Motivation implies a process of inducing a person to a certain activity in order to achieve goals, both his own and the organization's. To stimulate employees, it is important to touch on their interests and allow them to realize themselves in their work. To date, there are several theories that are widely used by managers of different companies.

Modern theories of motivation

The mechanisms proposed by famous psychologists of the last century are increasingly becoming irrelevant, as society is constantly evolving. Modern managers are increasingly using process theories of motivation, which consider needs as part of a behavioral process associated with a particular situation. A person distributes efforts and chooses a certain type of behavior to achieve a specific goal. There are several modern theories of motivation in management.

1. Expectation. Indicates that a person must believe that a perfect choice will allow you to get what you want.
2. Goal setting. Explains that the individual's behavior depends on the task at hand.
3. Equality. It is based on the fact that during work a person compares his own actions with other people.
4. participatory management. It proves that a person takes part in intraorganizational work with pleasure.
5. moral stimulation. It is based on the use of moral motivation for action.
6. Financial incentive. It implies the use of various monetary incentives.

Basic theories of motivation

More often, concepts based on the study of desires are used to study the stimulating factors of a person. To understand the mechanisms of motivation for a certain activity, it is important to take into account the main models of a meaningful and procedural nature. The main theories of personnel motivation in management indicate that an important incentive for a person is his internal needs, so managers must learn to understand them correctly. It is worth noting that many existing systems require improvement in order to operate in the modern world.

Herzberg's theory of motivation

As a result of numerous studies at various enterprises, an American psychologist found that for most people a good salary is not the main factor in getting pleasure from work, but only keeps them from being fired. Herzberg's two-factor theory of management defines two important categories that are great motivation for people.

1. hygiene factors. This group includes reasons that are important for a person so that he does not want to quit: social status, pay, management policy, interpersonal relationships and working conditions.
2. Motivating factors. This includes incentives that push a person to perform their own duties. These include: possible career growth, recognition from superiors, the possibility of creativity and success. Satisfying all these details allows you to motivate a person to work.

Maslow's theory of motivation

This is one of the most detailed and complete methods for classifying human needs. According to a well-known psychologist, the quality of life directly depends on how people have satisfied their own aspirations. in management is used more often than others. A special pyramid has been developed, at the base of which are the most important physiological needs.

Maslow believes that in order to move to the top of the ladder, the requirements of each rung must be satisfied. It is important to note that the author has repeatedly focused on the fact that in his theory of motivation in management, the pyramid represents the desires of society, and not a particular person, since all people are individual, and, as you know, there are exceptions to an important rule.

McClelland's Theory of Motivation

The American psychologist proposed his own model of human aspirations, which are divided into three groups: the desire for power, success and involvement. They arise during life as a result of gaining experience, work and communication with people. McClelland's theory in management indicates that people who seek power need to be motivated by giving more means and initiative to achieve the goal, building confidence in their abilities and competence, and being interested in the goals of the entire team.

The second point in McClelland's theory of motivation in management is the need for success. For people striving for success, the process of achieving the goal is important, as well as responsibility. Having received the result, they count on encouragement. The third group is people for whom interpersonal relationships are important, so to motivate them, you need to be interested in their personal lives.

Freud's theory of motivation

A well-known psychoanalyst believed that a person suppresses many desires in himself during his life, but they never completely disappear and appear in moments when a person does not control himself, for example, in a dream or in reservations. From this, Freud concludes that people cannot fully understand the motivation for their own actions, and to a greater extent this applies to purchases.

Management professionals need to study the subconscious motives of consumers, trying to uncover their deep aspirations, and not notice what is on the surface. involves the use of the following research methods: free association, image interpretation, role-playing and sentence completion, which provide more important information than conventional tests.

The term "motivation" comes from the French word "motif" - motivating reason and from the Latin "moveo" - I move.

Motivation- this is an incentive for the effective activity of personnel in order to achieve the goals of the organization.

The purpose of performing the motivation function is to motivate employees to achieve the goals of the organization. The main way to achieve the goal of motivation is the realization of the motives of employees. However, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of individual employees, their predisposition to motivation. According to the German psychologist P. Weiler, 27% of employees are not subject to motivation.

In the most general way motivation process boils down to the following: a person, having realized the tasks and the possible reward for their solution, correlates this information with his needs, motives and capabilities, adjusts himself to certain behavior and performs (or does not perform) actions that lead to the achievement of the organization's goals. In the theory of motivation need usually seen as a need for something that needs to be satisfied. motive- an internal motivating cause of actions and actions of a person. Reward- everything that a person considers valuable for himself.

Motivation activities include:

The study of the motives of the activities of employees on the basis of their behavior;

Creation of a coherent system of incentives for the organization as a whole, its structural divisions and employees;

Formation of conditions for the implementation of incentives.

These measures should ensure the transformation of incentive means-stimuli into incentive reasons-motives, as well as form a type of behavior aimed at intensive, productive and creative work.

Stimulation- from the Latin "stimulus" - motivating force, stimulating agent. The task of any leader in the performance of a function is to create a system of incentives that would turn incentives into incentives (motives) for the activities of employees. Therefore, each manager must have (i.e., know and skillfully apply) a diverse arsenal of incentives - incentives that ensure the effective work of employees, taking into account the fact that different people are motivated to varying degrees.

For effective motivation, the manager has a variety of incentives - incentives.

The entire set of incentives available to the manager can be divided into two large groups: coercion and reward. Role coercion, which was great in slave-owning times, decreases with the development of society, and the essence of coercion changes. With the development of society, physical coercion gave way, with the exception of the criminal environment, to economic coercion. Economic coercion at the present time due to the growth of prosperity (especially in developed countries) is being replaced by incentives increasingly based on moral, ethical and cultural norms.

The results of the motivation function can be positive and negative. A positive result is the interest of employees in effective work, satisfaction with productive, creative, initiative work, formed self-motivation to work to achieve the goals of the organization. Negative results - the appearance of dissatisfaction indifference to work.

The manager can judge the presence of motivation among employees by the following signs:

High performance and consistent achievement of goals;

Energy, enthusiasm and determination to succeed;

Absolute cooperation in solving problems;

Willingness of people to take responsibility;

Desire to adapt to necessary changes, propensity to innovate.

The achievement of positive results in the performance of this function of motivation is determined not only by the knowledge, skills and abilities of the manager acquired in the process of training, but also to a greater extent by his experience and art. Apparently, no other management function requires such a degree of skill from a manager as the motivation function.

2) process theories of motivation, based on the analysis of how a person distributes efforts to achieve various goals and how he chooses a specific type of behavior (V. Vroom's expectancy theory, R. Adams' theory of justice, Porter-Lawler's model of motivation).

A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. According to this theory, there are five groups of needs: physiological, security needs, social needs, the need for recognition and self-affirmation, and the need for self-expression.

Arranging the needs in the form of a hierarchical structure, Maslow showed that the needs of the lower levels (physiological and safety) require priority satisfaction. After the need is satisfied, it fades into the background and activates the needs of a higher level (social, the need for recognition, self-affirmation and self-expression).

Maslow's theory does not take into account the individual characteristics of people, but the manager must know what this or that employee prefers in the reward system. In addition, over time, human needs change, therefore, one cannot expect that motivation that worked once will work effectively all the time.

The Needs Theory by David McClelland considers the needs of a person that he acquired under the influence of life circumstances, experience and training. There are three types of needs: for power, for success, and for belonging.

Two-factor theory by F. Herzberg analyzes hygiene factors (working conditions, leadership style, social and psychological climate in the team, remuneration for work, etc.) and motivation factors (success, promotion, recognition and approval of work results, career growth opportunities, etc.). ). According to F. Herzberg, only motivating factors motivate employees, and hygienic factors do not affect employee satisfaction.

Vroom's expectancy theory emphasizes the importance of three relationships:

Labor costs - results;

Results are reward;

Reward - valency (satisfaction with the reward).

Since people have different needs, they value the same reward differently. The manager must match the rewards offered to the needs of the employees and align them.

R. Adams' theory of justice shows how people distribute and direct their efforts to achieve their goals, depending on the fairness of rewards. A person subjectively measures the reward for work with the effort expended and then correlates it with the reward of other people who perform similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and injustice, then a person experiences psychological stress.

The Porter-Lawler model is a complex process theory of motivation that includes elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. It consists of five variables (factors): effort expended; perception; results; remuneration for work; degree of job satisfaction. According to the model, the results achieved depend on the efforts made by the employee, his abilities and characteristics, and his awareness of his role in the organization.

Thus, content theories of motivation define the needs that motivate people to act. Process theories do not deny the existence of needs, but show that people's behavior is determined not only by them, but also by a subjective assessment of the value of the efforts expended and rewards.

Various theories with varying degrees of completeness characterize the problem of motivation, highlighting its various aspects. The bottom line is that each person has his own needs, his own motives, reacts differently to the same, and even more so different incentives, which depends on various factors, and, finally, independently builds his behavior to meet his needs. The importance of motivation theories lies in the fact that they help to find approaches to solving practical problems.

The motivation system is a targeted impact on the staff in order to improve the efficiency of the organization.

Models of staff motivation can be divided into two large groups: content and process theories of motivation.

There are many different theories of motivation, but the fundamental role in the theories of labor motivation that exist today is Abraham Maslow's theory of needs.

Its main idea was that there is a certain hierarchy of needs, and some needs can be satisfied only after the satisfaction of the basic ones.

Maslow's Theory of Motivation Briefly and the Pyramid of Needs

At the heart of all human needs are physiological ones - those that are directly related to survival: food, water, air, sex, etc.

On the second level is the need for security and confidence in the future. Here we are talking about the fact that a person is looking for protection from the dangers of the external environment.

At the next level of the pyramid are social needs (in belonging). These are the feelings of people that arise in relation to the social whole: the environment, close people who would support it.

The highest level is the need for self-expression and self-realization. For a person it is necessary to realize his personal potential.

Herzberg's two-factor model of work motivation

Another well-known theory of motivation is Frederick Herzberg's two-factor model. Based on the study of several hundred accountants and their behavior in difficult situations, he analyzed the factors that affect job satisfaction.

Thus, F. Herzberg singled out 2 sets of factors:

1. Hygienic (external) factors

Associated with the environment, working and working conditions, wages, the attitude of the team to the individual, etc. That is, the reasons that keep an employee at work.

1. Motivating (motivators)

As a rule, we are talking about the content of the employee's work, his achievements, recognition of merit, responsibility, etc.

Acquired Needs Theory by David McClelland

Another very interesting model, based on the study of secondary needs that are not related to physiological ones. David McClelland identified the following types of human needs that significantly affect employee behavior:

1. Achievement Needs

Achievement by the employee of ways of working that would be more effective than the previous time. To achieve the goal at a higher level, employees want to perform more effective actions, improving their work.

There are people in whom this subconscious desire prevails. They are ready to get to work with the challenge element. They need work that gives a clear concrete result.

In order for such individuals to be interested in the work, they need to present quite material requirements in the field of increasing the effectiveness of the ways in which they achieve results.

1. The need for complicity (friendship with others)

As a rule, for workers with this prevailing need, the opinion of other people about themselves, approval, support is very important. They care about the status they have in the eyes of their colleagues.

Usually, these employees are sent to activities related to the provision of services, where communication and communication with customers takes place.

1. Needs for power

An important type of human need. The bottom line is to control the resources flowing in the environment of these workers.

The main task of people of this type is to influence colleagues, take additional responsibility for them, etc.

McClelland singled out 2 groups of people who have needs for. In the first, people want to rule for the sake of power itself. In the second cluster, employees who need this influence for better performance of tasks. They, in his opinion, should be appointed to leadership positions.

Three Factor Theory (ERG) by Clayton Alderfer

This theory of motivation is based on Maslow's pyramid model and was developed by K. Alderfer. He said that there are generally only 3 levels of human needs.

1. Existence Needs
2. In social connections (Relatedness)
3. Growth

Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory

No less interesting concept was proposed by V. Vroom. The main setting within this model is that the behavior of a company employee is influenced by 2 factors.

The main thesis is as follows: the motivation of an employee is influenced by how realistic the achievement of the goal set for him is, and how much this task is generally desirable and expedient.

A person formulates two questions for himself:

- will the efforts made ensure a high level of performance of work tasks?

- Will the effective activity lead to the desired results?

How likely is the extent to which the efforts made will lead to a result that meets the expectations of the authorities. And whether he will receive a worthy reward in return for good work, for example, a material bonus.

Porter–Lawler theory of justice

One of the most curious models, suggesting that the performance of an employee depends on the following parameters:

- how much the reward is valuable to the employee;

— the level of applied efforts;

- assessment of the probability of the "effort-reward" relationship;

- the specifics of physiology and personality characteristics of a person;

- awareness and self-assessment of one's role in achieving the result.

L. Porter and E. Lawler proposed a diagram shown in the figure, showing how various factors affect employee satisfaction with their work.

It should be noted that the first point of the scheme is the effort and labor costs, which are influenced by management through the value of remuneration.

That is, the manager must analyze and understand how valuable the reward offered to the subordinate is for the latter.

If the two factors of value and probability affect the increase in the efforts and motivation of a person, then he ultimately produces labor achievements. They, in turn, are influenced by personal traits and abilities, as well as role requirements (to professionalism and qualifications).

Then the employee receives well-deserved internal (self-assessment) and external (by management) rewards.

All of the above correlates with the employee's assessment of the fairness of remuneration, and ultimately on job satisfaction.

There are many other theories of labor motivation, but those presented in this article are the basic ones for all modern employee incentive systems. Love science, read WikiScience!

Video on the essence of the main theories of motivation:

Abraham Maslow's Theory of Needs (1943).

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory is one of the fundamental classical intrapersonal theories of motivation.

Abraham Maslow proceeded from the fact that a person is influenced by a whole complex of pronounced needs that can be divided into several groups, arranging them according to the principle of hierarchy. A manager who is well aware of the level of needs of his employee can foresee what type of needs will dominate in him in the near future and will be able to use the appropriate motivator to increase the efficiency of the employee.

Abraham Maslow divided the entire set of human needs into 5 categories:

1. Physiological Needs (food, housing, clothing, rest) - necessary for the survival of man, as a human species. In relation to production, they manifest themselves as the need for wages, vacations, pensions, and favorable working conditions. Workers whose behavior is conditioned by these needs have little interest in labor (its content), they are interested in working conditions and wages.

2. The Need for Security (physical and economic) - security and confidence that all physiological needs will be satisfied. In the organization, these needs are expressed in the form of the struggle of workers for stable employment, for safe working conditions, for social insurance and leads to the creation of trade unions.

3. Social needs (in belonging) - a feeling of belonging to something or someone, a feeling of affection and support. Focus on communication and emotional connections with others (friendship, love, belonging to a group). Being social and collective beings, people have a desire to please others and communicate with them. In an organization, this is manifested in the fact that employees are included in formal and informal social groups and, one way or another, cooperate with colleagues at work. An employee motivated by social needs considers his work as part of the activities of the entire team. The management of such employees has the character of a friendly partnership.

4. The need for respect (self-respect, in respect from others, in authority, in power, in career growth). Self-esteem is usually formed when a goal is achieved, it is also associated with the presence of autonomy and independence. The need for respect from others orients the employee to gain social recognition, a certain status within the group. External expression of this may be praise, honorary titles, promotion.

5. Needs of self-expression - in creativity, in the implementation of their own crafts, in the realization of their own abilities, in the development, cognitive and aesthetic needs, in the presence of their potentialities and growth as a person.

Hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow

The first four levels are usually called deficit needs, since the degree of their satisfaction has a limit, the fifth can be limitless. According to Maslow's model, there is a hierarchy between all levels, that is, a certain relationship.

The first two levels are primary needs, the third, fourth and fifth are secondary.

In motivating the worker's behavior, higher needs become dominant and determine behavior only after sufficient satisfaction of the primary needs. Employee satisfaction is achieved when the degree of saturation of the need corresponds to his expectation, otherwise there is a feeling of dissatisfaction that blocks the actualization of secondary needs.

The theory of motivational needs by David McClelland (40s of the 20th century).

David McClelland's theory made a significant contribution to the development of the problem of employee behavior motivation. Unlike his predecessors, the author tried to identify the most important among the two needs, which are updated subject to sufficient material security. He argues that any organization provides an employee with the opportunity to fulfill three needs:

1. Need for power - is expressed in the desire to influence other people, control their behavior, as well as the willingness to answer for them. This need has a positive effect on the efficiency of the manager. Therefore, it is advisable to select people with a pronounced need for power for leadership positions. Such people have more self-control, are more committed to the organization, are passionate about work and work without regard to time and their own strength. People with this need are most often outspoken, not afraid of confrontation and striving to defend their opinion.

2. The need for success - the need is satisfied not by the proclamation of the success of this person, which only confirms his status, but by the process of bringing the work to a successful conclusion. This need is unequally expressed in different workers. People with this need take moderate risks and like situations in which they can take responsibility for solving a problem. To motivate people, the manager must set them tasks with a moderate degree of risk, delegate sufficient authority to them and regularly reward them in accordance with the results achieved. They get satisfaction not so much from the reward, but from the process of work, and especially from its successful completion. This need may evolve. This is used to increase the efficiency of the worker. Success-oriented people achieve it more often than others.

3. Need for belonging (participle) - it manifests itself in the desire to communicate and have friendly relations with people around. Employees with this need achieve high performance in tasks that require social interaction and ongoing interpersonal relationships. Motivation boils down to the fact that leaders must maintain an atmosphere that does not limit interpersonal relationships and contacts, because employees with affiliations are interested in work that gives them extensive opportunities for social value.

All employees use these needs to some extent. However, for different workers they are expressed differently or exist in a certain combination. How they are combined depends on innate qualities, personal experience, on the situation and on the culture of the person. They manifest themselves in the corresponding motives. The main motives are stable and change only for a long time. But, at the same time, they are subject to short-term fluctuations.

Based on his research, McClelland identified three groups of managers:

1. Institutional- have a high level of self-control. They are characterized by a need for power more than belonging.

2. Managers, in whom the need for power also prevails over the need for belonging, but they are more open and socially active in the implementation of managerial actions.

3. Managers who have a need for belonging more than a need for power. They are also socially active, but they are less effective in achieving the goals of the organization.

Two-factor theory by Frederick Herzberg (50s of the 20th century).

F. Herzberg's theory of two factors caused a wide resonance among scientists and managers. He studied two hundred engineers and accountants in order to identify motivational factors and their strength. Employees were asked two questions: “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally good at work?” and “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally bad at work?” As a result of the study, two groups of factors were clearly identified that obviously do not equally affect labor motivation:

1. Hygienic. The term "hygiene" is used here in its medical meaning - hygiene as a warning, prevention of disease, and not as a cure for it. By themselves, hygiene factors do not cause satisfaction, but their deterioration gives rise to dissatisfaction with work. When hygiene factors improve, there is no dissatisfaction, but when such an improvement is perceived by employees as natural, for granted, then there is no satisfaction.

Hygiene factors include:

Relations with colleagues, superiors and subordinates;

Moral climate in the organization;

Remuneration (in case of a fixed salary);

Leadership abilities;

Physical working conditions;

Job stability.

2. Motivators, which directly cause job satisfaction, a high level of motivation and labor achievements. They act as stimulators of effective work.

These include:

Achievements of goals;

Confession;

Interesting content of the work;

Independence (own area of ​​work) and responsibility;

Professional and official growth;

Opportunities for personal self-realization.

Of course, the boundaries between individual hygiene factors and motivators are relative, mobile. So, money in the form of a fixed salary is a hygiene factor, while at the same time, such a motivator as promotion also implies a salary increase. In order to avoid dissatisfaction with work, it is enough to have hygienic factors in the usual volume, while increasing labor productivity is achieved with the help of motivators.

Summarizing the results of their research, Herzberg made a number of conclusions:

Lack of hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction;

The presence of motivators can only partially and incompletely compensate for the absence of hygiene factors;

Under normal conditions, the presence of hygienic factors is perceived as natural and does not have a motivational effect;

Positive maximum motivational impact is achieved with the help of motivators in the presence of hygiene factors.

Herzberg's model differs from many motivational theories in that it denies simple alternativeness in the impact of various motivational factors on job satisfaction. The main practical conclusion from Herzberg's theory is that managers should differentiate and be very careful about the use of various incentives and, when the needs of the lower level are sufficiently satisfied, do not rely on hygiene factors as the main ones. Conversely, they should not waste time and money on the use of motivators until the hygiene needs of employees are satisfied.

Employees should regularly learn about the positive and negative results of their work;

They need to create conditions for the growth of their own self-esteem and respect (psychological growth);

They should be given the opportunity to schedule their own work;

They must bear certain financial responsibility for the results of their activities;

They should be able to communicate openly and pleasantly with leaders at all levels of management;

They must be accountable for their work in the area entrusted to them.

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Dear visitor! This page of the site is devoted to an overview of the methodological base of motivation and stimulation of labor and the main theories and models of motivation grouped into three blocks: traditional theories of motivation, content theories of motivation and procedural theories of motivation. For each model or theory, its description is given, and its positive and negative sides are evaluated from the point of view of applicability in the formation of systems of motivation and stimulation of labor at the micro and macro levels.

Methodological approaches and research of labor motivation

Classification of motivation theories

To describe the motivational process in economics and management, it is customary to use models (theories) of motivation, which can be conditionally classified as follows:

traditional;

procedural.

Traditional are based on the approach of using the policy of "carrot and stick" in terms of material incentives for the employee.

Informative based on the consideration of individual needs (or motives) that guide the activity of the individual.

Procedural consider motivation as a process and focus on how the process and the result of motivation change under the influence of individual factors (for example, fairness or expectations).

Traditional theories of motivation

Founders - Frederick Winslow Taylor ("Principles of Scientific Management". - M., 1991), Henry Lawrence Gant, Henry Ford

The essence of the theories boils down to the fact that for high motivation of employees to work, it is necessary:

clearly standardize and organize work;

to switch to piecework forms of remuneration while preventing a reduction in the piecework rate;

to form uniform conditions for material motivation for all employees;

compensation for "routine" by increased earnings (G. Ford).

Problem areas of traditional theories :

the main emphasis is on financial incentives;

factors of internal motivation are not taken into account;

a unified approach to the motivation of any employees is postulated.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory;

Herzbeg's two-factor model of motivation;

McClelland's three-factor model;

X-, Y-theory of McGregor;

dispositional and attitude models (A.G. Zdravomyslov, V.A. Yadov, G.V. Allport, etc.);

typological model of Gerchikov;

Rampersad's balanced scorecard.

2.2.1. A. Maslow's theory of motivation

The theory of A. Maslow (1954) was based on the principle of hierarchy of people's interests. He suggested the followingclassification of human needs:

Physiological needs (satiation of hunger and thirst, the need for sleep and rest).

Security needs are the provision of stability, protection, freedom from fear, anxiety, etc.

Needs for belonging and love are expressed in such concepts as family, friends, communication.

The need for recognition is realized through confidence, independence, reputation, prestige, status, attention from others and fame.

The need for self-actualization is the desire of a person to embody the potentialities inherent in him.

Maslow argued that all of these human needs are built into a hierarchical structure in which physiological needs occupy the lowest level, followed by the needs for security, belonging and love, the need for recognition and the highest need - the need for self-actualization.

The change in priority needs goes along the line from the lowest to the highest. As the lower needs (physiological) are satisfied, the priorities of a person are directed to the realization of interests that are higher in the proposed hierarchy.

At the same time, lower-order needs do not have to be fully satisfied. The main thing is that the needs that are at a higher level of the hierarchy are satisfied to a lesser extent than the lower ones.

Let us ask ourselves the first question raised in this section about the adequacy of this theory of reality. It seems that this theory, with the exception of some problematic points, quite clearly reflects the general dynamics of a person's transition from one motivating need to another. If we talk about material prosperity as a motive that provides the first two levels of A. Maslow's needs, then world statistics gives a fairly clear result. In countries where per capita income exceeds $20,000, there is no relationship between income and the level of happiness of the population. That is, this amount can be considered as an approximate level of prosperity, after which a further increase in income ceases to motivate a person. At the same time, other sources give the results of measuring the level of happiness, in which not only economically developed countries, but also rather poor ones (for example, Colombia or Bhutan) come to the first positions in the ranking.

Problem areas of the theory :

in reality, the needs of a higher rank can suppress the needs of lower levels of the hierarchy;

A. Maslow's thesis that "a satisfied need cannot be considered as a motive." After all, the hierarchy of needs includes not only needs;

the criteria for changing the actualized needs are not entirely clear. At what point, at what level of satisfaction of the needs of a lower level, the needs of a higher level begin to be significant and satisfied;

groups of needs identified by A. Maslow are not subject to a detailed assessment, and the choice of a satisfied need within their framework is not an object of discussion for him.

there is no connection with the external conditions of the economic activity of the individual. Motivating factors are seen as absolutely endogenously given;

the general imposition of opportunities for self-actualization on a person can have an ambiguous answer. After all, the costs of such events may well cover the positive effect if a person has too great ambitions in terms of meeting the needs of a lower level;

the complete absence of interchangeability of needs (since they are at different levels of the hierarchy) and the possibility of compensating for an increase in the satisfaction of some needs by reducing the possibility of satisfying others.

In general, when evaluating the theory of the hierarchy of needs, it is advisable for A. Maslow to use the quote by J. O'Shaughnessy. "Hierarchy theory is perhaps best viewed as an organizing concept rather than an explanatory model."

2.2.2. The theory of two groups of factors F. Herzberg

This theory has long been called the classical theory of motivation; not a single standard course of management or personnel management can do without considering its basic provisions. The essence of the theory is to separate the factors that affect the economic behavior of the worker into

The first group of factors ismotivators ". These include the needs of the employee for self-realization in the workplace, professional growth, achievement, promotion, recognition and responsibility.Motivators satisfy the individual's need to achieve goals.

The second group of factors ishygienic ". These include: fair distribution of wages, technical aspects of management, working conditions, its reliability and stability, as well as the general administrative style of management. Hygienic factors satisfy the needs of a person, helping to avoid unpleasant situations.

Thus, job satisfaction is caused primarily by factors associated with the impact of motivators, while job dissatisfaction is a consequence of hygiene factors.

The main theses of the theory of F. Herzberg lie in the different impact on a person of these two groups of factors. Job satisfaction is caused by factors associated with the impact of motivators, while job dissatisfaction is a consequence of hygiene factors. More specifically, motivators are "much more likely to increase job satisfaction than to work to decrease it," and hygiene factors that "create job dissatisfaction very rarely work to increase job satisfaction." Thus, hygienic factors are responsible for the feeling of dissatisfaction, and motivators are responsible for the feeling of satisfaction. In order for a person to be satisfied with work, it is necessary to increase the impact of motivators on him, and so that he does not have a negative attitude towards work, it is necessary to activate hygiene factors.

"Preventing dissatisfaction moods and mental illness is just as important as maintaining motivational contentment and mental health." That is, according to Herzberg, the two groups of factors are equivalent in strength.

To maximize the efficiency of creative workers, it is necessary to have “motivators”, hygienic factors can contribute to an increase in the efficiency of activity, but do not lead to its maximum manifestation.

"The fewer opportunities for the manifestation of" motivators ", the better the hygienic conditions should be."

The employee must choose the content of the social package

The problem areas of the theory are based on the survey methodology:

the survey was conducted among two categories of personnel - accountants and engineering workers

the essence of the survey is the subjective assessment by the respondent of the most striking and memorable situations for him and their reasons

The main problem areas of the theory :

it has not been proven that the impact of motivators on any group of personnel should lead to an increase in job satisfaction;

criteria are not defined under which bright events can radically change the motivation of an employee in the long term;

the possibility of systematic error in data collection. When a person is asked to describe the reasons for his failures, then in response we will hear that they lie in factors external to the person (the boss, public transport, partners or the state as a whole can be to blame). But when it comes to the successes achieved by a person, then here he talks about hard work, years of preparation, bright abilities, etc., that is, he finds the root cause of his victories in himself;

the influence of external factors on the motivation to work in Herzberg's theory is expressed only in relation to the dichotomy "creative - monotonous" work, in the sense that only the type of work can determine the priority of the impact on its effectiveness of one or another group of motives;

the object of Herzberg's research is not the relative priority of needs and values ​​within groups of motivators and hygiene factors;

the issue of the optimal combination of levels of individual factors, as well as compensation for changes in one factor by changes in others, has not been resolved;

there is no justification for the level of optimal satisfaction of the needs of the employee. After all, any changes in factors, both hygienic and motivational, require a certain amount of resources;

the mutual influence of measures aimed at creating hygienic and motivational factors is practically not taken into account. The question is whether it is possible to increase the manifestation of "motivators" without changing the hygiene factors.

However, it must be noted thattheory value two groups of Herzberg factorsis as follows :

Sufficiently detailed descriptions of the attitudes of employees to certain events in the workplace were obtained

The factors influencing the employee's attitude to work are systematized

The influence of individual factors, including intangible ones, on the change in a person's attitude to work and on the results of his activity is shown.

The cumulative effect of increasing labor productivity when the employee reaches the needs for self-actualization has been studied.

The importance of suddenness, surprise for the employee of encouragement in increasing the degree of his positive emotions is shown, especially within the framework of such a factor as recognition

2.2.3. McClelland's three-factor model

According to McClelland Three groups of needs affect human behavior:

achievements;

complicity;

domination.

Need for Achievement It is manifested in the desire of a person to achieve his goals more effectively than he did before.

The Need for Participation manifests itself in the form of a desire for friendly relations with others.

The need for domination is acquired, develops on the basis of learning, life experience and lies in the fact that a person seeks to control people, resources and processes occurring in his environment.

The need to rule is mediated by two groups of aspirations:

Gaining power for the sake of domination.

Gaining power in order to achieve group goals

The most important achievement of McClelland's theory is the distinction between two groups of motives: motives of approach and motives of avoidance (see topic 1).

The needs considered by McClelland are not hierarchical and may have varying degrees of manifestation.

The main problem area of ​​the theory - lack of analysis of the relationship and mutual influence of needs, as well as the lack of opportunities to track the genesis of needs over time.

2.2.4. X-, Y-theory of McGregor

McGregor first drew attention to the fact that work motivation systems are directly dependent on the assumptions and views of managers regarding the dominant motivational traits of their subordinates.

He subdivides all these assumptions into two categories, which he calls "Theory X " And " Theory Y ".

Theory X comes from the following basic points of employee motivation:

Employees do not like to work and try to avoid unnecessary (in their opinion) efforts.

Employees are irresponsible and not independent.

To stimulate employees, they must be coerced, controlled and threatened with punishment.

The value of a workplace lies in its stability and security.

Employees have no need for self-realization.

Gerchikov analyzed the preferred types of motivation for employees to fill certain positions (Table 2.2.). For example, sales managers are better off with instrumental motivation, and marketing managers are better off with professional motivation.

Table 2.2 - Preferred types of motivation in the recruitment, placement and intra-company movement of personnel

Table 2.3 shows the relationship between the employee's labor behavior in the context of the functions performed, manifestations of initiative and discipline, and the type of motivation.

Table 2.3 - Relationship between types of motivation and certain types of labor behavior

In table 2.4, Gerchikov summarizes the basic rules for applying incentive systems to employees who differ in the type of labor motivation.

Table 2.4 - Incentives for employees with different types of motivation

Despite the many advantages of the typological model of motivation, among which one can especially note the accessibility for understanding, simplicity and relative cheapness of application in practice, it has its limitations.

H. Rampersad pays more attention to the internal rather than external motivation of a person, saying that it is she who is able to provide a greater level of interest of company personnel in their work. He emphasizes that material incentives have now "already lost their former significance as an incentive to work."

An individual balanced scorecard consists of four groups of elements and a sequence of individual actions to disclose them.

Rampersad H.K. Individual balanced scorecard. - M.: CJSC "Olimp-Business", 2005. - P.6

The main groups of elements include:

internal , implying the health and mental state of the employee;

external , which determines the relationship of the individual with other people;

knowledge and learning , personifying the skills and abilities of the individual for learning;

financial , determining financial requirements and the possibility of their satisfaction.

The way to reveal each element is that the individual must consistently move from the general value-semantic guidelines of his life to specific measures to improve these four elements of activity. This path is revealed through a gradual transition from a personal mission, through a personal vision, personal key roles, personal critical success factors, personal goals, to personal performance indicators and measures for their improvement.

Acting according to the method proposed by H. Rampersad, a person discovers for himself the path to self-improvement and harmony with the external environment.

Problem areas of the theory :

laboriousness and increased requirements for the motivation of the formation of such a system on the part of the individual;

the need for quantitative benchmarks for personal performance indicators in all areas (for example: “how many times I managed to help others”, “the number of frank and pleasant conversations with those I love”, “the number of quarrels with my wife”);

the main problems of H. Rampersad's concept, as it seems, lie in the method of combining the system of indicators of an individual (employee) with the system of indicators of the work of departments and the organization as a whole. The main method of coordination is confidential conversations between employees and a mentor (head of a department) with the participation of a specialist in HR management.

The noted gaps in the theory of H. Rampersad lead to the following difficulties in its practical application:

high requirements for trust between the participants in the conversations;

no theoretical provisions are given on how to carry out the process of finding a compromise between the interests of the employee and the organization. After all, when conducting such conversations, there will often be a need to reconcile extremely polar positions;

there is no methodology for taking into account the relationship of individual values ​​and needs that affect the final choice of a particular goal by a person.

Process theories of motivation

The main process theories are:

Porter-Lawler theory

Vroom's theory of expectations

Theory of Justice by S. Adams

2.3.1. Porter-Lawler theory

Porter-Lawler theory (authors L. Porter, E. Lawler) focuses on a model in which there are five variables: effort expended, perception, results obtained, reward, degree of satisfaction. Essentially a synthesis of expectations and fairness theories (see below)

Rice. 2.1. Schematic diagram of the Porter-Lawler Motivation Model p>

The main conclusions of this theory are as follows:

In the system of human values, the certainty of the result plays an important role. Ceteris paribus, the less likely the result, the less effort is made to implement it.

In addition to external rewards (salary or bonus, for example), a person receives internal rewards (joy from the work done, etc.), which contributes to an increase in his level of satisfaction.

Not only external rewards are important, but also the individual's assessment of the fairness of this reward. If the assessment of a fair remuneration is higher than in reality, then a person subsequently loses incentives to work effectively.

High performance is the cause of satisfaction, not its consequence. That is, satisfaction should arise not before the start of work, but after its completion.

Problem areas of the Porter-Lawler theory:

the main problem is the lack of any model for prioritizing and interrelation of individual targets of individuals. This theory is mainly focused on the problems of expectations and fairness of rewards in relations with counterparties. Although the authors mention the internal motivation of a person and indicate its significance, nevertheless, it is not the subject of detailed consideration in this theory;

the persistent assertion of the authors of the theory that employee satisfaction should arise after the performance of the work, and not before this process, is questionable. By itself, the promise of a reward, backed by confidence in the veracity of such a promise, can increase a person's satisfaction at the same time. There is no need to wait for this to finish. In addition, the process of work itself is quite capable of evoking feelings of satisfaction in people.

2.3.2. Vroom's theory of expectations

The essence of the theory W. Vroom's expectationsis that that the motivation for effective activity depends on the sum of the products of valences for each motivational factor and the perceived ability (or subjective probability) of the results of the first level to lead to the achievement of results of the second level.

Thus, motivation is based on three types of connections:

Relationship "cost-result" (C-R)

Relationship "result-reward" (R-B)

Valence - as the strength of the manifestation of individual motivational factors

Motivation \u003d 3 - P x P-B x Valence.

At the same time, the results of the first level (Z-R connection ), in fact, are planned tasks that a person receives from his boss.

Second level results (R-B connection ) are a function of the results of the first level and represent the results of activity that are already significant for the person himself (the amount of monetary remuneration, promotion, respect for colleagues, etc.)

Under valence refers to the power of a person's desire to satisfy a particular need.

Main conclusion: The less a person feels the connection between the costs, results of the first and second levels, the less he is motivated, other things being equal.

Problem areas of W. Vroom's theory of expectations:

what is analyzed is not what a person would like to do in a given situation, but rather how he will respond to a specific external proposal (the need to achieve first-level results). The problem is that in addition to the received proposal, a person, as a rule, is already in a state of some kind of action. Models of the relationship of tasks already available to a person with new ones are not disclosed in any way within the framework of this theory;

there is no study of the dynamics of changes in valence under the influence of relevant achievements and results. That is, it is assumed that the preferences of the individual in relation to certain factors of motivation are stable;

Vroom's theory suggests that, in general, primary results are aimed at improving a person's ability to obtain second-level results. However, the reality is thatto achieve a positive effect in achieving one result of the second level, we often have to sacrifice other results of the same level . Unfortunately, in the theory of V. Vroom, the issues of mutual influence and mutual compensation of the results of the second level are practically not considered;

it does not take into account the fact that the activity or efforts that must be applied to achieve the goals of the first level are at the same time, in some sense, a negative result of the second level.

2.3.3. Stacey Adams' Theory of Justice

The essence of the theory: People subjectively determine the ratio of the reward received to the effort expended and then correlate it with the reward of other people doing similar work. If the comparison shows injustice, that is, a person believes that his colleague received more remuneration for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress.

The result of the lack of justice is manifested in the following behavioral traits:

an attempt to increase remuneration for one's work (expression of direct dissatisfaction or an increase in positive activity);

impact on the position of other members of the organization;

leaving a department or firm;

reduction of own efforts;

understatement of one's own merits;

selection of another comparison object.

Problem areas of the theory :

the narrowness of factors affecting the motivation of employees (in addition to a sense of justice, there are other motivators);

insufficient predictability of the development of a situation of injustice (what reaction will be chosen by one or another employee).

Contribution of process theories to motivation research

The Porter-Lawler theory and Vroom's theory gave impetus to managers' awareness of the need to increase the level of certainty of the result as an important factor in improving labor efficiency.

It is also interesting to pay attention to the presence of feedback, in which the already obtained result and the fairness of the previous reward can influence the motivation for future work.

The theory of S. Adams draws attention to the extremely important problem of ensuring the fairness of incentive measures.

Empirical research on motivation

2.4.1. Hawthorne experiments

The Hawthorne experiments were carried out in 1927-1932. at the Chicago Hawthorne Works, owned by the Western Electric Company.

Ordinary workers engaged in the production of electrical products were subjected to the study.

Subject of study - the impact of working conditions on performance.

Main total experiments was that labor productivity is largely determined not by the working conditions themselves, but by their subjective perception by workers.

Secondly, a strong relationship was found between the individual behavior of the worker and the behavior of the team.

Disadvantages of observations:

The absence of a clear function of the influence of group restrictions on the individual, as well as the connection between the results of these restrictions and the effectiveness of work.

The method of prioritizing the target functions of group members through group values ​​is also questionable.

2.4.2. Research on extrinsic reinforcement of motivation

« If to intriguing attraction enough to induce activity to complete the task,added extravagant appeal and, thus, there is a "super-confirmation" of some activity that the subject likes, thenpredisposition to it , measured by a number of parameters characteristic of "intrinsic" motivation,declining » .

At the heart of most studies on external reinforcement, the latter was the material stimulation of the subjects (tokens, money, etc.), which caused a dissonance in personal goals and a modification of the ways to achieve an externally fixed result.

The main results of research in the field of reinforcement of internal motivation of external:

extrinsic and intrinsic motivations actively compete with each other;

short-term external reinforcement, which is known in advance, most often weakens intrinsic motivation;

a long process of external reinforcement can weaken internal motivation, but not in all cases;

external reinforcement helps to change the chosen complexity of tasks and ways to achieve controlled results;

highly motivated subjects tend to be called upon to work on difficult tasks in a situation requiring internal evaluation, and on easy ones when evaluation is carried out from outside.

2.4.3. Magun research

V. Magun defined the concept of good as “those states and processes of the subject and its external environment that are the reasons for the preservation and development of the subject”, and “the state of the absence of any good x” by the term “need for good x” .

“The appearance of the good destroys (cancels) or reduces the need, and the appearance of the need is the corresponding state of the good” .

The consideration of goods and needs is carried out by Magun in a hierarchy similar to the hierarchy of goods of K. Menger . Magun writes: “the end results – individual benefits of the first order – are the internal states of the subject itself, manifestations of its preservation and development”, “functionally equivalent goods of the n + 1 order are characterized by generalization in terms of the goodn-th order".

At the same time, he notes that “In each of the causal chains that make up the evaluated activity option, the subject takes into account only the significance and probability of the value of the lowest order, and the instrumental significance of the previous components of the action do not affect the overall assessment of the option.

Magun drew attention to the ambivalence of any human action "i.e. e. a combination of useful and harmful properties in one item. In this case, the latter act asprices for using the former. The final value of any event or their system is calculated by means of algebraic summation of its particular values ​​(or valences)" . Each satisfaction of one need leads to the simultaneous emergence of another, which is the price of satisfying the first.

V. Magun gives four groups of possible prices:

Disadvantages of the Magun study:

V. Magun uses volitional efforts or psychophysical energy of a person as a resource to meet needs, which are, as it were, ultimate benefits. Therefore, the cost of these benefits can be measured in terms of the amount of this resource.

However, a feature of individual goods is that they, being partly final goods (at the appropriate level of the hierarchy), are also resources and can be used directly to satisfy other goods.

Thus, just as one can consider volitional efforts as a resource for other needs, one can say that limiting the desire for self-preservation, as V. Magun’s obviously basic need of the first level, can in itself be a resource for satisfying the need for development.

The conflict between individual and internalized social needs arises when a person is forced to submit to needs external to him, learned from the practice of communicating with the environment.

On the basis of internalization, V. Magun rejects the possibility of altruistic, moral and other similar needs appearing in a person . It seems that Magun made the wrong conclusion, trying to consider the mentioned needs only as part of the needs of the system external to the person. Indeed, a person cannot be the bearer of any imposed need without accepting it as his own, intrinsically valuable.

Most likely, the internalized needs of V. Magun represent certain norms of behavior that a person must adhere to, hoping to receive certain benefits from society, but not shared by him.

Magun V.S. Needs and psychology of social activity of the individual. - Leningrad: Nauka, 1983. - S.7-8.

Magun V.S. Needs and psychology of social activity of the individual. - Leningrad: Nauka, 1983. - P.8.

The methods used by him for processing primary information made it possible to divide workers into separate groups depending on the direction of the mentioned dependence.

The first group included workers with a positive correlation between job satisfaction and productivity. The second group included persons who, with the growth of productivity, experienced a decrease in satisfaction.

main reason such differences V. Magun calls the difference between the benefits that an employee receives from greater productivity and the cost of a person to achieve it (fatigue, health problems) . At the same time, an important point is the orientation of a person to internal or external motives of activity. So, if a person highly appreciates material rewards, then often with an increase in his productivity for this purpose, he does not receive the necessary material compensation and becomes dissatisfied with working conditions, the possibilities of independent change of which are unlikely for him.

So, we have considered the advantages and limitations of using the most well-known theories and models of work motivation to date. The next topic will consider one of the newest concepts of work motivation - the concept of personal costs.

Magun V.S. Needs and psychology of social activity of the individual. - Leningrad: Nauka, 1983. - P.168.

Magun V.S. Needs and psychology of social activity of the individual. - Leningrad: Nauka, 1983. - P.70.