Origin" by British director John Emiel was released.
According to a poll conducted in 2002 by the BBC broadcaster, he was ranked fourth in the list of the hundred greatest Britons in history.

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Charles Darwin is a well-known English naturalist and traveler. He was one of the first to come to the conclusion and substantiate the idea that all types of living organisms evolve in time and come from common ancestors.

Was born February 12, 1809 in Shropshire in the family of a successful doctor and financier Robert Darwin. There were six children in the family, and Charles was the fifth child. The scientist's grandfather was also a naturalist. After graduating from the Betler Gymnasium, the scientist studied at several universities, in particular at Cambridge and Edinburgh Universities. While studying at Cambridge, Darwin met such an experienced natural scientist as John Henslow, as well as an expert in geology - Wales Sedgwick. Communicating with them, he was even more convinced of his desire to explore the world.

In 1831, Darwin went on a journey around the world that lasted six years. He crossed three oceans, visited Brazil, Argentina, New Zealand and many islands. During the voyage, he collected remarkable collections, and he set out his impressions and observations in a two-volume book entitled "Journey around the world on the ship" Beagle ", which made him famous in the scientific community. From this voyage, Charles returned as a mature scientist, who saw in science the only vocation and meaning of life.

Charles Robert Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in the small town of Shrewsbury in Shropshire (England) into a noble family.

He was the fifth of six children of the successful physician Robert Waring Darwin.

In 1868, the scientist published the second major work - "Change in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants", which was an addition to the main monograph, and which included visual evidence of the evolution of organic forms.

In 1871, the third great work on the theory of evolution appeared - "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection", which considered numerous evidence of the animal origin of man. An addition to it was the book "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872).

Charles Darwin also owns a number of important works on botany, soil science, etc. His last work was the book "The formation of fertile soil through the action of worms" (The formation of vegetable mold through the action of worms) (1881).

The scientific works of Charles Darwin were marked by a number of honorary awards from the scientific community. In 1859, for his work on the geology of South America, he received a medal from the Geological Society of London. In 1864 he was awarded the highest award of the Royal Society of London - the Copley medal. In 1867 he received the Prussian order Pour le mérite.

He was an honorary doctor of the Bonn, Breslavl, Leiden, Cambridge universities, a member of the St. Petersburg (1867), Berlin (1878) and Paris (1878) academies.

Charles Darwin died on April 19, 1882 at his estate in the town of Down in Kent, at the insistence of the public was buried in Westminster Abbey.

After his death, the scientist's personal papers were transferred to the library of the University of Cambridge.

In a 2002 BBC poll, Charles Darwin was ranked fourth on the list of the 100 Greatest Britons of History, with over 112,000 votes.

From 1839 Charles Darwin was married to his cousin Emma Wedgwood (1808-1896). The couple had ten children, three of them - Ann Elizabeth, Mary Eleanor and Charles Waring - died in childhood, which greatly influenced the religious views of the scientist. Eldest son William Erasmus Darwin (1839-1914) became a successful banker, owner of Grant and Maddison's Union Banking Co. Sons George Howard Darwin (1845-1912), Francis Darwin (1848-1925) and Leonard Darwin (1850-1943) Horace Darwin (1851-1928) became the founder of Cambridge Scientific Products and was mayor of Cambridge from 1896-1897.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources

Name: Charles Robert Darwin

State: Great Britain

Field of activity: Science, zoology

Who among us has not heard a wonderful phrase - Man descended from apes. In general, if you look closely, you can find some similarities (and even more than one) between humans and primates. But, of course, it is impossible to say 100% that we are subspecies of great apes without scientific confirmation. Let us also recall the church interpretation of the origin of man - and primacy here will have absolutely nothing to do with it. For many centuries, scientists and biologists have tried to unravel this mystery - whether man and ape really come from the same ancestor.

Of course, in those days there were no suitable materials at hand to help in research. However, one of the scientists went down in history as the founder of the theory that people are descended from monkeys and have come a long way in evolution. Of course it's Charles Darwin. It will be discussed in this article.

Biography of Charles Darwin

The future naturalist and traveler was born into a fairly wealthy family on February 12, 1809 in the city of Shrewsbury,. His grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, was an eminent scientist and physician, as well as a naturalist who contributed greatly to scientific ideas about evolution. His son followed in his footsteps - Robert Darwin, father of Charles - he also practiced medicine, simultaneously doing business (in modern terms) - he bought several houses in Shrewsbury and rented them out, receiving good money in addition to the basic salary of a doctor. Charles's mother, Susan Wedgwood, also came from a wealthy family - her father was an artist and before his death left her a large inheritance, on which the young family built their house and called it "Mount". Charles was born there.

When the boy was 8 years old, he was sent to a school in his hometown. In the same period - in 1817 - Susan Darwin died. The father continues to raise children alone. Little Charles had difficulty studying - he considered the school curriculum boring, especially in literature and learning foreign languages. However, from the very first days at school, young Darwin joined the natural sciences. Later, as an adult, Charles began to study chemistry in more detail. During these years, he begins to collect the first collection in his life - shells, butterflies, various stones and minerals. By that time, the father did little to educate the offspring, and the teachers, seeing the complete lack of diligence on the part of the child, left him alone and issued a certificate in due time.

After graduating from school, the question of where and for whom to enter did not stand - Charles decided not to violate traditions and become a doctor, like his father and grandfather. In 1825 he entered the University of Edinburgh at the Faculty of Medicine. His father had pleasant memories of him - after all, he was taught there by the great chemist Joseph Black, who discovered magnesium, carbon dioxide. Of course, before such a serious study, it was necessary to practice a little, “get your hand in” - and Charles began working as an assistant to his father.

However, after studying for two years, Darwin realized that he was not at all interested in being a doctor. He found dissection of human bodies disgusting, presence during surgical operations terrified, and visits to hospital wards saddened. Moreover, attending lectures bored him. However, there was a topic that interested the young Englishman - zoology. But the father did not meet his son halfway - at his insistence, Charles was transferred to the University of Cambridge at the Faculty of Arts.

In early 1828, shortly before his twentieth birthday, Charles Darwin entered Cambridge. After three years, he received a bachelor's degree with grades. He spent most of his time hunting, dining, drinking and playing cards, all of which he enjoyed from the bottom of his heart. During his stay at Cambridge, Darwin continued to pursue his scientific interests, in particular botany and zoology: his greatest interest was in collecting various types of beetles.

As you know, the right acquaintances play a huge role in a person’s career. The same thing happened with Darwin. At Cambridge he met and became friends with Professor John Henslow, who introduced the young naturalist to his fellow naturalists and friends. In 1831 he completed his studies. Henslow understood that Darwin needed to put his knowledge into practice. It was during this period that the ship "Beagle" set off from Plymouth on a round-the-world voyage (with a stop in South America). Henslow recommended young Charles to the captain. The father was sharply opposed, but nevertheless, after much persuasion, he let his son go. So Charles Darwin set off. During the 6 years that the ship traveled the seas and oceans, Charles studied animals and plants, collected a large collection of specimens, including marine invertebrates.

Origin of Species by Charles Darwin

In 1837 he began keeping diaries in which he wrote down his observations on evolution. After 5 years, in 1842, the first notes on the origin of species appear.

The basis was the idea of natural selection. This idea first occurred to him in the Galapagos Islands, where he observed the fauna and noticed a new species of finch. After studying, he came to the conclusion that all finches are descended from one. Why then the same theory is not applied to man?

If we assume that once there was a single ancestor, a monkey, then over time, adjusting to weather conditions and climate, the appearance changed. Thus, the monkey turned into a man. In 1859, Darwin published a book that was translated into many European languages.

Darwin's contribution to biology cannot be overestimated. He created (without knowing it) the term "Darwinism", which, in fact, is synonymous with evolution. Throughout his adult life, he constantly collected various animals (even ancient bones) in his collection. Continuing to study evolution and natural selection.

The great scientist died at the age of 73 on April 19, 1882. Next to the last breath were his wife, Emma (his cousin) and children. The scientist was buried in Westminster Abbey, thus recognizing Darwin's enormous contribution to biology, botany and science in general.

English Charles Robert Darwin

English naturalist and traveler

Charles Darwin

short biography

Charles Robert Darwin- an outstanding English naturalist, naturalist, founder of Darwinism. His works on the evolution of living organisms had a huge impact on the history of human thought, marked a new era in the development of biology and other sciences.

Darwin was born in Shrewsbury (Shropshire) on February 12, 1809 in a fairly well-to-do large family of a doctor. The members of this family were characterized by a high cultural level, intellect, and a broad outlook. In particular, Erasmus Darwin, Charles's grandfather, gained fame as a physician, philosopher, and writer.

A sincere interest in the life of nature, a tendency to gather, the boy awakened in childhood. In 1817, the mother dies, and in 1818 Charles and Erasmus, the elder brother, are sent to a local boarding school. From 1825 Charles Darwin studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. Not feeling disposed towards this profession, he abandoned his studies and, at the insistence of an angry father, went to study as a theologian at Cambridge, although he was not fully convinced of the truth of Christian postulates. Natural inclinations, participation in the life of scientific societies, acquaintance with botanists, zoologists, geologists, natural history excursions did their job: Charles Darwin left the walls of a Christian college in 1831 as a naturalist-collector.

In this capacity, for five years (1831-1836) he took part in a round-the-world trip on a ship, where he got on the recommendation of friends. During the voyage, he collected remarkable collections, and he set out his impressions and observations in a two-volume book called "Journey around the world on the ship" Beagle ", which made him famous in the scientific community. From this voyage, Charles returned as a mature scientist, who saw in science the only vocation and meaning of life.

Returning to England, Darwin worked as secretary of the London Geological Society (1838-1841), in 1839 he married Emma Wedgwoot, who later bore him 10 children. Poor health forced him in 1842 to leave the English capital and settle in the estate of Down (Kent), with which all his further biography was connected.

Life in the bosom of nature - measured and secluded, almost reclusive - was devoted to scientific works that developed the theory of the evolution of organic forms. The main evolutionary factors were reflected in the main work of Darwin (1859) "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life". In 1868, the two-volume “Change in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants” supplementing it with factual material saw the light of day. The third book on evolution was The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection (1871) and the subsequent supplement, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), and it was here that Darwin considered the origin of man from ape ancestors.

With his theory of the evolution of the organic world of the Earth, which was called Darwinism, the scientist made a splash, splitting the scientific community into two opposing camps. His teaching was very carefully developed, was based on a huge amount of factual material, explained phenomena that had not yet been explained, opened up huge research prospects, and all these factors contributed to the fact that Darwinism quickly strengthened its positions.

Contributed to this and the very personality of its creator. According to contemporaries, Darwin was not just an exceptionally authoritative scientist, but a simple, modest, friendly, tactful person who treated even irreconcilable opponents correctly. While serious passions raged in the world over the theory of evolution, the main troublemaker followed the ups and downs, leading a solitary life, and was still engaged in scientific research, despite extremely poor health.

In parallel with the victorious march of Darwinism, its author became the owner of an increasing number of various regalia from scientific communities, which began with the Kopley gold medal from the Royal Society of London in 1864. In 1882, the scientist who made an unprecedented scientific revolution died quietly at Down. The body of Charles Darwin was transferred to Westminster Abbey, where he was buried near Newton.

Biography from Wikipedia

Charles Robert Darwin(English Charles Robert Darwin (tʃɑrlz "dɑː.wɪn); February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882) - English naturalist and traveler, one of the first to come to the conclusion and substantiate the idea that all types of living organisms evolve in time and descended from common ancestors. In his theory, a detailed presentation of which was published in 1859 in the book "The Origin of Species", Darwin called natural selection the main mechanism for the evolution of species. Later he developed the theory of sexual selection. He also owns one of the first generalizing studies on the origin of man .

Darwin published one of the first works on ethology, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Other areas of his research were the creation of a model for the emergence of coral reefs and the definition of the laws of heredity. Based on the results of selection experiments, Darwin put forward the hypothesis of heredity (pangenesis), which has not been confirmed.

The origin of biological diversity as a result of evolution was recognized by most biologists during Darwin's lifetime, while his theory of natural selection as the main mechanism of evolution became generally recognized only in the 1950s with the advent of the synthetic theory of evolution. The ideas and discoveries of Darwin, in a revised form, form the foundation of the modern synthetic theory of evolution and form the basis of biology as providing an explanation for biodiversity. The term "Darwinism" is used to refer to evolutionary models that are based on the ideas of Darwin, and in everyday speech, "Darwinism" is often used to refer to evolutionary theory and the modern scientific view of evolution in general.

Childhood and adolescence

Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, in the Mount House family estate. The fifth of six children of wealthy physician and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin, née Wedgwood. He is the grandson of naturalist Erasmus Darwin on his father's side and painter Josiah Wedgwood on his mother's side. Both families were largely Unitarian, but the Wedgwoods were members of the Church of England. Robert Darwin himself had enough free views, and agreed that little Charles received communion in the Anglican Church, but at the same time, Charles and his brothers attended the Unitarian Church with their mother.

Charles' father - Robert Darwin

By the time he entered day school in 1817, eight-year-old Darwin had already become familiar with natural history and collecting. This year, in July, his mother dies, and the upbringing of an 8-year-old boy falls entirely on the shoulders of his father, who did not always listen carefully to his son's spiritual needs. Since September 1818, he, along with his older brother Erasmus (Erasmus Alvey Darwin), entered the boarding school at the nearest Anglican School of Shrewsbury (Shrewsbury School), where the future naturalist, who passionately loved nature, had to study "things dry for his living soul" as classical languages and literature. No wonder he discovered his complete lack of ability and made his teacher and those around him hopelessly give up on him. An incapable elementary school student after a year of high school begins to collect collections of butterflies, minerals, shells. Then another passion appears - hunting. The father and those around him considered these hobbies to be the main reason for Charles's failure, but their frequent reproaches and even threats taught him to listen only to his inner voice, and not to external instructions. By the end of his school life, a new hobby appeared - chemistry, and for this "empty pastime" he received a very severe reprimand from the director of the gymnasium. Gymnasium years naturally ended with a mediocre certificate.

Before going with his brother Erasmus to the University of Edinburgh in the summer of 1825, he acts as a student assistant and helps his father in his medical practice, helping the poor of Shropshire.

Edinburgh period of life (1825-1827)

Darwin studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. During his studies, he realized that the lectures were boring and that surgery was painful, so he abandoned his medical studies. Instead, he begins studying taxidermy with John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who gained his experience accompanying Charles Waterton on an expedition to the rainforests of South America, and often referred to him as "a very pleasant and erudite man." pleasant and intelligent man).

In 1826, as a natural history student, he joined the Pliny Student Society, which actively discussed radical materialism. During this time, he assists Robert Edmond Grant in his research on the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates. At the meetings of the society, in March 1827, Darwin presents brief messages about his first discoveries, which changed his view of familiar things. In particular, he showed that the so-called bryozoan eggs Flustra have the ability to move independently with the help of cilia and are actually larvae; he also notices that the small spherical bodies, which were considered the young stages of the algae Fucus loreus, represent the egg cocoons of the proboscis leech Pontobdella muricata. Once, in Darwin's presence, Grant was praising Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was amazed at this enthusiastic speech, but remained silent. Shortly before this, he had drawn similar ideas from his grandfather, Erasmus, by reading his Zoonomy, and therefore was already aware of the contradictions of this theory. During his second year in Edinburgh, Darwin attended Robert Jameson's natural history course, which covered geology, including the controversy between Neptunists and Plutonists. However, then Darwin did not have a passion for the geological sciences, although he received sufficient training to reasonably judge this subject. In the same year he studied plant classification and took part in the extensive collections at the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe of that period.

Cambridge period of life (1828-1831)

Darwin's father, having learned that his son had abandoned his medical studies, was annoyed and invited him to enter Christ's College, Cambridge University and receive the priesthood of the Church of England. According to Darwin himself, the days spent in Edinburgh sowed in him doubts about the dogmas of the Anglican Church. At this time, he diligently reads theological books, and ultimately convinces himself of the acceptability of church dogmas and prepares for admission. While studying in Edinburgh, he forgot some of the subjects required for admission, and therefore he studied with a private teacher in Shrewsbury and entered Cambridge after the Christmas holidays, at the very beginning of 1828.

In his own words, he did not go too deep into his studies, devoting more time to riding, shooting from a gun and hunting (fortunately attending lectures was a voluntary matter). His cousin William Fox introduced him to entomology and brought him closer to people who were fond of collecting insects. As a result, he develops a passion for collecting beetles. Darwin himself, in support of his passion, cites the following story: “Once, while tearing off a piece of old bark from a tree, I saw two rare beetles and grabbed one of them with each hand, but then I saw a third, some new kind, which I could not possibly miss, and I put that beetle , which he held in his right hand, into his mouth. Alas! He released some extremely caustic liquid, which burned my tongue so much that I had to spit out the beetle, and I lost it, as well as the third.. Some of his findings were published in Stevens's book Illustrations of British Entomology. "Illustrations of British Entomology".

Darwin becomes a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Genslow. Through his acquaintance with Henslow, he met other leading naturalists, becoming known in their circles as "the man who walks with Henslow" (English "the man who walks with Henslow"). As the exams approached, Darwin focused on his studies. At this time he is reading "Proof of Christianity"(Eng. "Evidences of Christianity") by William Paley, whose language and exposition delight Darwin. At the end of his studies, in January 1831, Darwin made good progress in theology, studied the classics of literature, mathematics and physics, and eventually became 10th in a list of 178 who successfully passed the exam.

Darwin remained at Cambridge until June. He studies Paley's work "Natural Theology"(English "Natural Theology"), in which the author gives theological arguments to explain the nature of nature, explaining adaptation as the action of God through the laws of nature. He is reading Herschel's new book, which describes the highest goal of natural philosophy as the comprehension of laws through inductive reasoning based on observations. He also pays special attention to the book by Alexander von Humboldt "Personal Narrative"(English "Personal Narrative"), in which the author describes his travels. Humboldt's descriptions of the island of Tenerife infect Darwin and his friends with the idea of going there, after completing their studies, to study natural history in the tropics. To prepare for this, he takes the Reverend Adam Sedgwick's geology course, and then goes with him in the summer to map rocks in Wales. Two weeks later, returning from a short geologic tour of North Wales, he finds a letter from Henslow recommending Darwin as a suitable man for an unpaid naturalist post to the captain of the Beagle, Robert Fitzroy, under whose command the expedition to the coast is to begin in four weeks. South America. Darwin was ready to accept the offer right there, but his father objected to this kind of adventure, because he believed that a five-year voyage was nothing more than a waste of time. But the timely intervention of uncle Charles Josiah Wedgwood II persuades the father to agree.

Voyage of a Naturalist on the Beagle (1831-1836)

Bye Beagle surveyed the coastline of South America, Darwin began to theorize about the wonders of nature that surrounded him

In 1831, after graduating from university, Darwin, as a naturalist, went on a trip around the world on the expedition ship of the Royal Navy, the Beagle, from where he returned to England only on October 2, 1836. The journey lasted almost five years. Darwin spends most of his time on the coast, studying geology and collecting natural history collections, while the Beagle, under the direction of Fitzroy, carried out hydrographic and cartographic surveys of the coast. During the journey, he carefully records his observations and theoretical calculations. From time to time, as soon as the opportunity presented itself, Darwin sent copies of the notes to Cambridge, along with letters, including copies of parts of his diary, for relatives. During the journey, he made a number of descriptions of the geology of various areas, collected a collection of animals, and also made a brief description of the external structure and anatomy of many marine invertebrates. In other areas in which Darwin was ignorant, he proved to be a skilled collector, collecting specimens for study by specialists. Despite the frequent cases of ill health associated with seasickness, Darwin continued his research on board the ship; most of his notes on zoology were about marine invertebrates, which he collected and described during calm times on the sea. During the first stop off the coast of Santiago, Darwin discovers an interesting phenomenon - volcanic rocks with shells and corals sintered under the action of the high temperature of lava into a solid white breed. Fitzroy gives him the first volume of "Principles of Geology" by Charles Lyell, where the author formulates the concepts of uniformitarianism in the treatment of geological changes over a long period. And even the very first investigations carried out by Darwin on Santiago on the Cape Verde Islands showed the superiority of the method applied by Lyell. Subsequently, Darwin adopted and used Lyell's approach for theoretical constructions and reflections when writing books on geology.

On board were three Fuegians who had been taken to England on the Beagle's last expedition about February 1830. They had spent a year in England and were now brought back to Tierra del Fuego as missionaries. Darwin found these people to be friendly and civilized, while their compatriots looked like "wretched, degraded savages", just as domestic and wild animals differed from each other. For Darwin, these differences primarily demonstrated the importance of cultural superiority, not racial inferiority. Unlike his learned friends, he now thought that there was no unbridgeable gulf between man and animals. This mission was abandoned a year later. The fireman, who was named Jimmy Button (born Jemmy Button), began to live the same way as other natives: he had a wife and had no desire to return to England.

The Beagle surveys the atolls of the Cocos Islands in order to find out the mechanisms of their formation. The success of this study was largely determined by Darwin's theoretical reflections. Fitzroy began writing official exposition travels of the Beagle, and after reading Darwin's diary, he suggests including it in the report.

During the trip, Darwin visited the island of Tenerife, the Cape Verde Islands, the coast of Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Tierra del Fuego, Tasmania and the Cocos Islands, from where he brought a large number of observations. He outlined the results in the works "Diary of the research of a naturalist" ( The Journal of a Naturalist, 1839), "The Zoology of Travel on the Beagle" ( Zoology of the Voyage on the Beagle, 1840), "The structure and distribution of coral reefs" ( The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, 1842);

Darwin and Fitzroy

Before setting off on his journey, Darwin met with Fitzroy. Subsequently, the captain recalled this meeting and said that Darwin very seriously risked being rejected because of the shape of his nose. Being an adherent of the teachings of Lavater, he believed that there was a connection between the character of a person and the features of his appearance, and therefore he doubted that a person with such a nose as Darwin's could have had the energy and determination sufficient to make the journey. Despite the fact that "Fitzroy's temper was the most obnoxious", "he possessed many noble features: he was faithful to his duty, extremely generous, courageous, resolute, possessed indomitable energy and was a sincere friend of all who were under his command." Darwin himself notes that the captain's attitude towards him was very good, “but it was difficult to get along with this man with the closeness that was inevitable for us, who dined at the same table together with him in his cabin. Several times we quarreled, because, falling into irritation, he completely lost the ability to reason. Nevertheless, there were serious disagreements between them on the basis of political views. Fitzroy was a staunch conservative, defender of Negro slavery, and encouraged the colonial policy of the British government. Being a deeply religious man, a supporter of church dogma, Fitzroy was unable to understand Darwin's doubts about the immutability of species. Subsequently, he resented Darwin for "publishing such a blasphemous book as Origin of Species».

Scientific activities after returning

The main scientific works of Darwin

Early work (before On the Origin of Species)

Shortly after his return, Darwin published a book known by the abbreviated title The Naturalist's Voyage Around the World in the Beagle (1839). It was a great success, and the second, expanded edition (1845) was translated into many European languages and reprinted many times. Darwin also took part in writing the five-volume monograph The Zoology of Travel (1842). As a zoologist, Darwin chose barnacles as the object of his study, and soon became the world's best specialist in this group. He wrote and published a four-volume monograph "Barnacles" ( Monograph on the Cirripedia, 1851-1854), which zoologists still use today.

History of the writing and publication of The Origin of Species

From 1837, Darwin began to keep a diary in which he entered data on breeds of domestic animals and plant varieties, as well as considerations about natural selection. In 1842 he wrote the first essay on the origin of species. Beginning in 1855, Darwin corresponded with the American botanist A. Gray, to whom two years later he presented his ideas. In 1856, under the influence of the English geologist and naturalist C. Lyell, Darwin began to prepare a third, expanded version of the book. In June 1858, when the work was half done, I received a letter from the English naturalist A. R. Wallace with the manuscript of the latter's article. In this article, Darwin discovered an abridged exposition of his own theory of natural selection. The two naturalists independently and simultaneously developed identical theories. Both were influenced by T. R. Malthus' work on population; both were aware of Lyell's views, both studied the fauna, flora and geological formations of the island groups and found significant differences between the species inhabiting them. Darwin sent Wallace's manuscript to Lyell along with his own essay, as well as outlines of his second version (1844) and a copy of his letter to A. Gray (1857). Lyell turned to the English botanist Joseph Hooker for advice, and on July 1, 1858, they together presented both works to the Linnean Society in London. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life), where he showed the variability of plant and animal species, their natural origin from earlier species. The first print run of 1250 copies was completely sold out within two days. The book has been published and sold to this day.

Later works (after On the Origin of Species)

In 1868, Darwin published his second work on the subject of evolution, The Variation of Animals and Plants in a Domestic State ( The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication), which includes many examples of the evolution of organisms. In 1871, another important work of Darwin appeared - "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection" ( The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex), where Darwin argued in favor of the natural origin of man from animals (monkey-like ancestors). Darwin's other notable later works include Pollination in Orchids (The Fertilization of Orchids, 1862); "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals" ( The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872); "The action of cross-pollination and self-pollination in the plant world" ( The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom, 1876).

Darwin and religion

Charles Darwin came from a non-conformist Unitarian milieu. Although some members of his family openly denied traditional religious beliefs, he himself did not at first question the literal truth of the Bible. He went to an Anglican school, then studied Anglican theology at Cambridge to become a pastor, and was fully convinced by William Paley's teleological argument that the intelligent design seen in nature proves the existence of God. However, his faith began to waver while traveling on the Beagle. Darwin questioned these ideas, marveling, for example, at the beautiful deep-sea creatures living in such depths that no one could enjoy their view; shuddering at the sight of a wasp paralyzing caterpillars, which should serve as living food for its larvae. In the last example, he saw a clear contradiction to Paley's ideas about the all-good world order. While traveling on the Beagle, Darwin still held quite orthodox views and could well refer to the authority of the Bible in matters of morality, but gradually began to consider the creation concept as false and untrustworthy: “... came to the realization that the Old Testament from its evidence of the false history of the world, with its tower of Babel, the rainbow as a sign of the covenant, etc., etc., ... deserves no more trust than the sacred books of the Hindus or the beliefs of some savage.