What are the most famous philosophers. The main philosophers and a brief description of their views Philosophers and their ideas

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In Russian

Spirkin A.G. Philosophy // . - Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1977. - T. 27. - S. 412-417.
E.Gubsky, G.Korableva, V.Lutchenko Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - Moscow: Infra-M, 2005. - 576 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 5-86225-403-X
Alexander Gritsanov The latest philosophical dictionary. - Minsk: Skakun, 1999. - 896 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 985-6235-17-0

in foreign languages

Robert Audi philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - T. 7. - S. 325-337. - ISBN 0-02-865787-X.
The Oxford companion to philosophy / Ted Honderich. - New Edition. - Oxford University Press, 2005. - 1060 p. - ISBN 0–19–926479–1

Introductory Literature

In Russian

P.V. Alekseev, A.V. Panin Philosophy. - 3rd edition. - Moscow: Prospect, 2005. - 604 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-482-00002-8
B. Russell History of Western Philosophy = The History of Western Philosophy. - Moscow: Mif, 1993. - T. I. - 512 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 5-87214-012-6
B. Russell History of Western Philosophy = The History of Western Philosophy. - Moscow: Mif, 1993. - T. II. - 446 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 5-87214-012-6
M.N. Rosenko The subject of philosophy. Anthropocentrism as an ideological and methodological principle of modern philosophy. // Yu.N. Solonin and others. Fundamentals of modern philosophy. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999. - S. 3-19. - ISBN 5-8114-0100-0.
A.S. Kolesnikov Historical types of philosophy // Yu.N. Solonin and others. Fundamentals of modern philosophy. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999. - S. 20-110. - ISBN 5-8114-0100-0.
A.A. Sychev Fundamentals of philosophy. - Moscow: Alfa M, 2010. - 368 p. - 1500 copies. - ISBN 978-5-98281-181-3

in foreign languages

Brooke Noel Moore, Kenneth Bruder philosophy. The Power of Ideas. - 6th edition. - Mc Graw Hill, 2005. - 600 p. - ISBN 0-07-287603-4
Edward Craig philosophy // Nigel Warburton philosophy. Basic Readings.. - Routledge, 2005. - S. 5-10. - ISBN 0-203-50642-1.
Rodolphe Gasche The Honor of Thinking: Critique, Theory, Philosophy. - 1st edition. - Stanford University Press, 2006. - 424 p. - ISBN 0804754233
Richard H. Popkin Origins of Western Philosophical Thinking // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 1-5. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.

Thematic literature on philosophical schools

Early Greek philosophy

A.I. Zaitsev Sophists // V.S. Stepin ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
Catherine Osborne Presocratic Philosophy. A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2004. - 146 p. - ISBN 0-19-284094-0
Thomas M. Robinson The Pre-Socratic Philosophers // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 6-20. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
Thomas M. Robinson The Sophists // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 20-23. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.

Greek classical philosophy

V.F. Asmus Plato. - Moscow: Thought, 1975. - 220 p. - (Thinkers of the past). - 50,000 copies.
A.F. Losev, A.A. Tahoe Godi Plato. Aristotle.. - 3rd edition. - Moscow: Young Guard, 2005. - 392 p. - (Life of remarkable people). - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-235-02830-9
A.F. Losev Life and creative path of Plato // Plato. Collected works in four volumes. - Moscow: Thought, 1994. - T. 1. - S. 3-63. - ISBN 5-244-00451-4.

ancient indian philosophy

VC. Shokhin Indian philosophy // V.S. Stepin ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
D.B. Zilberman, A.M. Piatigorsky Philosophy [in India] // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1972. - T. 10. - S. 221-223.
Sue Hamilton Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2001. - 168 p. - ISBN 0192853740
Karl Potter Indian Philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 4. - S. 623-634. - ISBN 0-02-865784-5.
VC. Shokhin Indian philosophy. Shraman period. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Publishing House, 2007. - 424 p. - 1000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-288-04085-6
VC. Shokhin Schools of Indian Philosophy. Formation period. - Moscow: Eastern Literature, 2004. - 416 p. - (History of Eastern philosophy). - 1200 copies. - ISBN 5-02-018390-3

ancient chinese philosophy

V.G. Burova, M.L. Titarenko Philosophy of Ancient China // ancient chinese philosophy: in 2 volumes .. - Moscow: Thought, 1972. - T. 1. - S. 5-77.
A.I. Kobzev Chinese philosophy // V.S. Stepin New Philosophical Encyclopedia: in 4 vols. - Moscow: Thought, 2010. - Vol. 2. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
Livia Kohn Daoism Handbook. - Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. - 954 p. - (Handbook of Oriental Studies / Handbuch der Orientalisk). - ISBN 90-04-11208-1
Wing-Tsit Chan Chinese Philosophy: Overview // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 149-160. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
Kwong-loi Shun Chinese Philosophy: Confucianism // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 170-180. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
Chad Hansen Chinese Philosophy: Daoism // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 184-194. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
Bo Mou Chinese Philosophy: Language and Logic // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 202-215. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.

Medieval philosophy of Europe

Chanyshev A.N. Course of Lectures on Ancient and Medieval Philosophy. - Moscow: Higher School, 1991. - 512 p. - 100,000 copies. - ISBN 5-06-000992-0
Sokolov V.V. medieval philosophy. - Moscow: Higher School, 1979. - 448 p. - 40,000 copies.
S.S. Neretina Medieval European Philosophy // V.S. Stepin New Philosophical Encyclopedia: in 4 vols. - Moscow: Thought, 2010. - Vol. 4. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
Desmond Paul Henry Medieval and Early Christian Philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 6. - S. 99-107. - ISBN 0-02-865786-1.
G.A. Smirnov Okcam // V.S. Stepin New philosophical encyclopedia: in 4 vols. - Moscow: Thought, 2010. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.

Medieval Philosophy of the Near East

E.A. Frolova A History of Arab-Muslim Philosophy: The Middle Ages and Modern Times. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 2006. - 199 p. - 500 copies. - ISBN 5-9540-0057-3
Kecia Ali, Oliver Leaman Islam: the key concepts. - New York: Routledge, 2007. - 2000 p. - ISBN 0415396387
E.A. Frolova Arab-Islamic Philosophy in the Middle Ages // M.T. Stepanyants History of Eastern Philosophy. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1998. - S. 72-101. - ISBN 5-201-01993-5.
Colette Sirat History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy = A History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages. - Moscow: Bridges of Culture, 2003. - 712 p. - (Bibliotheca judaica. Modern research). - 2000 copies. - ISBN 5-93273-101-X

Medieval Philosophy of India and the Far East

G.A. Tkachenko Medieval Philosophy of China // M.T. Stepanyants History of Eastern Philosophy. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1998. - S. 49-71. - ISBN 5-201-01993-5.
VC. Shokhin Medieval Philosophy of India // M.T. Stepanyants History of Eastern Philosophy. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1998. - S. 21-48. - ISBN 5-201-01993-5.

Philosophy of the Renaissance

V. Shestakov Philosophy and culture of the Renaissance. Dawn of Europe. - St. Petersburg: Nestor-History, 2007. - 270 p. - 2000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-59818-7240-2
OH. Gorfunkel Philosophy of the Renaissance. - Moscow: Higher School, 1980. - 368 p. - 50,000 copies.

Philosophy of the New Age

Karl Americas Immanuel Kant // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 494-502. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
Richard H. Popkin The French Enlightenment // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 462-471. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
Harry M. Bracken George Berkeley // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 445-452. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
Yuen Ting Lai China and Western Philosophy in the Age of Reason // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 412-421. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.

Continental philosophy

Simon Critchley Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2001. - 168 p. - ISBN 0-19-285359-7
Charles E. Scott Continental Philosophy at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 745-753. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
Thomas Nenon Continental Philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 488-489. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought / Lawrence D. Kritzman, Brian J. Reilly. - New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. - 788 p. - ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4
Peter Singer Marx: A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2001. - 120 p. - ISBN 0–19–285405–4
Franz Peter Hugdahl Poststructuralism: Derrida and Foucault // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 737-744. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
Alain Sokal, Jean Bricmont Intellectual tricks. Criticism of postmodern philosophy = Fashionable Nonsense. Postmodern Intellectuals "Abuse of Science. - Moscow: House of Intellectual Books, 2002. - 248 p. - 1000 copies - ISBN 5-7333-0200-3
N.V.Motroshilova

Great philosophers and their teachings (very briefly)

Philosophy allowed the visible world to take shape in our minds. From the hard sciences to political discussions, philosophers have sought to challenge our idea of what the world looks like. And this science originated in Ancient Greece, known for its impressive list of philosophers, many of whom you know from school days. We have compiled 25 of the most famous names of philosophy so that you can show off your knowledge during an argument.

Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle

Marble bust of famous philosopher

An ancient Greek philosopher, known to almost every person who is at least a little familiar with the course of school history. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but in many ways surpassed his teacher, which caused his discontent. Known for his work in mathematics, physics, logic, poetry, linguistics and political science.

Grandfather of modern Matrix theory

A native of Germany, Kant is known for his ideas on the relativity of perception. According to him, we see the world not as it is. We can only perceive it through the prism of our thoughts, feelings and judgments. In other words, he laid the foundation for the creation of the concept of the Matrix by the Wachowski brothers.

Creator of Atlantis and the Academy

As already mentioned, Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. He is known for establishing the Academy in Athens. It was the first institution of higher education in the Western world.

Confucius is one of the greatest and most famous in the world

An article by a Chinese philosopher in Beijing

This Chinese philosopher lived around 500 BC. His philosophy was focused on relationships and the importance of the family in the life of each individual and society. Later, his views developed and became known as Confucianism.

Portrait of Hume by a Scottish artist

This Scottish philosopher was known for his commitment to empiricism and skepticism. He was sure that our perception of the world is based not on an objective vision, but on our belief in how the world should look like. Kant, by the way, took a lot from Hume's ideas.

The famous philosopher on the canvas of the royal master

He is rightfully considered the father of modern philosophy. He owns one of the most famous aphorisms - "I think, therefore I exist."

Great Greek Philosopher

Plato's teacher made a very significant contribution to rhetoric, logic and philosophy. He is credited with the so-called Socratic method of discussion, in which the listener is asked a series of questions that lead the listener to the desired conclusions.

Father of the "Sovereign" in a lifetime portrait

Living during the Renaissance, Machiavelli is known for his invaluable contributions to political philosophy. His book "The Sovereign" tells how to stay "at the helm" of power under any circumstances. Machiavelli's work was accepted with hostility, since at that time it was believed that power could not be unvirtuous. “Power is always right” and “Love does not get along well with fear” are his statements.

The physician who opened the way for popular science thought

Locke was a British physician. According to his theory, all our perception is based on subjective vision. His thoughts were developed by Hume and Kant. Locke is also known for using simple language in his writings, understandable to anyone familiar with the ability to read. When asked how objects outside of a person could exist, he suggested sticking one's hand into a fire.

Scene with the search for Man through the eyes of an artist

This ancient Greek philosopher is famous for sitting in a barrel. He also cursed Aristotle, claiming that he perverted the teachings of Plato. No less famous is the episode in which Diogenes, finding Athens mired in vanity and vices, walked the streets of the capital with a torch and exclamations “I am looking for a Man!”.

Aquinas surrounded by ideas and one ancient Greek philosopher

Thomas Aquinas is one of the most important Christian theologians and philosophers. He not only combined the Greek natural school of philosophy with Christian theology, but also created a series of treatises that develop a rational approach to faith and religion (oddly enough). His writings most widely describe the beliefs and faith of the Middle Ages.

Statue of a philosopher in one of the Chinese temples

This mysterious philosopher lived around the 6th century BC. in China. He is credited with the creation of such a movement as "Taoism" (or "Taoism"). The main idea of this teaching is Tao, that is, a special Path to Harmony. These thoughts have become very important to Buddhism, Confucianism and other Asian philosophies.

Lithograph of Leibniz's portrait

Leibniz is on a par with Descartes among idealist thinkers. Due to his technical background and his penchant for analytics, Leibniz initially believed that the brain was a complex machine. However, later he abandoned these ideas precisely because of the perfection of the brain. According to his idea, the brain consisted of Monads - subtle spiritual substances.

The legendary "myth buster"

Spinoza was a Dutch Jew born in the early 15th century in Amsterdam. He is known for his research on rationalism and pragmatism in the Abrahamic religions. For example, he tried to prove the impossibility of many Christian miracles of that time. For which, as expected, he was repeatedly persecuted by the authorities.

A French philosopher of the Enlightenment, Voltaire advocated humanism, concern for nature and responsibility for the actions of mankind. He sharply criticized religion and the humiliation of human dignity.

This English philosopher lived in turbulent times. Looking at fratricidal wars, he concluded that a citizen must submit to the authority of the state at any cost, as long as this authority ensures internal and external peace, since there is nothing worse than wars.

Portrait of Augustine kept in the Vatican

Aurelius was born in what is now Algeria. He is especially known for his work "Confession", in which he describes his path to Christianity. In this work, he often talked about free will and predestination. He was canonized shortly after his death and is considered one of the most important Christian authors of the early period.

Engraving depicting a philosopher

Persian philosopher, known for his criticism of the works of Aristotle. For example, he pointed out the error of assertions about the eternity of the world and its infinity. He also directly supported Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam.

Gautama Buddha and his followers

Perhaps the most famous Indian philosopher. He came to the conclusion that all human suffering is the result of a conflict between the desire for permanence and the lack of permanence in the world.

Philosopher profile on canvas

We can say that Montesquieu is the great-grandfather of almost all Constitutions (including the American one). This French philosopher made an invaluable contribution to political science.

Portrait by an unknown artist

Known not only for his works in the field of humanism, but also for very controversial statements for us (though not without meaning). He argued that man is freer in anarchy than in society. In his opinion, science and progress do not develop humanity, but give more power to the government.

Court portrait of a philosopher

An Irishman with a fine mental organization is known for the idea that the material world may not exist. Everything that surrounds us and we ourselves are thoughts in the mind of a higher deity.

Photo of Rand, made for one of the American magazines

She was born in Russia, but emigrated to the United States, where she became widely known for her ideas of strong capitalism, in which the government has no right to interfere. Her concepts formed the basis of modern libertarianism and conservatism.

Bouvoir in the last years of his life

Simone did not consider herself a philosopher. However, it was this French woman writer who influenced the formation of existentialism and feminism. Supporters of the latter, by the way, consider her almost the messiah of the struggle for women's equality.

Statue of the legendary warlord

Being a talented military man, General Sun Tzu had invaluable experience in combat operations. This allowed him to write one of the most popular book among business sharks and modern business philosophers - "The Art of War".

Of course, this list is far from complete, it does not include many controversial or odeotic personalities whose philosophy has influenced modern society no less than scientific progress (take the same Nietzsche). However, philosophy and the development of thought always give rise to discussions. So right?

Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle

Marble bust of famous philosopher

Grandfather of modern Matrix theory

Creator of Atlantis and the Academy

As already mentioned, Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. He is known for establishing the Academy in Athens. It was the first institution of higher education in the Western world.

Confucius is one of the greatest and most famous in the world

An article by a Chinese philosopher in Beijing

Portrait of Hume by a Scottish artist

The famous philosopher on the canvas of the royal master

He is rightfully considered the father of modern philosophy. He owns one of the most famous aphorisms - "I think, therefore I exist."

Great Greek Philosopher

Father of the "Sovereign" in a lifetime portrait

The physician who opened the way for popular science thought

Scene with the search for Man through the eyes of an artist

Aquinas surrounded by ideas and one ancient Greek philosopher

Statue of a philosopher in one of the Chinese temples

Lithograph of Leibniz's portrait

The legendary "mythbuster"

Author of famous comedies and humanist in oil portrait

Author of the idea of subordination to the state

Portrait of Augustine kept in the Vatican

Engraving depicting a philosopher

Gautama Buddha and his followers

Perhaps the most famous Indian philosopher. He came to the conclusion that all human suffering is the result of a conflict between the desire for permanence and the lack of permanence in the world.

Philosopher profile on canvas

We can say that Montesquieu is the great-grandfather of almost all Constitutions (including the American one). This French philosopher made an invaluable contribution to political science.

Portrait by an unknown artist

Court portrait of a philosopher

An Irishman with a fine mental organization is known for the idea that the material world may not exist. Everything that surrounds us and we ourselves are thoughts in the mind of a higher deity.

Photo of Rand, made for one of the American magazines

Bouvoir in the last years of his life

Statue of the legendary warlord

Brief information about the best philosophers of the world, philosophical works of thinkers of Ancient times, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Modern times and the Enlightenment. Classical philosophy and contemporary philosophers.

List of great philosophers

Philosophers of the ancient world

Buddha (Enlightened) (c. 567-488 BC)

Founder of Buddhism.

Lao Tzu (6-5 centuries BC)

Semi-legendary founder of Taoism. Traditionally, he is considered the author of the famous book "Tao Te Ching" ("The Book of the Way and Dignity").

Confucius (Kung Tzu) (551-479 BC)

Chinese philosopher, founder of Confucianism

Thales. (640-550 BC)

Ancient Greek thinker, one of the founders of ancient philosophy. Founder of the Milesian school.

Anaximander (610-547 BC)

Ancient Greek philosopher, representative of the Milesian school. He was the author of the first philosophical work in Greek, On Nature. A student of Thales. Created a geocentric model of the cosmos, the first geographical map.

Anaximenes (6th century BC).

Student of Anaximander. He considered air to be the beginning of everything, from the discharge of which all things arise.

Parmenides (6th century BC)

Ancient Greek philosopher and politician. He expressed his views in the poem "On Nature".

Pythagoras of Samos. (about 570-500 BC).

An ancient Greek philosopher from the city of Regia, a religious and political figure, the founder of Pythagoreanism. In the city of Croton, he founded a school of his followers (about 2 thousand people), which is both a philosophical and scientific school and a religious and magical union. Of the recorded works of Pythagoras, the following are known: "On Nature", "On Education", "On the State", "On the World", "On the Soul". Pythagoras first called the universe "cosmos". He singled out the number as the basic principle of all existence.

Xenophanes (570-478 BC)

Ancient Greek wandering poet and philosopher. A satirist, a denier of the authorities of Hellenic culture. The main work is Sillas (satires) in 5 books, directed "against all poets and philosophers."

Heraclitus of Ephesus. (544-483 BC)

Ancient Greek philosopher, founder of the first historical or original form of dialectics. The main work is the book "On Nature", which consisted of three parts ("On Nature", "On the State", "On God").

Leucippus (5th century BC).

One of the founders of ancient Greek atomism, teacher of Democritus. He admitted the existence of non-existence, i.e. emptiness.

Gorgias (about 480-380 BC)

The ancient Greek sophist, the largest theoretician and teacher of eloquence of the 5th century BC. e .. The author of the essay "On Nature, or on the Non-Existent"

Democritus (about 460 - 370 BC)

Democritus of Abdera - the famous ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of atomism and materialistic philosophy

Zeno (about 490-430 BC)

Zeno of Elea - an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Parmenides, a representative of the Elea school. He is famous for his paradoxes, with which he tried to prove the inconsistency of the concepts of motion, space and multitude. Aristotle considered him the founder of dialectics as the art of comprehending truth through dispute or interpretation of opposing opinions.

Protagoras (480-410 BC)

The most prominent of the sophists. He put forward the thesis "man is the measure of all things - existing in their being and bearing in their non-existence." He gained fame thanks to his teaching activities during his many years of wandering.

Socrates (about 470/469-399 BC)

An ancient thinker, the first Athenian philosopher. The teaching of Socrates marks a turn in philosophy - from the consideration of nature and the world to the consideration of man. He preferred oral reasoning in the course of dialogues in the squares and in the palestras. One of the founders of dialectics as a method of knowing the truth through leading questions. He became the embodiment of the ideal of the sage.

Zeno of Kition (circa 334-262 BC)

Zeno of Kitia, Zeno the Stoic - an ancient Greek philosopher, founded the Stoic school in Athens.

Diogenes (about 404-323 BC)

The philosopher is a cynic. He practiced extreme asceticism. I considered myself a citizen of the world. According to legend, he lived in a barrel.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

The most influential of the philosophers of antiquity, a student of Plato, educator of Alexander the Great. Founder of formal logic. Aristotle was the first thinker who created a comprehensive system of philosophy, covering all areas of human development: sociology, philosophy, politics, logic, physics. "The first philosophy of Aristotle" (later called metaphysics) contains teachings about the basic principles of being. The main works are "Metaphysics", "Organon", "Physics", "On the Origin of Animals", "On the Soul", "Ethics", "Politics", "Poetics".

Epicurus (341-270 BC)

Ancient Greek philosopher, founder of Epicureanism in Athens ("Garden of Epicurus"). In his youth, he considered true pleasure - the pleasure of the body. And in old age he recognized the highest pleasure - the development of oneself, the knowledge of the mind.

Epictetus (ca. 50-138)

Ancient Greek philosopher; a slave in Rome, then a freedman; founded a philosophical school in Nikopol. He preached the ideas of Stoicism: the main task of philosophy is to teach to distinguish between what is within our power and what is not. Excerpts from his teachings, known as "Conversations" and "Guide" are preserved in the notes of his student Arrian.

Marcus Aurelius. (121-180)

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus - Roman emperor, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus. He left philosophical notes - 12 books written in Greek, with the general title "Discourses about oneself."

Philosophers of the Middle Ages

Medieval philosophers on Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org

Augustine the Blessed (354-430).

Aurelius Augustine of Hippo - Christian theologian and philosopher, one of the Fathers of the Christian Church, the main representative of Western patristics. Ancestor of Christian philosophical history. He developed the doctrine of grace and predestination. Compositions: "On the city of God", "Confession".

Patristics is the philosophy and theology of the Church Fathers, that is, the spiritual and religious leaders of Christianity in post-apostolic times.

John of Damascus (circa 675-753).

Byzantine theologian, philosopher and poet, finalizer and systematizer of Greek patristics; leading ideological opponent of iconoclasm. Philosophical and theological compendium "The Source of Knowledge". The author of chants that contributed to the design of the Byzantine system of osmosis.

Al-Farabi (870/872-950/951)

Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Farabi, philosopher, mathematician, music theorist, scientist of the East. One of the largest representatives of medieval Eastern philosophy. Al-Farabi is the author of comments on the writings of Aristotle (hence his honorary nickname "Second Teacher") and Plato. He is credited with the creation of the Otrar library.

Simeon the Theologian (949-1022).

Byzantine philosopher-mystic, religious writer, poet. Developed the idea of self-deepening and enlightenment of the personality; brought poetic language closer to living speech norms.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037)

Abu Ali Hussein ibn Abdullah ibn al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna, was a medieval Persian scientist, philosopher and physician, a representative of Eastern Aristotelianism. He was the court physician of the Samanid emirs and the Dailemite sultans, for some time he was the vizier in Hamadan. The most famous and influential philosopher-scientist of the medieval Islamic world

Nasir Khosrow (1004-1088)

Abu Muin Nasir Khosrov al-Kabadiyani al-Marvazi is a Tajik-Persian poet, philosopher and religious figure. He compiled a set of Ismaili philosophy "The Book of Travelers' Supply" and a number of philosophical treatises: "The Book that connects two wisdoms", "The Face of Faith", "The Book of Light", "The Book of Happiness", "The Meal of Brothers", "Opening and Liberation", etc.

Pierre Abelard (1079-1142)

French scholastic philosopher, theologian, poet. In a dispute about the nature of general concepts, he developed a doctrine later called conceptualism. The Catholic Church has repeatedly condemned Abelard for heretical views.

Omar Khayyam (1048-1131)

Omar Khayyam Nishapuri was a Persian philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and poet. Known throughout the world as a philosopher and an outstanding poet, the author of a cycle of philosophical rubai. Omar Khayyam is also known for creating the most accurate calendar in use today.

Roger Bacon (1214-1292)

English philosopher and naturalist, Franciscan friar. Professor at Oxford. He attached great importance to mathematics and experience - both scientific experiment and mystical insight. He studied optics, astronomy, alchemy.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Philosopher and theologian, systematizer of scholasticism. He formulated 5 proofs of the existence of God, described as the root cause, the ultimate goal of existence, etc. He argued that nature ends in grace, reason - in faith, philosophical knowledge - in supernatural revelation. Major works: "The sum of theology", "Sum against the pagans".

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

Italian poet, thinker, theologian, one of the founders of the literary Italian language, politician. The author of philosophical and poetic treatises on human problems "The Feast is Not Over", "On Popular Speech", "The Divine Comedy".

Philosophers of the Renaissance

Nicollo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Italian thinker, philosopher, writer, politician (he held the post of secretary of the second chancellery in Florence), author of military-theoretical works. He was a supporter of a strong state power, for the strengthening of which he allowed the use of any means, which he expressed in the famous work "The Sovereign", published in 1532.

Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464)

Nicholas of Cusa (real name Nicholas Krebs - Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, the largest German thinker of the 15th century, philosopher, theologian, encyclopedic scientist, mathematician, church and political figure. He stood on the positions of Neoplatonism, in his philosophy he developed an unusual idea for his time about religious tolerance (religious tolerance).

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Reformationist in Germany. He rejected the basic tenets of Catholicism. Founder of Lutheranism. Translated the Bible into German.

Paracelsus (1493-1541)

Physician, naturalist and Renaissance philosopher. One of the founders of iatrochemistry. Subjected to a critical revision of the ideas of ancient medicine. At the center of his teaching is the concept of nature as a living whole, imbued with a single world soul. Man is able to magically influence nature with the help of secret means.

Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)

Italian philosopher - pantheist and poet, recognized as an outstanding thinker of the Renaissance and a great representative of esotericism. Accused of heresy and burned by the Inquisition in Rome. Defended the concept of the infinity of the universe and countless worlds. Developed the ideas of Copernicus. Major works: "On infinity, the universe and the worlds", "On the cause, beginning and unity.", "On heroic enthusiasm".

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

French writer and philosopher of the Renaissance, author of the book "Experiments". His philosophical position can be described as skepticism - something between life skepticism, which is the result of bitter life experience and disappointment in people, and philosophical skepticism, which is based on a deep conviction in the unreliability of human knowledge.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Italian scientist, naturalist. He fought against scholasticism, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He laid the foundations of modern mechanics. Built a telescope with 32x magnification. He actively defended the heliocentric system of the world, for which he was put on trial by the Inquisition and because of this he had to abandon the teachings of N. Copernicus.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

German mathematician, astronomer, mechanic, optician. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, on the basis of which he created planetary tables. Laid the foundations of the theory of eclipses. Invented a telescope in which the objective and eyepiece are biconvex lenses.

Philosophers of the Enlightenment and Modern Times

Modern Philosophers on Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

English philosopher, historian, politician, founder of empiricism and English materialism. He was a supporter of the scientific approach and developed a new, anti-scholastic method of scientific knowledge. The main works: "Experiments, or moral and political instructions", "On the dignity and multiplication of sciences", "New Organon", "New Atlantis".

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

English materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the social contract theory and the theory of state sovereignty. Known for ideas that have gained currency in disciplines such as ethics, theology, physics, geometry, and history. Major works: Levifan, Fundamentals of Philosophy.

René Descartes (1596-1650)

French philosopher, mathematician, mechanic, physicist and physiologist, creator of analytical geometry and modern algebraic symbolism, author of the method of radical doubt in philosophy. Descartes' philosophy is based on the dualism of soul and body, "thinking" and extended substance. Major works: "Geometry", "Discourse on Method", "Principles of Philosophy".

Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677)

Benedict Spinoza (born Baruch Spinoza) is a Dutch rationalist philosopher and naturalist of Jewish origin, one of the main representatives of modern philosophy. Major works: "Theological and political treatise", "Ethics".

John Locke (1632-1704)

English philosopher and educator, representative of empiricism and liberalism. Recognized as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers and liberal theorists. In "An Essay on Human Understanding" he developed an empirical theory of knowledge. He contributed to the spread of sensationalism. Founder of associative psychology.

Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - German philosopher, mathematician, linguist, physicist. Founder and first president of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In the spirit of rationalism, he developed the doctrine of the innate ability of the mind to cognize the higher categories of being and the universal and necessary truths of logic and mathematics. Leibniz is the finalist of the philosophy of the 17th century and the forerunner of German classical philosophy, the creator of a philosophical system called monadology. He developed the doctrine of analysis and synthesis. One of the creators of differential and integral calculus.

George Berkeley (1685-1753)

Irish philosopher known for his system of spiritualistic philosophy; Bishop of Cloyne. In the Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge, he argued that the external world does not exist independently of perception and thinking: the being of things consists in their perceptibility. Berkeley's doctrine is one of the sources of empirio-criticism, pragmatism, and neo-positivism.

Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755)

French educator, jurist, philosopher. He opposed absolutism. He sought to reveal the causes of the emergence of a particular state system, analyzed various forms of the state and forms of government. He considered the principle of separation of powers to be a means of ensuring the rule of law. The main works are "Persian Letters", "On the Spirit of the Law".

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

French philosopher - educator, writer. Founder of the French Encyclopedia. In his philosophical writings "Letter on the Blind for the Edification of the Sighted", "Thoughts on the Explanation of Nature", being a supporter of an enlightened monarchy, he criticized feudalism and absolutism. Defended materialistic ideas. One of the ideologists of the French bourgeoisie of the 18th century. Literary works "Jacques the Fatalist", the novel "The Nun", the novel "Ramo's Nephew".

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

English philosopher and lawyer, founder of utilitarianism, the analytical school of law, and ideological liberalism. In the essay “Deontology, or the Science of Morality”, he formulated the moral ideal (“the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people”), and the criteria of morality (“achievement of benefit, benefit, pleasure, goodness and happiness”).

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)

Representative of German classical philosophy. Professor at the University of Jena, was forced to leave him because of accusations of atheism. In "Speeches to the German Nation" he called on the German people for moral revival and unification. Professor and first elected rector of the University of Berlin.

David Hume (1711-1776)

English philosopher - idealist, psychologist, historian. The only subject of reliable knowledge was the objects of mathematics. All judgments about existence also come from experience, which, however, Hume understood idealistically. He denied the objective nature of causality. In ethics, he developed the theory of utilitarianism. Hume's agnosticism had a significant impact on modern idealism, serving as one of the main ideological sources of neopositivism. The main essay is "A Study on the Human Mind".

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

French philosopher, representative of sentimentalism. From the standpoint of deism, he condemned the official church and religious intolerance. In the essay "Discourse on the beginning and foundations of inequality ...", "On the social contract", etc. Rousseau opposed social inequality, the despotism of social power. The state, in his opinion, can arise only as a result of the contract of free people. Aesthetic and pedagogical views are expressed in the novel - treatise "Emil or on education".

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Ancestor of classical German philosophy. Professor at the University of Koenigsberg. Developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula. In the developed in 1770. "critical philosophy" opposed dogmatism, speculative metaphysics and skepticism. Famous Philosophical Works: Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Critique of Practical Reason (1788), Critique of Judgment (1790)

Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831)

Geprg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is a German philosopher, one of the creators of German classical philosophy. He created an objectively idealistic theory of dialectics. Its central concept - development - is a characteristic of the activity of the absolute (world spirit), its supratemporal movement in the field of pure thought. Contradiction is an internal source of development. History is "the progress of the spirit in the consciousness of freedom." Major works: "Phenomenology of Spirit", "Science of Logic", "Fundamentals of the Philosophy of Law".

Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775-1854)

The German philosopher, starting from the ideas of I. Fichte, developed the principles of objectively - idealistic dialectics of nature as a living organism, an unconscious spiritual creative principle. He believed that art is the highest form of comprehension of the world, the unity of the conscious and the unconscious, theoretical and practical activities. The Absolute is the identity of nature and spirit, subject and object. Through the self-development of the absolute, its self-knowledge develops. The source of evil is the free falling away of man from the absolute.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)

German philosopher, representative of voluntarism. In Schopenhauer's main work, The World as Will and Representation, the essence of the world appears as an unreasonable will, a blind aimless desire for life. "Liberation from the world", asceticism is achieved through compassion, in a state close to the state of Buddhist nirvana. The pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer became widespread in Europe from the second half of the 19th century.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

French philosopher, one of the founders of positivism and sociology. Positivism was seen as a middle line between empiricism and mysticism. According to Comte, science does not know essence, but only phenomena. He put forward the theory of three stages of the intellectual evolution of mankind (theological, metaphysical and positive or scientific), which determine the development of society. Developed a classification of sciences. Major works: "Course of Positive Philosophy", "The System of Positive Politics".

Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872)

German philosopher. Initially a follower of Hegel, then criticized his philosophy. At the center of his philosophy is man, interpreted as a biological being, an abstract individual. Religion was interpreted as alienation of the human spirit. He saw the basis of morality in a person’s desire for happiness, achievable through the “religion of love”. His main works are "On the Criticism of Hegel's Philosophy", "The Essence of Christianity", "Fundamentals of the Philosophy of the Future", "The Essence of Religion".

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

English philosopher. Ideologist of liberalism. Follower of Comte. In the "System of Logic" he developed methods of inductive research, interpreting them as general methods of science. In ethics, he combined the principle of egoism and altruism.

David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874)

German theologian and Young Hegelian philosopher. In the essay "The Life of Jesus" he denied the authenticity of the Gospels, considered Jesus a historical figure. Later he leaned towards pantheism.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

Danish theologian, philosopher, writer. He singled out three stages on the path to God: aesthetic, ethical, religious. He defended the thesis about the reality of Christianity. Influenced Danish literature, existentialism and dialectical theology. The main works are "Either or", "Fear and Trembling", "Philosophical crumbs", "Stages of the life path".

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

English philosopher, founder of the organic school in sociology; ideologue of liberalism. Developed the doctrine of general evolution; in ethics - a supporter of utilitarianism. He made a huge contribution to the study of ancient culture. The main work "The System of Synthetic Philosophy".

Elizabeth Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-1891)

Russian writer and theosophist. Wandered around Europe, Sev. America, M. Asia, India and China. Since 1860 Arranged seances in Russia. Leaving for the USA in 1873. She published articles on spiritualism in the American press and became an American citizen. Influenced by Indian philosophy, she founded in 1875. New York Theosophical Society. In 1878 she left for India, where she also founded the Theosophical Society. The main works "Isis Unveiled", "The Secret Doctrine".

Peter Charles Sanders (1839-1914)

American philosopher, logic mathematician and naturalist. Ancestor of pragmatism. He put forward the principle according to which the content of the concept is entirely exhausted by ideas about its possible consequences. Founder of semiotics. Works on mathematical logic.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

German philosopher, representative of the philosophy of life. Creative activity: in "The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music" he contrasted two principles of being - "Dionysian" (life-neo-organistic) and "Apollo" (contemplative-ordering). In his writings, he spoke with an anarchist critique of culture. In the myth of the “superman”, the cult of a strong personality was combined with the romantic ideal of the “man of the future”.

Philosophers of the twentieth century. Modern Philosophers

Modern Philosophers on Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org

Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911)

German philosopher, leading representative of the philosophy of life, founder of philosophical hermeneutics. He developed the doctrine of understanding as a specific method of the sciences of the spirit, intuitive comprehension of the spiritual integrity of the individual and culture.

Bernard Bosanquet (1848-1923)

English philosopher, representative of neo-Hegelianism, follower of F. Bradley. Author of the Philosophical Theory of the State.

Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov (1853-1900)

Russian philosopher, poet, publicist. He taught the utopian ideal of a worldwide theocracy. He had a great influence on Russian religious philosophy. The ideas of Christian Platonism are intertwined with the ideas of new European idealism, especially F.V. Schelling.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Austrian psychiatrist, psychologist. Founder of psychoanalysis. He developed the theory of the psychosexual development of the individual, in the formation of character and his pathology he assigned the main role to the experiences of early childhood. The principles of psychoanalysis extended to various areas of human culture. The main works are "Interpretation of Dreams", "Psychopathology of Everyday Life", "Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis", "Totem and Taboo", "I and It".

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938)

Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was a German philosopher and founder of phenomenology. Husserl's philosophy is focused on epistemological issues. He sought to turn philosophy into a "rigorous science" through the phenomenological method. Later he turned to the idea of the "life world" as the original socio-cultural experience, drawing closer to the philosophy of life. Influenced existentialism and anthropology.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

German philosopher, one of the leading representatives of pragmatism. He proposed a "reconstruction of philosophy" in order to give it practical significance. He developed the concept of instrumentalism, according to which the concept and theory are tools for adapting to the external environment. The creator of pedagogical theory, which is based on the principle of "learning self through doing" (the formation of practical skills).

Henri Bergson (1859-1941)

French philosopher. The true and original reality, according to Bergson, is life as a metaphysical-cosmic process, a "life impulse", creative evolution. Its structure is duration, comprehended only by means of intuition, the opposite of intellect; various aspects of duration - matter, consciousness, memory, spirit. The main essay "Creative Evolution".

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

American philosopher, representative of pragmatism; social psychologist, founder of the so-called. symbolic interactionism. The formation of the human "I", according to Mead, reflects the structure of the interaction of the individual in various groups and consists in the assimilation of the meaning of symbols and one's own role.

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1865)

Russian philosopher, naturalist. At the center of his scientific and philosophical interests is the development of a holistic doctrine of the biosphere and living matter, the relationship between nature and society.

Miguel De Unamuno (1864-1936)

Spanish writer, philosopher, representative of existentialism. At the center of his philosophy is the image of Don Quixote, acting as the "soul of Spain", the embodiment of a tragic sense of reality. The main themes of works of art are love, death, loneliness, God-seeking.

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

English philosopher, logician, mathematician, public figure. Founder of English Norealism. He developed the deductive-axiomatic method of constructing logic in order to provide a logical justification for mathematics.

Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1945)

Religious philosopher. He published the philosophical and religious journal "The Way". From Marxism he moved to the philosophy of personality and freedom in the spirit of religious existentialism and personalism. Freedom, spirit, personality are opposed to them by the world of objects in which evil, suffering, slavery reign. His main works are "The Meaning of Creativity", "Dostoevsky's Worldview", "Philosophy of the Free Spirit", "Russian Idea", "Self-Knowledge".

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)

Swiss psychologist and philosopher, founder of "analytical psychology". He developed the doctrine of the collective unconscious, in the images of which (the so-called archetypes) he saw the source of universal human symbolism, including myths and dreams. The goal of psychotherapy according to Jung is the realization of the individuality of the individual. Influenced cultural studies, comparative religion and mythology.

Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965)

German-French philosopher, theologian and missionary, physician, musicologist and organist. Organized a hospital in Lambran (Gabon). The initial principle of Schweitzer's worldview is "reverence for life" as the basis for the moral renewal of mankind. Nobel Peace Prize.

Martin Buber (1878-1965)

Jewish religious philosopher and writer close to dialectical theology and existentialism. The central idea of Buber's philosophy is being as "dialogue". (Between man and God, between man and the world).

Otto Weininger (1880-1903)

Austrian philosopher and psychologist. Weininger's main work was Sex and Character. Fundamental Research" (1902)

Oswald Spengler (1880-1936)

Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler - German philosopher, historian, representative of the philosophy of life, publicist of the conservative-nationalist trend. He developed the doctrine of culture as a set of closed "organisms", expressing the collective "soul" of the people and passing through a certain internal life cycle. The main work "The Decline of Europe" (1918).

Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955)

French philosopher, paleontologist, theologian. He developed the theory of "Christian evolutionism", approaching pantheism. Influenced the renewal of the doctrine of Catholicism.

Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky (1882-1937)

Russian religious philosopher, theologian. In the essay “The Pillar and Ground of the Truth. The experience of the Orthodox tradition" developed the doctrine of Sophia (the Wisdom of God) as the basis of the meaningfulness and integrity of the universe. In the works of the 20s. sought to build a "concrete metaphysics".

Jacques Maritain (1882-1973)

French religious philosopher, leading exponent of neo-Thomism. He saw a way to overcome the moral and social chaos caused, in his opinion, by the subjectivism of the new time in the sphere of faith, thought, and feeling.

Karl Jaspers (1883-1969)

German philosopher, psychiatrist. He saw the main task of philosophy in the disclosure of "ciphers of being" - various expressions of transcendence (the incomprehensible absolute limit of being and thinking). The correlation of existence and transcendence is seen by a person in the so-called boundary situations (suffering, struggle, death). His main works are "Philosophy", "The Origins and Aims of History", "Great Philosophers".

Paul Tillich (1886-1965)

German-American philosopher, Protestant theologian. Representative of dialectical theology. He strove to create an ideal theology of culture, to reconcile reason and revelation.

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)

German philosopher. He developed the doctrine of being, which is based on the opposition of true existence and the world of everyday life, everyday life. The comprehension of the meaning of being is connected, according to Heidegger, with the awareness of the frailty of human existence (“Being and Time”). The themes of the works of the “late” Heidegger are the origin of the “metaphysical” way of thinking, the search for a path to the “truth of being”.

Gabriel Honore Marcel (1889-1973)

French philosopher, playwright, literary critic. Founder of Catholic Existentialism. The true world of being is opposed to the inauthentic world of possession. Marcel's dramas are based on religious and moral conflicts: "A Broken World", "Thirst", "Rome is no longer in Rome".

Alexey Fedorovich Losev (1893-1989)

Russian philosopher and philologist. In line with the traditions of Plato and Neoplatonism, the dialectic of Schelling and Hegel, he developed the problems of symbol and myth, the dialectic of artistic creativity, especially the ancient perception of the world. The main works on ancient aesthetics.

Rudolph Carnap (1891-1970)

German-American philosopher, logician. Leading exponent of logical positivism and the philosophy of science. He developed the theory of logical synthesis of the language of science, supplemented by late semantic theory.

Erich Fromm (1900-1980)

German-American philosopher and sociologist, the main representative of neo-Freudianism. Based on the ideas of psychoanalysis, existentialism, Marxism, he sought to resolve the main contradictions of human existence - between egoism and altruism, possession and being. He saw the way out of the crisis of modern civilization in the creation of a "healthy society" based on the principles and values of humanistic ethics (among which the highest is love). Restoration of harmony between the individual and nature, personality and society. Major works: Escape from Freedom, Psychoanalysis and Religion, Revolution of Hope.

Hans Georg Gadamer (1900-2002)

German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the philosophy of hermeneutics of the mid-20th century. Author of works on the history of philosophy, aesthetics and philosophy of history. The main work is “Truth and Method. Fundamentals of philosophical hermeneutics” (Wahrheit und Methode. Grundzüge einer philosophischen Hermeneutik, 1960).

Willard van Orman Quine (1901-1980)

American philosopher, mathematician, logician. A representative of neopragmatism, or logical pragmatism. Proceedings on the construction of an axiomatic system, including the logic of classes, logical semantics and modal logic, the philosophy of mathematics.

Karl Raimund Popper (1902-1994)

Philosopher, logician and sociologist. His philosophical concept - critical rationalism built as an antithesis of neopositivism. He put forward the principle of falsifiability, which serves as a criterion for demarcation - the separation of scientific knowledge from non-scientific. Popper's "three worlds" theory asserts the existence of the physical and mental worlds, as well as the world of objective knowledge. Major works: The Logic of Scientific Research, The Open Society and Its Enemies, Assumption and Refutation.

Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)

German philosopher, sociologist, musicologist. Representative of the Frankfurt School. He criticized culture and society and the ideas of "negative dialectics". Together with his colleagues, he conducted a study of the "authoritarian personality" as a socio-psychological prerequisite for fascism.

Arnold Gehlen (1904-1976)

German philosopher, one of the founders of philosophical anthropology as a special philosophical discipline. Main essay: "Man. His nature and position in the world.

Emmanuel Mounier (1905-1950)

French philosopher, founder and head of French personalism. The path of mankind's liberation saw a moral renewal, a spiritual revolution. Supporter of Christian socialism.

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

Jean-Paul Charles Aimard Sartre - French philosopher, representative of atheistic existentialism, writer, playwright and essayist, teacher.

Ayn Rand (1905-1982)

Ayn Rand (born Alisa Zinovievna Rosenbaum) is an American writer and philosopher born in Russia. She is known for her two best-selling novels, The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged; She also worked as a playwright and screenwriter. Ain is the creator of the philosophical system she called objectivism.

Emanuel Levinas (1906-1995)

French ethical philosopher. Experienced the influence of E. Huserl and M. Heideger on the influence of the religious tradition of Judaism. He considered ethics to be the basis of philosophy, its central concept in Levinas is the “other” and the meeting with the “other”.

Kurt Friedrich Gödel (1906-1978)

Austrian logician, mathematician and philosopher of mathematics. He is best known for the incompleteness theorems he formulated and proved, which had a huge impact on the understanding of the foundations of mathematics. Considered one of the most prominent thinkers of the 20th century.

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)

French writer, representative of existential philosophy, ideologist of the feminist movement. Notable book: The Second Sex

John Austin (1911-1960)

English philosopher, representative of linguistic philosophy. I saw the main goal of the study in clarifying the expressions of everyday language.

Albert Camus (1913-1960)

French prose writer, philosopher, essayist, publicist, close to existentialism. Received a common name during his lifetime "Conscience of the West." Winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957. Albert Camus belongs to the representatives of atheistic existentialism

In the play "Caligula" expressed the search for worldview supports in a world devoid of meaning. In the story "The Outsider" the hero embodies the fatal impotence to master the flow of being. The rebellion against the laws of the universe is reflected in his works: the novel-parable "The Plague", the philosophical essay "The Myth of Sisyphus", "The Rebellious Man". Journalism: "Topical notes", "Swedish speeches".

Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005)

Paul Ricoeur is a French philosopher, one of the leading (along with Heidegger and Gadamer) representatives of philosophical hermeneutics, a new branch of philosophy that has grown from its root - phenomenology.

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)

Thomas Samuel Kuhn is an American philosopher and historian of science. He put forward the concept of scientific revolutions as a change of paradigms - initial conceptual schemes, ways of posing problems and research methods. He criticized the neopositivist understanding of science.

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy lists Kuhn as one of the most influential philosophers of science of the 20th century, perhaps the most influential. His book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is one of the most highly cited scientific books in the history of science.

Michel Foucault (1926-1984).

Paul-Michel Foucault is a French philosopher, cultural theorist and historian, one of the founders of structuralism. Creator of the concept of "archeology of knowledge". He is one of the most famous representatives of antipsychiatry. Foucault's books on the social sciences, medicine, prisons, insanity and sexuality made him one of the most influential thinkers of the 20th century.

Jean Baudrillard (1929- 2007)

French sociologist, culturologist and postmodern philosopher, photographer, taught at Yale University. Notable work: Simulacra and Simulation

Carlos Castaneda (1931/1935-1998).

American writer and anthropologist, ethnographer, thinker of esoteric orientation and mystic], author of 12 volumes of best-selling books devoted to the exposition of the esoteric doctrine of the "Way of Knowledge" by the Yaqui Indian don Juan Matus. PhD in Anthropology.