Europe in transition. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the image of modern Europe was formed, there was a turn from the traditional to the new society. During the social reorganization, the usual norms of relations between people are violated, the idea of ​​"what is good and what is bad" changes, faith in a miraculous event, a happy or unfortunate surprise, the possibility of implementing the most daring plans is strengthened. Indeed, for several decades of the XVI century. Europeans were able to see how the ruler of Spain, the former southwestern outskirts of Europe, turned into the ruler of a power “in which the sun never sets”, and his ordinary subjects F. Cortes and F. Pizarro managed to capture and subjugate huge and rich overseas territory. In the same years, in the southeast of the continent, on the ruins of the Byzantine Empire, the state of the Ottoman Turks was rapidly expanding. Against this background, the most daring ideas did not seem fantastic.

Origins of the Thirty Years' War. In the first half of the XVII century. the place of such plans was Central Europe, whose countries since 1618 were drawn into a protracted war. The arena of the conflict turned out to be the German lands, and the reason for it was religious differences. The Habsburgs, emperors of Germany, ruled simultaneously in Spain and Austria. From the Austrian Habsburgs, they chose the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, which arose in the 10th century.

The Habsburgs were the main defenders of Catholicism. Czech Republic (Bohemia) was the most economically developed part of their possessions. But many Protestants lived in her lands. And they tried to invite a king from among the Protestant German princes. This led to an armed conflict that resulted in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).

Cardinal Armand-Jean
Duplessis, Duke of Richelieu

A mixture of religious and political interests. Gradually, the neighboring countries of Germany were involved in hostilities: Denmark, Sweden. Religious sympathies and the desire to support fellow believers were mixed with political interests. Thus, France saw a threat to itself in the fact that on its eastern and southwestern borders there were states under the rule of one family - the houses of the Habsburgs. Therefore, the actual head of the French government, Cardinal Richelieu, considered it necessary to support the opponents of the German Catholic emperor, although he himself was a Catholic.

12 years after the start of the war, at the turn of the 20-30s, the advantage was on the side of the Catholic (imperial) forces. The commander of the emperor, the Czech nobleman Albrecht Wallenstein (1583-1634), defeated the Danish defenders of Protestantism. The personality of this person perfectly conveys the "spirit of the times." Ambitious, cruel, purposeful, he was obsessed with a thirst for wealth and power, and it is difficult to say what was more important to him. He himself offered the emperor his services as a commander. In this proposal, the most attractive was the promise of the applicant for command to create an army that would support itself (at the expense of civilians on whose lands it is located). Wallenstein showed in practice how "war can feed war." Having united an army of 24 thousand people under his command, Wallenstein showed brilliant military leadership talents.


Wallenstein.
Copper engraving

From the usual commander of a mercenary army, he differed not only in the scale of his activities, but also in the fact that he knew how to carefully and comprehensively organize his activities. So, he himself selected the composition of officers, securely tied them to himself with monetary interests, organized in his possessions the activities of various manufactories for the production of ammunition and equipment for the needs of the army. The soldiers and officers were completely devoted to their skillful, courageous and generous commander. Wallenstein's military successes saved the prestige of the empire, but his too frank desire for power alarmed the emperor and his entourage. Therefore, after successful operations against the Danes, Wallenstein was removed from command of the army he had created on the grounds that the danger had passed. Wallenstein showed humility, but harbored a vengeful desire to harm his ungrateful master.


Plans of the Swedish king. By this point in Sweden, the energetic and enterprising King Gustav II Adolf (1594-1632) was completing the reorganization of his army, considering where to direct this war machine he had created. The Swedish king was interested in the southern coast of the Baltic and the possibility of control over trade routes. Richelieu, through his agents, pushed the Swedish king to support the German Protestants. The cunning cardinal thought about weakening the positions of his competitors - the Habsburgs, and for the Swedish king the most important thing was the transformation of the Baltic Sea into the "inland lake" of the Swedish kingdom. In addition, he thought about creating a state in Central Europe, under the rule of the Swedish crown. It is difficult now to say what were the specific goals of Gustavus Adolphus, most likely, he expected that "the war will show the plan."

Swedish army. By the time the Swedish army landed on German territory on the Pomeranian coast on July 6, 1630, its commander had done much to ensure that his plans could be realized. The Swedish army differed markedly from others in organization and even weapons. It was made up of Swedes and Finns, called up by recruitment. (This army can be considered a prototype of the national one.)

And the army of the emperor, by tradition, consisted of mercenaries of different nationalities. The Swedish army also included mercenaries from Scottish and Czech Protestants, but the Swedish-Finnish units were still the main striking force. Their soldiers and officers were regularly paid, and they were strictly forbidden to oppress and rob civilians. Violation of the ban was severely punished. Gustavus Adolf supplied his army with powerful artillery, including small cannons. This was an important innovation. The soldiers were provided with warm clothes, which allowed them not to stop fighting even in winter. But then, with the beginning of the autumn thaw and cold weather, the warring armies usually settled in winter quarters and stopped active operations until the spring heat.


Swedish warriors of the era of Gustavus Adolphus
(left to right): musketeer, dragoon,
cuirassier, pikeman.

Swedish advance. In the summer of 1630, the Swedish king began his victorious march through the territory of the German principalities. One by one, several important fortress cities were taken. Quick and easy victories glorified the name of the Swedish king. Protestants throughout Europe saw in the Swedish monarch the embodiment of all chivalrous virtues, and Richelieu began to understand that the force he had evoked was becoming uncontrollable.

The imperial army opposing the Swedes was led by the old (he was 70 years old) commander Johann Tilly. He was a battle-tested, honest in his own way, undoubtedly a talented military leader, reliable, responsible, but lacking that brilliance, that spark of military talent that both his adversary Gustav Adolf and his rival Wallenstein were endowed with. The warring armies for some time maneuvered across the lands of Pomerania, capturing and devastating cities and villages, then moved to the territory of Saxony, whose ruler was an ally of Gustavus Adolf. The Swedes needed a big victorious battle and, if possible, quickly. They had nowhere to wait for reinforcements, while Tilly expected soon the arrival of additional forces. Most of all, the Saxon Elector hurried things, since it was his lands that were ravaged by two armies.

Read also other topics part III ""Concert of Europe": the struggle for political balance" section "West, Russia, East in the battles of the XVII-beginning of the XVIII century":

  • 9. "Swedish Deluge": from Breitenfeld to Lützen (September 7, 1631-November 16, 1632)
    • Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. Causes of the Thirty Years' War
    • Battle of Breitenfeld. Winter Campaign of Gustavus Adolphus
  • 10. Marston Moor and Nasby (July 2, 1644, June 14, 1645)
    • Marston Moor. The victory of the parliamentary army. Cromwell's army reform
  • 11. "Dynastic wars" in Europe: the struggle "for the Spanish inheritance" at the beginning of the XVIII century.
  • 12. European conflicts take on a global dimension
    • War of the Austrian Succession. Austro-Prussian conflict
    • Frederick II: victories and defeats. Treaty of Hubertusburg.
  • 13. Russia and the "Swedish question"

Europe in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries

William Pitt - the great English orator of the XVIII century

Western Europe. - 1. Spain. - Spain of the 16th century, endowed by Columbus with a huge colonial state that included almost all of South and Central America with the Antilles, could become the richest trading state in Europe: the reasonable use of colonies, the development of industry and agriculture, which was facilitated by Peruvian gold and Mexican silver, could make of it what England is now.

Unfortunately, Spain became the victim of religious fanaticism, which developed in it as a result of a long war of independence with the Muslims: its kings of the 16th century, Ferdinand the Catholic, Charles V (1519-1556), Philip II (1556-1598), expelled the Moors, who were beautiful farmers, and then Jews, able businessmen; these were two irreparable losses for the country.

The number of monks increased; the monasteries appropriated vast lands to themselves; the Inquisition prevented the birth of the Reformation and killed the spirit of free inquiry, all striving for initiative.

Most of the precious metals of America, captured by the king, went to Spain to strengthen the army and to cover the costs caused by ruinous wars; the grandson of Ferdinand, Charles the Fifth, heir to the Spanish, Austrian, Dutch thrones, several Italian provinces, in addition, forced himself to be elected German emperor; all his life he fought with the French kings, with the German Protestant sovereigns and with the Turks, who threatened his Austrian possessions.

His son Philip II, who inherited only Spain, the Italian provinces, the Netherlands and the colonies, declared himself the defender of Catholicism throughout Europe: he sent troops against French, English and German Protestants; with his intolerance, he caused an uprising in the northern Netherlands (now Holland) and, fighting with them for thirty years, could not subdue them: Philip II completed the ruin of Spain.

Although in the 17th century this country produced several great painters - Velazquez, Murillo, and Spanish Flanders - Rubens and Tenier, wonderful colorists, but wars and continuous persecution exhausted Spain with people, money and killed all mental life in it. In the 18th century, her colonies wither away; she is deprived by the Peace of Utrecht of the Italian provinces and Flanders; Spain turns into a corpse.

This is what Catholicism and militarism have done in the course of three centuries from a country which, having acquired unexpected wealth thanks to Columbus, might have become the first colonial power of our time.

2. United Provinces or the Netherlands (Holland). The Netherlands was the first country to successfully take advantage of the discoveries of navigators and the impetus they gave to maritime trade and colonization.

Forced to constantly struggle with the sea and river floods that inundate the entire low-lying part of the country if it is not protected by dams, the inhabitants of the Netherlands have become fishermen and energetic sailors. In the sixteenth century they converted to Calvinism; but the Spanish king Philip II, whose subjects they were, since their country in the 15th century was inherited by the Spanish kings, wanted to force them to remain Catholics. With indomitable fortitude, under the leadership of the Dutch nobleman, William of Orange, whom they proclaimed dictator, they achieved, at the beginning of the 17th century, at the cost of a thirty-year war, political and religious independence. These liberated provinces, of which the main one was called Holland, continued to be governed separately, like autonomous republics, formed an alliance called the United Provinces, in which common affairs were decided by estate representatives.

In these republics, ruled by the bourgeoisie, trade flourished; the Dutch, whose main port was Amsterdam, became real sea "cabbies", buying local works in all countries and reselling them at a big profit. During the war of independence with Philip II, Portugal temporarily formed part of the Spanish possessions; the Dutch fleet took advantage of this to seize part of the Portuguese colonies: the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago, where the trading company founded Batavia, which became a large storage place for groceries in the Dutch colonies.

With money, liberty and life flowed in a wide stream in the United Provinces; freedom of the press was complete. There, Descartes sought refuge and a publisher for his work. Discourse on Method; in the same place, in the middle of the 17th century, the philosopher Spinoza, a Jew free from all religious beliefs, applied the method of Descartes to the criticism of the Bible for the first time; the great Dutch painter Rembrandt worked there, creating chiaroscuro, which gave amazing relief to his faces and large paintings with an ingenious arrangement of colors.

In 1672, Louis XIV unjustly attacked this republic of merchants who were too free and too Calvinist, in the opinion of the Catholic despot. To prevent the French invasion, the Dutch again restored the Stadthalter (dictatorship), which they entrusted to William of Orange, a descendant of the hero of the war of independence. William of Orange ordered the destruction of the dams and flooded the country; the French troops had to retreat and the United Provinces were saved, although half ruined.

3. England.- The strong impetus given to Europe by the Reformation, the Renaissance and the great discoveries of the sea, deeply shook England.

In the 16th century, the despot Henry VIII Tudor, having been refused a divorce by the pope, took advantage of the hatred that had accumulated in the Middle Ages against papal power, and the sympathy met by Calvinism and Lutheranism among scientists, in order to break the ties with Roman Catholicism. With the exception of the Irish, who remained Catholics, all England began to profess the Anglican faith, which in dogma approaches Calvinism, and in appearance of organization - to Catholicism; Catholic celebrations and bishoprics were preserved, but the pope was not recognized; his authority was replaced by the English bishops. All monasteries were abolished, and their property was confiscated by the king and distributed partly to the courtiers, partly to the bishops.

The Renaissance caused two major phenomena in England: at the end of the 16th century, the dramatic works of Shakespeare, the greatest playwright of all time, and at the beginning of the 17th century. - Bacon's research, in which, on the basis of scientific data, he establishes a method corresponding to the study of physical and natural sciences: observation and experience.

But the fate of modern England was most influenced by maritime discoveries: they showed her, using the example of the benefits received by Spain, Portugal, and Holland from maritime trade, that her real vocation was navigation. England, which in the Middle Ages was an exclusively agricultural state, begins in the sixteenth century. to weave cloth from the wool of their own sheep, to make iron from their own mines, to build ships. New England in the district of the north-western mines and factory England is being built up slowly, and with it the rich bourgeoisie is growing. In the reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603), when Shakespeare appears, England finally passes into Protestantism and embarks on the path of commercial and maritime enterprises.

The Reformation, the Renaissance, the discoveries of navigators, the economic transformations in the 17th century had a different effect: they caused a political revolution.

After Elizabeth's death in 1603, the Stewarts, princes of the Scottish royal house, were the closest heirs to the throne. Thus Scotland joined England. Having become English kings, the Stuarts, James I (1603-1625), Charles I (1625-1649), showed their intention to rule indefinitely; they found support from large landowners and wealthy Anglican bishops ... The rich and hostile to innovations, the Anglican Church is in England the same conservative force as the Catholic Church in France.

But the bourgeoisie strove to take part in the government and create under the kings, in the form of control, a house of commons; because of the political oppositional spirit, she joined Calvinism, which is very common in Scotland under the name of Presbyterianism, which does not recognize bishops.

The people in general, in some of the more radical districts, adopted an even more simplified religion; they became known as Puritans. The Puritans led a very strict lifestyle, guided only by the Bible. In politics, they showed republican inclinations and formed a political party called the Independents.

The despotism of Charles I united the Parliamentary Presbyterians and the revolutionary Puritans with a common active bond. When Charles I began to make arbitrary arrests and raised taxes that Parliament did not agree to, a revolution broke out. Charles I was arrested, he was tried in the House of Commons, beheaded (1649): a republic was proclaimed and Cromwell, the leader of the Puritans, was declared a dictator. He won over the bourgeoisie with the Navigation Act, which closed English ports to all foreign ships and patronized British maritime trade.

After his death in 1658, the fear of the bourgeoisie of the people's party provoked a reaction; again the Stuarts were called; but Charles II and James II, two sons of Charles I, followed their father's despotic ways, and a new revolution, less bloody but stronger, broke out in 1688. James II fled to France, and the House of Commons, representing the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie, offered the crown to James II's son-in-law, William of Orange, the Dutch stadtholder, prescribing him a constitution obliging him to govern the country only together with parliament.

Since then, throughout the eighteenth century, kings began to respect the rights of their subjects, at least the English bourgeois; they did not allow themselves any more arbitrary arrests or illegal increases in taxes, and their ministers, especially both William Pitts, imbued with bourgeois commercial aspirations, spared no people, no warships, no money, to form a vast colonial state: in the second half of the eighteenth century Canada and India were taken from the French. But in America, the English colonists were treated so unfairly that they rebelled (1775-1781), won their independence and formed the North American United States.

At the end of the 18th century, however, England emerged as the largest commercial, maritime, and colonial power in Europe.

Central Europe. - 1. Italy.- From the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 16th century, Italy, which at the end of the Middle Ages was the cradle of the Renaissance, became an excellent breeding ground for artists: the greatest of them, Michelangelo, was at the same time an amazing architect (the dome of St. Peter in Rome), a wonderful sculptor , depicting strength and majesty, and a striking painter in a tragic image the Last Judgment,- a fresco admired in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Along with him are Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci, both great Italian artists.

But the artistic genius of Italy did not survive either its material ruin or the suffocating Catholic oppression engendered in this country by the fear of Protestantism.

Italy, still divided into principalities at war with each other, was during the entire sixteenth century, and even later, the battlefield of the Spaniards, Austrians, and French; the largest principalities passed to the Spaniards. These latter, in the sixteenth century, in full agreement with the Pope, instituted the Inquisition everywhere; literature and the arts, which require complete mental freedom for their development, were struck to death. The Italian Inquisition became famous for the trial of Galileo: this Italian scientist was the first to prove that the earth revolves around the sun. This statement seemed to contradict Scripture, especially the passage where it says that Joshua stopped the sun. Galileo, brought to the church court in 1632, in order to avoid being burned at the stake, had to renounce this belief and repent. They say that, leaving the court, he could not help saying: “E pur si muove!” "But it's still spinning!"

In addition, wars, accompanied by robberies and devastation, covered Italy with ruins; both ports, Genoese and Venetian, ill-positioned for trade with the newly discovered countries of the Atlantic Ocean, were ruined by the Turks, who conquered the Byzantine Empire, and by the robberies of the Turkish corsairs, sailing all over the Mediterranean; it was a complete fall.

2. Germany.- Germany, like Italy, has not yet achieved political unity during these three centuries. The Protestant Reformation, of which it was the cradle, was a new cause for its dissolution.

The monk Luther, supported by religious minds who were outraged by the riches, morals, and general way of the Catholic Church, as well as by needy princes who were eager to lay hands on church lands, stirred Germany from 1517 until his death in 1546, preaching his teaching against the papacy and the celibacy of priests, in general against what he called Roman idolatry. Almost all the North German states adopted his teaching and confiscated church property, leaving it to the secular authorities.

But southern Germany, which was in the power of the powerful Austrian sovereign, remained Catholic, thanks to the energetic and skillful activity of the Jesuits.

The Austrian Habsburgs, alone or in alliance with Spain, tried during the 16th and 17th centuries. take advantage of their position as emperors to keep the Protestant princes out of the way and become absolute masters in Germany, as they were in their hereditary dominions in Austria. For the first time, in the sixteenth century, under Charles V, they failed, partly because the French kings Francis I and Henry XVII, for their own selfish interests, supported the German Protestants; the second time, their attempt led to the terrible Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), which turned Germany into one vast field of general slaughter and into a heap of ruins. The ministers of the French kings, Richelieu and Mazarin, again made the attempt of the Austrian Habsburgs fruitless: the Peace of Westphalia provided the Protestant states of Germany with freedom of religion.

From this moment, from among the Protestant princes, one royal house, dexterous and uncompromising, is advanced and strengthened in the sight of the Austrian Habsburgs, namely the Hohenzollerns, the electors of Brandenburg and the kings of Prussia. In the 18th century, the most prominent of the kings of this house, Frederick II, a remarkable commander, emerged victorious from two seven-year wars with Austria (1741-1748 and 1756-1763) and took Silesia from her.

The Austrian princes, who by the Peace of Utrecht acquired Milan and Flanders from Spain, and who during the sixteenth century inherited Bohemia and Hungary, had vast possessions, but they were scattered possessions, ruined by wars and taxes.

Incidentally, the whole of Germany was in this position; these wars killed commerce, industry, which had flourished so much during the Hanseatic League, and also the intellectual life, which began to develop so strongly towards the end of the Middle Ages.

Eastern Europe. 1 Türkiye. Having mastered Constantinople, the Turks, thanks to their religious fanaticism and powerful military organization, conquered all of southeastern Europe; in the 16th century they captured Hungary, and in the 17th century they besieged Vienna several times.

But being fanatical conquerors, they were unable to merge with the conquered Christian peoples; they were encamped, as it were, in the conquered country.

Therefore, when by the XVIII century. their fanaticism subsided a little and their army fell into decay. Austria, with its well-organized troops, prevailed and drove them out of Hungary.

2. Poland. The Poles, belonging to the Slavic tribe, like the Russians, but professing the Catholic religion, occupied the plain along both banks of the river during the Middle Ages. Vistula; they kept the feudal system in full force: the nobles and the clergy kept the peasants in cruel serfdom; they themselves were subject to the king they chose.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Polish light cavalry held back Turkish raids several times and saved Vienna from their attack.

But internal strife, poor military organization, almost unchanged since the Middle Ages, made it possible for the neighboring great states, Prussia, Austria and Russia, to subject Poland to three successive partitions: in 1772, 1793 and 1795, and to strike it out of the number of independent states.

3. Sweden. Sweden in the 17th century, for some time, played a very important role: this Protestant country was involved, due to the religious fervor and pride of King Gustavus Adolphus, in the Thirty Years' War between German Catholics and Protestants, and it can even be said that Gustavus Adolphus, with his brilliant campaigns to Germany saved the Protestant cause at the moment when it seemed to be dying (1630).

This military enterprise, too long due to reckless indulgence, gave rise to a taste for military campaigns among the Swedish ruling classes. At the beginning of the XVIII century. King Charles XII, an unbridled adventurer, madly threw his country into a long struggle on the continent with the Russian Tsar, Peter the Great. Sweden, bleeding from these insane undertakings, quickly sank to the position of a minor power.

4. Russia.- But, the most important event in the history of Eastern Europe in this era is the transformation of Russia from an Asian country into a European country.

Until the 18th century, the Russians, with their long beards, their clothes, their women who hid their faces under a veil, their Muscovite tsars, their boyars who were beaten with a whip, their priests dependent on the Greek Church, and therefore heretical in in the eyes of Catholics and Protestants, looked in Europe as Asiatic barbarians.

European merchants who settled in Moscow gradually accustomed Muscovites to European life. At the end of the 18th century, Peter the Great, an energetic and intelligent tsar who grew up among the sons of European adventurers and merchants who settled in Moscow, became addicted to European civilization. He visited Europe twice and decided to dress his boyars in European clothes and force them to learn European customs; he managed to remake all administrative institutions, taking as a model those that existed in the absolute monarchies of Europe. From that moment on, Russia had at its disposal a navy, diplomacy, judicial hierarchy, financial officials, etc., in a word, all the mechanism that in modern states ensures the execution of the main public services by the government.

The most tangible result of this transformation was that the Russian tsars began to intervene in the feuds and wars of other European sovereigns. Catherine II (1762-1796), continuing the militant policy of Peter the Great, expanded the borders of Russia in the west about the possessions of Turkey, Poland and Sweden.

European progress in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.- Despite the political and religious wars that stained Europe with blood and paralyzed the development of humanity, from the end of the 15th century. and until the end of the XVIII, it is still impossible to deny the real progress that has taken place during these three centuries in the mental and material spheres.

Material progress consists in the development of industry, trade, communications, navigation, and in the increase in the luxury of the rich classes.

Mental progress is reflected in the flourishing of numerous schools of painting in all countries, original national literature: the names of Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Murillo, Velasquez, Tenier, Rubens, Rembrandt, Shakespeare, Corneille, Racine, Moliere quite convincingly indicate that the darkness of the Middle Ages was scattered.

But especially in the scientific field, a continuously progressing development is revealed. The Frenchman Descartes establishes the method of the mathematical sciences; the Englishman Bacon - the method of experimental sciences; simultaneously with the establishment of methods, valuable inventions of instruments are being made: the Dutch optician Jansen invents a telescope and a microscope, thanks to which it was possible to study infinitely small bodies (1590); In 1609, the Italian Galileo arranged the first telescope and, with the help of it, began to study the celestial abyss, and almost immediately (1619) the German Kepler, and later the Englishman Newton (1689), established the great law that governs celestial bodies: the law of universal gravitation.

In 1643, the Italian Toricelli invents a barometer, which makes it possible to measure atmospheric pressure; German Cornelius van Drebbel invents a thermometer that shows temperature changes; the German Otto Gerick invents a pneumatic machine (1650) or a pressure gauge used to measure the pressure of gases and vapors; Frenchman Denis Papin invents the first steam engine (1682). One begins to guess already about the applications of steam and electricity; but they do not yet go beyond the realm of mere attempts.

Science, that great international force that knows neither borders nor fratricidal hatred, inspired benevolent people with a premonition of a radiant future; and the French philosophers of the eighteenth century endowed all of Europe with their hope for the triumph of human reason over obsolete prejudices and social disasters, and Europe, listening to their voices, began to tremble in anticipation of a new era.

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She also tried to drag Elizabeth into Catholicism. All this strained the life of the young princess in the most decisive way. The Protestant public of the country pinned their hopes on Elizabeth, who was actually the heir to the throne. Passions sometimes flared up just on a Shakespearean scale. One day, Mary imprisoned her sister in the Tower on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy. However, she did not stay in the prison for long, and moreover, it was there that she met another “conspirator” outwardly perfect macho, but absolutely mediocre Earl of Leicester, with whom she connected her personal life for many years.
However, the personal life of Elizabeth Tudor remains a secret with seven seals so far. Historians are convinced that some physical or psychological barrier has always existed between her and men. Having favorites and being the bride of all of Europe (her fiancés included Philip II, Henry the Third, and almost Ivan the Terrible himself), Elizabeth never allowed "last intimacy." So the legend of the "virgin queen" (with so many fans!) is not a myth at all! Once she said that she would not reveal a secret to even the closest soul. And even the crafty enemies of the Spaniards did not know exactly her secret.
Like her father, red-haired Bess was a pragmatist to the core. However, to say that she possessed the super-genius mind of a statesman is a certain exaggeration. She knew how to select servants and advisers, yes! Her chancellor, Lord Burghley, and her head of foreign intelligence, Walsingham, were geniuses at their craft. But they did not receive a penny from red Bess beyond their salary! All gifts fell immoderately on Leyster and other favorites. Even the fact that Elizabeth chose Protestantism had not only (and perhaps not so much) a political reason as a purely personal one: the pope, following her real father, declared her illegitimate. Elizabeth had no choice but to break with meticulous Catholics after such a spit.
However, the Anglican Church is the least Protestant of all Protestant churches. Luxurious Catholic rituals have been almost completely preserved (Elizabeth loved the pomp), only the church came out from under the authority of the Roman high priest.
Naturally, this semi-reform did not suit the bourgeois, the Puritans grumbled. Elizabeth brought down on them persecution, which was not honored by her and the Catholics.
Elizabeth skillfully balanced between various forces. But after all, "the fate of Eugene kept." When in 1588 a storm swept away a huge Spanish fleet with an expeditionary force heading for the shores of Britain (the “Invincible Armada”), the fate of the queen and her kingdom literally hung in the balance: there were only a few thousand soldiers in the English army.

16th century passed under the sign humanism, which covered Italy, R.V., Germany, Hungary, France, England, Spain, Portugal, Poland, partly Scandinavia. There were various currents of humanism, from the epicurean-hedonistic to the civil. The centers of Renaissance culture, along with the burgher-patrician cities, became the courts of nobles, sovereigns, nobles, where refined artistic creativity was encouraged, often giving the culture features of elitism. The role of philanthropy increased, the social status of artists and scientists changed, who were forced to work on orders from the nobility, earning places at courts. Prices for works of art in Italy of the 15th century. - life size marble statue - 100-120 florins; a bronze statue of the Apostle Matthew - 945 florins + 93 for the architectural design of the niche; marble bas-relief - 30-50 florins; Michelangelo - for "Pieta" - 150 Roman ducats; Donatello for the monument to Gattamelatta - 1650 crown. Lear; curtain painting - 1.25 florins; altarpiece of the Siena family - 120 florins; the altar of Benozzo Gozzoli - 75 florins; in papal Rome for every fresco in the Sistine Chapel at the end of the 15th century. the masters were paid 250 florins each, and the authors of the works were Botticelli, Rosselino, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Ghirlandaio, in general, the painting of the walls cost Sixtus IV 3,000 florins. For comparison - an ordinary house cost - 100-200 florins; "improved planning" - 300-400 florins (with 3 floors, but not a palazzo); Donatello paid 14-15 florins a year for the rent of the house; but it was possible to rent a house for a smaller amount from 6 to 35 florins. Rent of land stayors (43.6 m 2) - 3-4 florins; a pair of oxen - 25-27 florins; horse - 70-85 florins; cow - 15-20 florins; the cost of a minimum set of products (bread, meat, olive oil, wine, vegetables, fruits) for a family of 4 in the first quarter of the 15th century. = 30 florins per year. A visiting maid (helped with housework) received 7-8 florins a year; decent outerwear - 4-7 florins; but the rich dressed well, so Pitti mentions a caftan worth 100 florins; women's dress - 75 florins. The price of a work of art included the cost of the material, which in marble things = 1/3, in bronze - ½ of the amount paid by the customer, i.e. fee = ½ of the total amount. The masters demanded an advance. Mantegna at the court of Gonzaga received 50 ducats (600 per year) monthly, + housing, grain, firewood, + gifts and bonuses. When Leonardo da Vinci left for Milan in 1482, he was promised 2,000 ducats a year; but this is with an income of Lodovico Moro of 650. 000 Milanese ducats, Leonardo was not only an artist, but also a general military engineer. True, it is not known whether da Vinci received the promised amount.

The Reformation, and then the Counter-Reformation, led to a crisis of humanism, hitting the cheerful Renaissance worldview, leading to its weakening (40s of the 16th century), calling into question the feasibility of many of its ideals and emphasizing their illusory nature.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. made great strides natural science in Western Europe. This was associated with a radical change in the development of science, the rise of production and material culture in general. The development of industry, numerous inventions gave impetus to the theoretical development of many scientific issues. The increasing use of certain mechanisms (water, wheel) - expands the range of phenomena available to study from the field of mechanics and requires the solution of some problems of mechanics and mathematics. For example, the practical needs of art required the determination of the flight path of a cannonball, which led to the study of the laws of falling and the movement of bodies in general, etc. The rise of material production armed the natural scientist with new tools and means of scientific work. The development of handicraft technology prepared inventions in the 16th-17th centuries. many essential precision instruments for the development of the sciences. More perfect clocks, microscopes, a telescope, a thermometer, a hygrometer, a mercury barometer appear. Parchment was replaced by paper in the 15th century. the development of the printing press.

The first branch of natural science in which the new scientific spirit manifested itself was astronomy , where the geocentric theory was replaced by the heliocentric one. The foundations of the geocentric system were substantiated by Aristotle, mathematically developed by Hipparchus (II century BC), Ptolemy (II century AD), adopted by the Catholic Church. The author of the heliocentric system was Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun (in 1507). He devoted the rest of his life to the development of this doctrine. He created the work “On the Revolution of Heavenly Circles”, published in the year of death (shortly) in 1543. The first copy was received by him on the day of death. The Catholic Church stepped up. Luther: "As scripture indicates, Joshua commanded the sun to stop, not the earth." The ideas of Copernicus were continued in the works of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) (burned in Rome in the Square of Flowers in 1600), who created a picture of the universe, the world is endless and filled with many celestial bodies, and the Sun is one of the stars. These sun-stars have planets revolving around them, similar to the Earth and even inhabited by living beings. For which Bruno became a heretic and, after 8 years of imprisonment, torture, was burned. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) (Pisan), lived in Florence, taught at the universities of Pisa, Padua, in 1610 in Florence, where he became "the first philosopher and mathematician" of the Duke of Tuscany. Galileo invented (applied) the telescope, in 1608 in Holland what he saw through the telescope he published in the Star Messenger (1610). In 1632, Galileo published "Dialogue on the two main systems of the world, Ptolemaic and Copernican." In 1633, Galileo was summoned to court in Rome (the Inquisition), where he renounced his views (“Ah, after all, she is spinning!”). He was found guilty of having supported doctrines "false and contrary to holy and divine scripture" and sentenced to imprisonment, commuted to a place assigned to him. Until his death, Galileo remained under the supervision of the Inquisition and was deprived of the right to publish his works. In 1638, in Holland, he managed to publish the book "Conversations and Mathematical Proofs Concerning Two New Branches of Science Relating to Mechanics and Local Motion", which summed up the results of his researchers in the field of mechanics. The final point in the victory of the heliocentric theory was put by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (he compiled horoscopes for Wallenstein), studied in Tübingen, lived in Graz, Prague, Linz, Regensburg. Studying Tycho Brahe's observations of the motion of the planet Mars, Kepler came to the conclusion that the planets move in ellipses, in one of the foci of which the Sun is located (Kepler's 1st law), and that the speed of the planets increases with approach to the Sun (2- and Kepler's law). First, these laws were established for Mars, later for other planets. Kepler's discoveries were published in 1609 in the work New Astronomy, Causally Based, or Celestial Physics, set forth in studies on the motions of the star Mars, according to the observations of the noblest husband Tycho Brahe. In the work "The Harmony of the World" (1619), Kepler formulated the 3rd law, establishing a relationship between the periods of revolution of the planets and their distance from the Sun. In 1627, Kepler published new, more accurate tables of planetary motions ("Rudolf Tables").

Break in development physics came later than in astronomy. Throughout the 16th century separate studies appear that reveal an approach alien to scholasticism to the study of the surrounding person to the study of the surrounding material world. These are the studies of Leonardo da Vinci, the Dutch engineer Stevin, who developed some problems of hydrostatistics (“Principles of Equilibrium” (1586), the English scientist William Herbert (1540-1603), who in his work “On the Magnet”, gave a description of the phenomena magnetism and electrical phenomena.

Leonardo was the first to propose the use of a cylinder with a piston, using air as the driving force. And he made a working model of a wind weapon that fired at a distance of 800 meters. He expected to fly from Monte Ceceri (Swan Mountains). The lifebuoy invented by Leonardo was indeed a necessary invention. It is not known what material Leonardo intended to use, but the twin of his invention later became a traditional accessory to the ship and took on the appearance of a cortical circle covered with canvas.

A turning point in physics came in the 17th century. and was associated with the activities of Galileo, his physics was based on experience and the application of precise mathematical methods for analysis and generalizes the data of experience. Galileo - conducted a series of experiments and proved that all bodies under the influence of gravity fall with the same acceleration. To do this, he dropped balls of different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, formulated (not in its final form) the law of inertia, the law of independence of the action of forces, derived the equation for uniform accelerated motion, determined the trajectory of the thrown body, began studying the oscillations of the pendulum, etc. Everything, this gives reason to consider Galileo the founder - kinematics, dynamics. Pupil Torricelli (1608-1647) developed some questions of hydrodynamics, began to study atmospheric pressure and created a mercury barometer. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) continued the study of atmospheric pressure, proved that the column of mercury in the barometer is supported precisely by atmospheric pressure. He also discovered the law on the transfer of pressure in liquids and gases. Optics is evolving. In addition to the invention of the telescope, the microscope, there is a development of theoretical optics (the law of refraction of light).

At this time, the foundations of modern algebra. Several Italian mathematicians, including Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), by the middle of the 16th century. develop a method for solving equations of the 3rd degree (Cardano's formula). One of Cardano's students discovers a way to solve equations of the 4th degree. At the beginning of the XVII century. logarithms are invented, the first tables of which (Nepera) were published in 1614. A system of mathematical symbols is developed for recording algebraic expressions (signs of addition, subtraction, exponentiation, root extraction, equality, brackets, etc.), this was especially evident in the works René Descartes, who gave them an almost modern look. Trigonometry develops. Rene Descartes created analytic geometry.

In area botany and zoology multi-volume descriptions of plants and animals supplied with sketches are created. For example, the work of the Swiss botanist, zoologist, philologist Konrad Gesner (1516-1565) "The History of Animals". Organized botanical gardens, first in Italy, then in other European countries. In the XV-XVI centuries. a passion for gardens comes, in Rome - with the popes, in Florence - with the Medici, with d'Este - in Tivoli (outskirts of Rome), where there were 100 fountains, alleys, a garden of sculptures, stairs, trees and grass grew. The architects who were engaged in gardens - Pirro Ligorio (1500-1583), he liked to arrange secret gardens, something resembling a "green cabinet"; Giacomo da Vignola, who built the Villa Giulia (Rome), Villa Lante. They arranged labyrinths from trees, which were in demand in England, labyrinths were carved from grass. This was done by Leonardo under Francis I. The height of the labyrinths was up to the knee, in the 17th century. became higher. There were also comic fountains (traps). But in 1543 there were no flowers in the gardens, only trees grew - beech, yew, forms made of stone and marble. As interest in botany grew, gardens consisting of ornamental grasses began to appear. The first was defeated in 1543 in Pisa, then in Padua (1545), in Florence (1550). Humanists began to observe the growth of plants, established their geographical origin. There were lovers, for example, Michele Antonio, a Venetian patrician, collected herbariums, and then transferred his treasures to the Marciana library. Palladio created gardens at Brenta that were an extension of architecture. Many Italian masters of landscape gardening worked at that time throughout Europe. King Charles VIII and his army were amazed at the villas and gardens of the kingdom of Naples, which they captured in 1495. Artisans who followed them on their return to France in the same year contributed to the widespread dissemination of these ideas. None other than the French Huguenot Salomon de Caus (circa 1576-1626) became the link between the horticultural tradition of Italy and the rest of Europe. He traveled in 1605 in Italy before going to Brussels to create a garden for the Archduke Albert. After 1610, Cows went to England, where he worked for the royal family - Prince Henry in Richmond, the Queen at Somerset House and Greenwich, and also at Hatfield House. In 1613, Kaus will follow Princess Elisabeth, who was married to Frederick V, to Heidelberg. There, the master will design the magnificent gardens of Hortus Palatinus, unfortunately not preserved.

For the first time, herbaria began to be compiled. The first natural science museums appear. Successes also appear in the study human body. Doctor Paracelsus (1493-1541), Girolamo Fracastoro (1480-1559), his work on infectious diseases was a milestone in epidemiology. Systematic and meticulous anatomical dissections begin. The forerunner of these ideas was Andrea Vesalius (1513-1564), the son of a Brussels pharmacist, court physician and surgeon, from 1527 professor of anatomy in Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Basel; since 1543 the first surgeon at the court of Charles V, then - Philip II. Accused of allegedly dissecting the body of a Spanish hidalgo, not dead, but only in a lethargic state. For this, he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, in the form of repentance he had to go to Jerusalem, to pray for his sin - on the back of his hand, the ship was wrecked by a storm near Zant in 1564. Vesalius published the work “On the Structure of the Human Body”. The foundations of the correct theory of blood circulation in humans are being created. This discovery was laid down by the works of Miguel Servet, continued in the writings of the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657). A famous surgeon was Ambroise Pare, who put an end to the terrible torment of patients who had to endure the pain of cauterization with a red-hot iron after amputation, with the help of a simple dressing invented by him. He came up with prostheses and tried them on soldiers. He discovered that gunshot wounds were not poisonous and therefore did not need to be treated with boiling oil, as was then widely practiced. Pain is best relieved with healing ointments and balms. He also advocated the need, in exceptional cases, to turn the baby in the womb before taking delivery. In England, Thomas Gale wrote a book on the treatment of gunshot wounds, John Woodwall dealt with the problem of amputation. In 1602, John Harvey began his practice, in 1628 he published a treatise on the activity of the heart and blood circulation. He was one of the founders of embryology. He suggested that animals in the period of embryonic development go through the stages of development of the animal world. One of the founders of microscopic anatomy was the Italian Marcello Malpighi. Complementing Harvey, he completed the development of a scientific theory of blood circulation.

At the beginning of the XVI century. to replace, and sometimes in addition to medieval alchemy, iatrochemistry comes, i.e. medical chemistry. One of its founders was the physician and naturalist Theophrastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Iatrochemists, believing that the processes occurring in a living organism are, in fact, chemical processes, were engaged in the search for new chemical preparations suitable for the treatment of various diseases. In questions of chemical theory, iatrochemists have advanced little in comparison with their predecessors. As before, in their writings, the elements of all substances were called according to the ancient 4 elements (fire, air, water, earth), alchemically - "sulphur", "mercury" (in the 16th century - "salt" was added). In the second half of the XVII-beginning of the XVIII centuries. some new substances have been discovered. So, in 1669, the Hamburg amateur alchemist Brand discovered phosphorus (in 1680, R. Boyle independently obtained it).

The founders of the new chemical science are scientists of the 17th century. Holland Ya.B. Van Helmont and R. Boyle. Helmont was the first to correctly explain a number of chemical reactions of combination, decomposition, substitution, discovered carbon dioxide, calling it "forest gas" and introduced into scientific circulation the very concept of "gas" from the Greek. haos.

Typography. In the XVI century. printing possibilities began to be widely used. In 1518, Luther's letter against Eck, with a circulation of 1,400 copies, sold out in 2 days at the Frankfurt Fair. W. von Hutten's and Müntzer's works were popular. In 1525, the peasants distributed "12 articles", which went through 25 editions. From 1522 to 1534 Luther's translation of the New Testament went through 85 editions. In total, during the life of Luther, his translation of the Bible, in whole or in parts, was published 430 times. The growth dynamics of book production can be traced according to the following data: if before 1500, books of 35-45,000 titles were published in various countries of the world, then in the 16th century. - more than 242.000; in the 17th century - 972.300. From the invention of printing to 1700, 1,245,000 titles were published, and circulation increased from 300-350 in the 15th century. to 1000-1200 in the 17th century. Printing is firmly established throughout the world. In 1503, the first printing house appeared in Constantinople, then in Poland, Edinburgh (1508), Targovishte (1508). In 1512, a book was published in Venice in Armenian, in 1513 in Rome - in Ethiopian, etc. Until 1500, about 77% of books were published in Latin, only in England and Spain at the beginning of the 16th century. more books were published in local languages ​​than in Latin. Half a century later, the situation changed, in 1541-1550. of the 86 books in Spain, 14 were in Latin. An example of a large publishing manufactory can be called the enterprises of Anton Koberger. By the beginning of the XVI century. he became a prominent bookseller and publisher, and his business in Nuremberg grew enormously. Large enterprises in the XVI-XVII centuries. there were few, dominated by small or medium-sized workshops, often family-owned. Their products are cheap prayer books, alphabet books, etc. Book fairs began to take shape - Lyon, Amsterdam, Frankfurt am Main (2 times a year - at Easter and on St. Michael's Day), catalogs of books began to be compiled, the initiator was Georg Viller. Later, the book trade center from the second half of the 16th century. becomes Leipzig. Gradually, book publishing in Germany began to lag behind Italian, French, and Dutch. In Basel in 1491, Johann Froben founded a printing house, and he was the first to pay royalties to authors. A special place in the XVI century. occupied by 4 entrepreneurs - Ald Manutsy, Henri Etienne, Christophe Plantin, Lodewijk Elsevier.

Ald Pius Manutius(1446-1515) - "prince of printers", the head of a whole generation of printers. Born in Bassano, studied here, then in Ferrara. Having studied the Greek language, he founded a printing house in 1488 in Venice. He was killed here in 1515. He used antiqua fonts, invented Italian cursive - Aldino (Italic). Aldus Manutius arrived in Venice either in 1488 or in 1489, after finishing his studies in Rome and Ferrara. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism, he had a burning desire to revive ancient antiquity by publishing the works of the Greek classics in the original language. In those days, many Greeks lived in Venice, who fled there from the Ottoman invasion. That is why it was there that Ald took up the implementation of his plans and created a kind of printing and publishing complex in the very center of the city. The first book published in this printing house is Musey's poem about Hero and Leander. (1494). It was followed by Erotemata (1495) - a Greek grammar that became a guide for several generations of students and scholars.

The most significant act of Alda Manutius was the release of the works of Aristotle in five volumes (1495-1498) and other Greek classics - Plato, Thucydides, Hesiod, Aristophanes, Herodotus, Xenophon, Euripides, Sophocles, Demosthenes. These editions created great fame for Aldu Manutia. They have been scientifically edited and tastefully designed. Following the example of the Platonic Academy and the Florentine Academy, founded by the Medici, the publisher rallied a circle of highly educated people around him, calling it the New Aldo Academy. The circle assisted the enlightened entrepreneur in the preparation of manuscripts.

For the publication of Roman authors, Ald decided to use the original font - italics, which was made for Ald by the Bolognese carver Francesco Raibolini, who was then living in Venice, from the famous Griffo family of jewelers. The Italians called this font aldino, and the French called italica.

In November 1502, the Venetian Senate by a special decree recognized Ald's exclusive right to use his new fonts. An attempt on this patent threatened with a fine and confiscation of the printing house. He was perhaps the first publisher who dared to publish books with a circulation of up to 1000 copies. Being also a practical person, Ald did not want the books he published to serve only as amusement for the educated rich, but sought to ensure that the books he published were in wide demand. To this end, he tried to reduce the cost of the book itself by reducing the costs incurred. The path to this lay through the creation of small-format volumes, typed in tight font. A typical aldina (every major library has and is proud of such publications, at least in a small amount) is a small convenient volume bound in wood covered with leather. Going to the carriage, the owner could put a dozen of these books into the saddle sum.

Despite all efforts to make the book accessible to a wide range of readers, its distribution ran into significant difficulties. In Venice alone in 1481-1501. there were about a hundred printing houses, the total production of which amounted to about 2 million copies. A scarce commodity before the invention of printing, books, as a result of the widespread use of new technology, were thrown onto the market in larger quantities than they could be bought up. Not only Ald suffered at that time from overproduction. This became a common scourge of printers and publishers.

After the death of Alda in 1515 and until the moment when his son Paolo entered the age and could already manage affairs, the company was run by the closest relatives - Azolano. With great ambitions, but lacking sufficient education, they took over editing by firing the best editors. The affairs of the publishing house deteriorated sharply, and in 1529 it generally suspended work for four years. The activity of the publishing house resumed only in 1533, when Paolo Manuzio decided to restore the prestige of his father's enterprise. In the same year, he published about ten books and maintained this level until 1539. The treasury of Greek literature was almost exhausted by Aldus himself, and therefore his son turned all his attention to the Roman classics. A huge contribution to science was the editions of the writings and letters of Cicero, carefully edited by him.

In 1540, Paolo Manuzio separated from the Azolano family and began to conduct publishing business on his own. Then the activity of the firm was continued by his son Ald the Younger; after his death in 1597, the publishing house existed for some time by inertia, and then fell into decline and died out. The sign of this illustrious firm - a dolphin and an anchor - was sometimes used later by other publishers.

Ald Manutius the Elder was a man of humanistic views and tried to keep himself independent of political and religious influences. His son and grandson were not so principled and willingly offered their services to the Roman Curia. Pope Pius IV, aware of the financial difficulties of Paolo Manuzio, in 1561 invited him as a technical adviser to the Vatican printing house, which he intended to make the center of Catholic propaganda. Paolo did not have the talent of an organizer, and under his leadership the papal printing house operated at first without much success. Only thanks to the perseverance of Pope Sixtus V, she avoided complete collapse. After the death of Paolo, Aldo Manuzio the Younger was brought in to lead it. The books that came out of the Alda printing house were called Aldina.

Henri Etienne(Stefanus) in 1504 or 1505 in Paris, not far from the university, he opened a printing house, where he began printing philosophical and theological treatises Étienne was a supporter of the new Renaissance style of book design, as evidenced in his editions of the frontispieces and initials, which are independent works of art. In 1520, the company was headed by Simon de Colin, since the children of Etienne are small, having married Etienne's widow. Since 1522, Simon de Colin's printed editions have featured J. Tory's finely crafted framing of the frontispiece and pages, as well as initials. Especially remarkable are the initials with floral ornaments - they were in the 16th century. copied by many printers. Books designed by Tories have a sign - a double Lorraine cross.

In 1524, the publishing house of de Colin and Tory undertook the publication of a series of Books of Hours. These elegant prayer books, decorated with great taste, represent the highest achievement of the book art of that time.

In 1529, Tori published a peculiar book in which he considers the problems of type and writing, it is called "Blossoming Meadow". Despite its allegorical and obscure mode of presentation, this book, richly decorated with woodcuts, was a huge success. King Francis I in 1530 awarded the author with the title of royal printer. However, Tory did not enjoy the honorary title for long: in 1533 he died.

In 1525, Simon de Colin transferred the printing house to Henri Etienne's son, Robert, and thanks to his energetic efforts, he made the printing house flourish in a short time. An excellent punch carver Claude Garamont played a significant role in this - a great connoisseur, like his teacher Tori, of all kinds of antiqua. The graceful Romanesque font he developed on the basis of the Alde antiqua quickly surpassed those used in Venice. Punch makers all over Europe have been willingly using it for at least 150 years.

Garamont also developed a Greek type, called royal, since it was made in 1540 by order of King Francis I. The Parisian school of printing characters enjoyed such prestige that in 1529 the king issued a decree separating this craft from the printers' shop. However, despite all his merits, Garamont died in 1561 in dire poverty. Thanks to the efforts of Garamon, the antiqua replaced the Gothic font in Western Europe and dominated for almost two centuries. Of course, this happened gradually and not so easily, since a kind of Gothic type, a bastard, in France produced luxuriously illustrated and highly readable chivalric novels. The Gothic type lasted the longest in Germany.

Another prominent punch maker and printer, Robert Granjon, who provided Lyon printing houses with original typefaces, unsuccessfully tried to create a national French type based on Gothic italic with some elements of italic Italic. But publishing houses in France refused this typeface.

Henri Etienne had three sons: Francois, Robert and Charles. Everyone devoted themselves to the printed book and printed art, but the most fruitful was the activity of the middle one - Robert. He was 21 years old when he headed the family business, and, like his father, Robert was not an ordinary craftsman-typographer. He was distinguished by the breadth of educational interests and was especially fond of classical philology. His main work was a large etymological dictionary of the Latin language, published in 1532, which subsequently came out in several more editions and improved each time. Robert Etienne considered his main task to be the publication of carefully verified and well-formed works of the classics of antiquity. He began with Apuleius and Cicero. For publications in Greek, he used the already mentioned royal type, he printed in 1550 a luxurious folio containing the New Testament. The Greek font of Garamond and Etienne caused surprise and admiration in those days.

Robert Etienne published the Bible more than once in Latin, in ancient Greek and Hebrew. In addition, he dared to use the critical method and comments of Erasmus of Rotterdam and other humanists in restoring texts and clarifying obscure passages in the Bible. This provoked the wrath of theologians from the Sorbonne, who immediately accused the publisher of heresy. Fearing persecution, Etienne fled to Geneva in 1550, where many scientists from Catholic countries found shelter. There he founded a new printing house and worked in it until his death in 1559. In total, Robert published 600 books - much more than his father. He also introduced a new sign of the company - a philosopher under the tree of wisdom with falling dried branches - and the motto "Do not be wise, but be afraid." Various versions of this sign were also used by other printers and publishers. The fate of the rest of the offspring of the Etienne dynasty was not so glorious. Of the sons of Robert Etienne, the eldest, named after his grandfather Henri, was the most active. But after the death of his father, he inherited his enterprise in Geneva and set about publishing Greek books, editing them himself. Some of these texts were also discovered by him. In 1556 he published an anthology of Greek poetry, Greek Poets. Major Heroic Songs", which was praised as an example of scientific editing and excellent design.

In 1575, Henri Etienne the Younger published a huge etymological dictionary of the Greek language "Thesaurus linguae Graecae", which has not lost its scientific value to this day. For preparation it took many years of work. Being a man of broad views, an alien fanaticism and hypocrisy, Henri Etienne soon fell out of favor with the local Calvinist church consistory and was forced to return to France, where King Henry III, seeking reconciliation with the Huguenots, provided them with tolerable living conditions. There is almost nothing to tell about the further fate of the descendants of the Etiennes. None of the heirs of this dynasty played a significant role in the history of the book.

One of the most prominent printers of that time was Christophe Plantin(1514-1589). He was born in France in the village of Saint-Aventin near Tours in a poor family, he studied printing and bookbinding in Caen, from where he moved to Paris to open an independent business. According to his religious beliefs, C. Plantin was close to the Huguenots, which forced him in 1548 to leave for Antwerp. Perhaps the last impetus for this was the burning at the stake of the free-thinking printer Etienne - Dole. In Antwerp, in 1555, Plantin opened a printing house and a shop, but after his apprentice printed a Protestant prayer book without the knowledge of the master, and at that time religious intolerance reigned in Antwerp. Timely warned of the reprisals that threatened him, Plantin considered it good to hide in Paris and spend more than a year and a half there. Returning to Antwerp, he learned that his workshop was destroyed, and his property was sold under the hammer. Everything had to start over. Plantin set to work with zeal, and in a few years outperformed all competitors. The success of his publications was ensured primarily by exemplary design. Typefaces Plantin ordered from the best specialists of that time in this part - Garamont, Granjon, and later from Guillaume Le Baie. The prestige of Plantin was unusually high. In 1570, King Philip II of Spain (Flanders at the time belonged to the Spanish crown) honored him with the title of chief royal printer with the right to supervise all printing houses in Flanders and the Netherlands. Thanks to Philip, who also had influence in the Roman Curia, Plantin received from the pope a monopoly on the printing of liturgical books in the possessions of the Spanish monarch. For editions in the Flemish language, instead of the usual Gothic, he used a new civil type developed by Granjon. A 1557 book of type samples shows how well Plantin's printing house was equipped with types and equipment.

Plantin's extensive publishing program covered a wide variety of genres. From the very first experiments, Plantin specialized in the production of illustrated books. In the first decade of his work, he published many books richly decorated with woodcuts. His editions are characterized by a luxurious frontispiece in the Renaissance style. The greatest merit of his publishing house is also the use of engravings on copper and the spread of this method in Holland and other European countries. Copper engraving has been known in Italy since the 1950s. 16th century In particular, in 1556, Juan de Valverde's "Anatomy of the Human Body" was published in Rome, richly supplied with engravings on copper. But Plantin's engravings were better.

Plantin continuously expanded the scope of his activities. In 1567, he opened in Paris, which already three years later brought in thousands of florins. Another branch - in Salamanca (Spain) annually sold plantin editions for 5-15 thousand florins. In 1579, Plantin sent 67 titles to the Frankfurt Fair and sold 5,212 copies there. In terms of production and trade, he surpassed all known publishing firms, including the famous Etienne enterprise.

The French king called him to Paris, the Duke of Savoy offered him the privilege of opening a printing house in Turin. However, Plantin did his best to expand the Antwerp enterprise, striving to make it the largest publishing house in Europe. For this, the entire Plantin family was mobilized. Eyewitnesses claim that even his 12-year-old daughter also read the rules for proofreading, often these were books in foreign languages. Already by 1570, Plantin achieved his goal, and his printing house became a model for all European enterprises of this type. It had 25 printing presses and 150 employees working without interruption. Every day the owner paid the workers 2200 crowns. The manufactory no longer fit in four buildings, and Plantin had to buy another house in the neighborhood (by the way, it has survived to this day).

However, on the very rise, Plantin's enterprise was destined to survive a new catastrophe. During the Dutch uprising against Spanish absolutism, Atwerp experienced a long siege and destruction. The printing house did not stop working during the siege, but at the end only one printing press remained in operation. And again, Plantin had to restore everything, which, thanks to his indefatigable energy and the help of friends, he eventually succeeded.

Plantin himself considered the Multilingual Bible (Biblia Poliglotta) a source of pride and the pinnacle of his activity, where the text ran in parallel in four languages ​​- Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic, and the New Testament was also in Syriac. The book was carefully edited and richly illustrated with magnificent engravings on copper, which belonged to the chisel of the greatest masters of that time. It was published in separate volumes in 1568-1573, its total circulation was 1212 copies. Twelve of them, printed on parchment, were intended as a gift to the Spanish king, ten more copies on excellent Italian paper - to other patrons and patrons of Plantin. One set of the Bible on the best Italian paper cost Plantin 200 florins, on Lyon paper - 100 florins, on trois paper - 70 florins. For those times, these were significant sums, and therefore the publication of the Multilingual Bible exhausted the material resources of the publisher. In order to replenish funds for the implementation of this large-scale plan sooner, Plantin began to produce prayer books in large quantities, also beautifully illustrated.

The difficulties with the publication of the Bible were not only of a material nature: the king allowed this edition to be distributed before he received permission from the pope, but the pope did not give such permission. The matter was settled only with the accession to the papal throne of a more indulgent spiritual ruler. And yet the clergy continued to be suspicious of this book, and one learned theologian even declared it heretical, the final permission to distribute the book was received only in 1580. All this red tape put Plantin on the verge of bankruptcy, and until his death he could not get out from financial difficulties.

Plantin's trademark is a hand lowered from the clouds, holding a compass, and the inscription "Constantia et labore" ("Constancy and labor"). This inscription in its own way characterizes the personality of the publisher, who was not an enlightening scientist, but a typical entrepreneur of the era of manufacturing capitalism. Plantin published at least 981 books (that's the number of registered titles). Some believe that the actual number of his editions exceeds 1000.

After Plantin's death in 1589, his printing houses in Antwerp and Leiden were left with 14 presses, 103 sets of matrices, 48,647 pounds of type, 2,302 copper engravings, and 7,493 woodcuts, not counting a huge stock of initials carved on wood and copper.

Plantin's work was continued by members of his family, Plantin's son-in-law Balthazar Moret became the head of the enterprise, the publishing house produced mainly Catholic religious literature. The great Peter Paul Rubens provided this enterprise with engravings on copper. It flourished for more than three centuries - until 1871, and in 1876 the city authorities of Antwerp bought it together with inventory for 1 million 200 thousand francs in order to open one of the most interesting book and printing museums in Europe - the Museum - Plantin.

Plantin's ledgers mention the name of a bookbinder Lodewijk Elsevier from Louvain. Subsequently, this bookbinder, who studied printing under Plantin, became the ancestor of the venerable publishing dynasty of the Elseviers. Lodewijk Elsevier was born about 1546 in Louvain in the family of a printer. Fate brought him to Antwerp, where he opened a bookbinding workshop. When Spanish troops under the command of the Duke of Alba captured Antwerp, many of the Protestant residents were forced to flee. Lodewijk Elsevier also fled. However, when the situation in the northern Netherlands turned in favor of Protestantism, he moved to Leiden, an ancient city founded by the Romans. Gradually Leiden became an important trading center. A university was founded here, which soon became one of the leading educational institutions in Europe. All this opened up wide opportunities for organizing a large book publishing enterprise, when Elsevier settled in Leiden, there were many publishers and booksellers there, so the competition was very serious. Lacking the means to set up a publishing house, Lodewijk Elsevier decided first to accumulate large capital in the book trade, and, being a man on a grand scale, he took up not petty trading, but wholesale brokerage. He was one of the first organizers of book auctions in Europe. In 1604, Elsevier began to buy books by entire libraries and sell them publicly under the hammer. Book collection auctions have been the specialty of the Elsevier firm for over a century. Success in trading operations soon allowed Lodewijk to move on to publishing. At first he published one book a year, and by the end of his life, 10 books with his trademark appeared on the market annually. Proximity to enlightened circles was reflected in the fact that L. Elsevier published special literature for scientists and students. Most of its publications were written in the language of science - Latin by the then most prominent professors at Leiden and some other universities.

In 1617, Elsevier died, leaving his sons a financially secure and prestigious publishing and bookselling enterprise.

The eldest son of Lodewijk Matthias (1565-1640) and the youngest - Bonaventure (1583-1652) helped his father to expand the Leiden enterprise, but it was not them, but the son of Matthias Isaac (1596-1651) who gave it a special brilliance. Having married a bride with a large dowry, he bought a large printing house with the blessing of his grandfather. When, after the death of their father, Matthias and Bonaventure inherited his enterprise, it turned out to be very convenient for them to print all the books in the printing house of Isaac Elsevier. This printing house has become famous for the speed and impeccable quality of order fulfillment. In 1620, Isaac Elsevier received the title of university printer, but five years later, for reasons unknown to us, he sold his flourishing printing house to his uncle Bonaventure and older brother Abraham (1592-1652). Bonaventure took over the sale of the products of the printing house, and Abraham - the printing business. This partnership continued for twenty-seven years. They published about 18 books a year. At the beginning of their activity, Bonaventure and Abraham were mainly engaged in the publication of scientific literature and the works of the Roman classics. Then they began to publish books in French, Dutch, and on the history of Holland. It is difficult to determine in which area of ​​book production the contribution of the Elseviers was the most significant. These were publishers, and printers, booksellers, and even book dealers. Constant and close contacts with the book market and readers brought them considerable benefits: they knew better than others the needs of the market, the purchasing power clientele, felt the intellectual demand of the era.

And yet their main merit is the distribution of excellent and relatively cheap books. The Elseviers can rightfully be considered "pioneers in the popularization of the book." They tried to give the reader a well-edited book, but since neither they nor most of their proofreaders and the editors were not scientists, there were editions edited carelessly. However, this did not harm the prestige of the Elseviers - the then scientists and writers considered it an honor for themselves if the company undertook to publish their works; many authors were proud of their personal acquaintance with the Elseviers. Publishers also "discovered" such luminaries of science and literature as Rabelais, Calvin, Bacon, Descartes, Gassendi, Pascal, Milton, Racine, Corneille, Moliere. The Elseviers published books in various formats, and a series of classic literature was published in the in-quarto format. They also took on folios, but mostly small-format books in the twelfth or twenty-fourth part of a sheet are associated with the name of the Elseviers, printed in a clear, delicately thin, but sometimes monotonous type and decorated with excellent copper engraving with a frontispiece, intricate vignettes and initials. It was the Elzevirs who established the small format on the book market and thus gave book publishing and the book trade a powerful new impetus that made the book accessible to the general population.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. is experiencing success cartography. In the first half of the XVI century. the centers of cartography were the cities of Italy - Venice, Genoa, Florence, Rome. From the middle of the XVI century. the center for the development of cartography moves from Italy to RV, Flanders. Prominent cartographers are Gerard Mercator, Abraham Ortelius and Willem Janszoon Blau, and the Frenchman Nicola Sanson. Mercator coined the term "atlas" - a collection of maps (1585). Mercator's friend and rival Aram Ortelius (1527-1598) in 1564 published a map of the world, and then the Theater of the Circle of the Earth, where for the first time references were made to the geographers whose works he used. The first attempt at compiling a work on general geography was undertaken by the Dutchman B. Varenius in 1650. While Varenius focused on physical geography, the Frenchman Davinius in his book The World (1660) was the first to give economic information about European states.

Until the beginning of the XVI century. urban libraries did not have. They began to emerge through the Reformation. These were urban, school, university. Good libraries were in the Jesuit schools, as well as in the Sorbonne, Oxford, Cambridge, in 1638-1639. John Harvard founded the first college in North America and had a research library. The library of Uppsala University was replenished in the 17th century. trophies from Germany (XXX war), so the Bible of Ulfila got here. Know also collected books. It was a prestigious hobby. For example, Philip II collected books, but did not allow anyone to the treasures of Escorial. To which the Archbishop of Tarragona wrote to his correspondent: "So many good books are collected there, and to make them inaccessible means to do more harm than good." ("book cemetery"). The monarchs of the 16th-17th centuries, following the spirit of the times, opened the doors of museums and book collections to scientists. In Germany, the library in Heidelberg ("princely") was popular - "the mother of all libraries in Germany." In 1622, during the XXX War, the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Tilly stormed Heidelberg, the entire library fell into the hands of Maximilian of Bavaria, who decided to give it to the pope. The richest libraries were those of the French king and the library of Mazarin. The Royal Library was founded in 1518 by Francis I. In the 17th century. it contained about 16,000 handwritten and 1,000 printed books, at the beginning of the 18th century. - 70,000 printed and 15,000 manuscripts. Then in Paris it was decided to create a public library, the idea belonged to Richelieu, and was embodied by Mazarin. Librarian (fanatic) Gabriel Naudet (1600-1653). In January 1652, the library was confiscated from Mazarin, Node was in a deep depression, he was invited by Queen Christina to Sweden to be with her library. After Mazarin again came to power in 1653, Naudet returned to France, but died as soon as he entered French soil. Dad had a good library. In 1690, it was replenished with the book treasure of Christina, who moved to Rome. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the deception of vigilant censorship has become a kind of art. Anonymous publications, fictitious addresses, pseudonyms were used, the year of publication was changed. So, "Letters of dark people", published in Germany, were provided with references to Ald. In 1616, Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne anonymously printed "Tragic Poems" in his own printing house and indicated the place of publication of "In the Desert" under an empty cartouche instead of a publisher's sign.

Realm of everyday existence always attracted the attention of scientists. Until recently, attention was paid mainly to the living conditions and life of the higher social strata, modern science strives to reconstruct the mass structures of everyday life. Although now the life of the city is better known than the countryside, the way of life of the rich is better than the social lower classes, some regions are more fully studied than others. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. in everyday life there is much in common with the Middle Ages proper. Nutrition is due to the natural seasonal rhythm, depending on the climate. XVI-XVII centuries - the time of a sharp increase in the quality of life, but the needs of people, the nature of their consumption was largely determined by climatic conditions. Life was easier, cheaper in the mild climate areas (Mediterranean) than north of the Alps, not to mention the northern and eastern regions of Europe. It was harder to live in the mountainous regions than in the valley and on the plain. The principle of self-sufficiency still prevailed. The influence of the market was stronger where it was about luxury goods, overseas rarities, providing export crafts with raw materials, etc. It was more tangible in Western and Central Europe, where the centers of the economic and political life of the European world moved. In the crafts associated with the production of food, essentials, small traditional forms of organization were especially stable. The workshops of bakers and butchers were small, but specialized (baking white, black, gray bread, confectioners, pastries). Where there was demand, there was a large-scale production of food and beverages (for example, Lisbon, where there were bakeries that made sea rusks). At this time, the vast majority of the population, more than half of what it produced or earned, consumed or spent on food. So, E. Chollier, who studied the standard of living in Antwerp in the 15th-16th centuries (high in Europe at that time), provides data on the distribution of expenses of a bricklayer family of 5 people: for food - 78.5% (of which - for " bread" - 49.4%); for housing, lighting, fuel - 11.4%; clothes and other - 10.1%.

The most important food for the general population were cereals - rye, barley, millet, oats, wheat (Mediterranean), in the XVI century. - rice, maize, buckwheat (in Northern Europe). They cooked soups, cereals, bread. Then came the beans. There were "seasonal supplements" - vegetables and greens: spinach, lettuce, parsley, garlic, pumpkin, carrots, turnips, cabbage, nuts, berries, fruits.

Addition to plant foods was fish and seafood (especially in seaside and coastal areas). The fish were bred in special ponds, kept in cages. Trade in sea fish (herring, cod, sardines, etc.) live, salted, smoked, dried, acquired the character of entrepreneurial activity. Fish was eaten on fasting days (166 (or more, according to other sources) days a year). The church forbade the eating of meat and animal fats for more than 150 "fast" days a year.

On the same days, the trade in meat, butter, eggs was banned, an exception was made for the sick and Jews. The ban was violated. Meat is an important component of nutrition in many areas and countries of Europe at the beginning of modern times. Pork, beef, but sheep and goats were also bred for meat, lamb was appreciated in England. Game and poultry were consumed more in the cities than in the countryside.

The daily diet included intoxicating drinks: beer, wine, "honey", kvass (in Eastern Europe). From the 16th century beer was used more than honey. Beer was produced in households, but there were also professional brewers. Some regions turned into areas where beer was produced for export (Central Europe, RV, England). Moreover, each region specialized in a special kind of beer. From the 16th century Commodity production of strong alcoholic beverages - "hot wine" - began. Its centers were Southern France (Bordeaux, Cognac), Andalusia, Catalonia. In R.V., Northern Germany, schnapps was made by distilling grain. In Germany, aquavita was driven in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, in Denmark - in Aalborg. New varieties of grape wines appeared - Alsatian, Neckar, Mainz, Moselle, Rhine, Osterwein, Tokay. In the 17th century - champagne. Their drinks were in the areas of fruit gardening - from apples - apfelmost - in Swabia; cider - in Brittany, Normandy, Galicia; from pears - Birnenmost (Bavaria), from cherries - in Hildesheim, etc. Wine and intoxicating drinks still perform various functions in everyday life: just drinking, components of culinary recipes, medicines. As a means of communication - in feasts and official ceremonies. Wine consumption was high: in Provence - in the XV century. - 1 to 2 liters per person per day; in the army of Charles VII - 2 l, in Narbonne - at the beginning of the 16th century. - 1.7 l. Contemporaries believed that the XVI century. in Germany - "a century of drunkenness". In the 17th century Europe starts drinking chocolate, coffee and tea.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. increased consumption of sugar. Sugarcane plantations and processing plants are expanding. Along with the traditional centers of sugar production - Genoa, Venice, Barcelona, ​​Valencia - sugar factories after 1500 appear in Lisbon, Seville, Antwerp.

The structure of nutrition continued to vary by region and social class. Johann Boemus (beginning of the 16th century) in his “Eating Habits in Germany” wrote that “the nobility has expensive food, the burghers live in moderation. Workers eat 4 times a day, idle - 2. Peasant food - bread, oatmeal, boiled beans, drink - water or whey. In Saxony they bake white bread, drink beer, their food is heavy. Westphalians eat brown bread, drink beer. Wine is consumed only by the rich, as it is brought from the Rhine, and it is very expensive.”

Culinary literature begins to be in demand, where there was a strong Slavic and Italian influence. In 1530, a cookbook by the Italian humanist Platinum (XV century) was published in Augsburg. There are also manuals for housewives, which talk about how to store the strategic stocks of the family. Caloric content of the daily diet: in the XIV-XV centuries. - from 2500 to 6000-7000 calories for the rich. In general, researchers note that for the broad masses of the population of Central and Western Europe, it is declining compared to the end of the 15th century. - consumption of meat and a diet of the type is established - porridge-slurry (mousse-bray). The imbalance in nutrition is especially noticeable during the years of hunger strikes.

Such frequent periods of famine led to the fact that the people had a dream of a country where there is no place for hunger and problems (most importantly, there is no need to work). The popular utopia has many names, it appears under different images. The British have the country of Cokaine, the French have Kokan, the Italians have Kukanya, the Germans have Schlarafenland, as well as the Country of Youth, Luberland, the Paradise of the poor, Candy Mountain. Brueghel depicted her with characteristic features - roofs of pies; a roast pig running away with a knife in his side; dumpling mountain; people lounging in comfortable positions waiting for the tidbits to fall into their mouths. The gingerbread house found in the forest by Hans and Gretchen also belongs to utopia. This is the abbey of Tellem Rabelais, with the motto: "Do what you want." The country of Kokayne is in the west: "In the sea to the west of the country of Spain, / There is an island that people call Kokayne", according to Celtic mythology, paradise is in the west, but the Christian church has always taught that paradise is in the east. A. Morton suggests that the dream of Cockayne led to the search for a way to America.

Costume. In 1614, a pamphlet appeared in France condemning the luxury of the nobility, written by a prominent Huguenot. There have always been prohibitions to wear the bourgeois what the nobility wears. Clothing was strictly social in nature. Royal ordinances on this subject were known from the end of the 15th-16th-17th centuries, then they fade away. There were prohibitions on wearing precious stones on clothes, on fingers, various jewelry, and it was also prescribed what should be worn and what should not be worn. This existed until the revolution. It was assumed that there were no restrictions on dress for kings and (almost) for courtiers. They were allowed to wear clothes made of silk, linen, wool. Usually the kings wore a woolen drape with a pattern, taffeta, velor, camlot, more often these were fabrics brought from England, China, Holland, and India. But the need for good fabrics led to the encouragement of their own textile production. Color regulation was preserved - for the upper classes - black, red, blue, purple, pink gray, blue, drape scarlet - bright red. In the XV century. white comes into use, at first rarely, then more and more used in clothing, but these fabrics and drapes were forbidden to the bourgeoisie. The bans were not enforced. Although wearing ties, embroideries, jewelry was considered a privilege of the nobility.

It was fashionable to wear furs. Ermine fur is a sign of royalty. The width of the fur was recognized by the social status. The furs of squirrels, martens, beavers, muskrats, foxes, sheepskins, red squirrels could be worn by the bourgeoisie.

Precious and semi-precious stones - diamond, ruby, carnelian, coral, sapphire, emerald, agate - the privilege of the nobility. Stones were also worn because they were given a magical meaning. Buttons at first performed a purely decorative function, it was fashionable to sew on bells. Cuffs, scarves, gloves, collars were made from lace. They still wore several dresses at the same time. The nobles, in addition to the dress, wore a cloak, a mantle made of silk, wool, decorated with embroidery, draped. For a simple nobleman, a short cloak was supposed, a sign - of special dignity - a long cloak dragging along the floor.

Headdress - military - helmet - the king has either gold or gilded, princes of the blood, dukes - silver, commoners - iron; in ordinary times - they wore a mortier - a small short cap worn by the king, his retinue, princes of the blood, the chancellor, peers, the president of parliament, he had a mortier with two rows of galloons; the king's mortier was trimmed with ermine. By the beginning of the XVIII century. goes out of fashion, worn only on solemn occasions, during the exit of the king, queen, mortier put on weapons. A cap - bonnet - of a small volume was worn by barons, decorated with pearls, in addition, they wore baret and current. The nobles wore hats that were trimmed with galloons, precious stones, ostrich feathers. The custom of taking off the headgear appears at the end of the 17th century. in all cases indoors, an exception was made for the king. The right to sit in the presence of the king had 12 dukes on stools, the rest were standing. (right stool).

Shoes. The nobles wore shoes, boots, in the XV-XVI centuries. they wore shoes with long toes, and the length of the toes of the shoe was determined in the ordinances - for the nobles 24-25 inches, 14 inches was supposed to be for the townspeople. Secular and military boots differed, secular ones had bells, ribbons, lace; shoes at the knees were tied with bows. There were several pairs of socks, fashionistas had woolen, silk ones.

An indispensable accessory of the costume were gloves - leather with decorations, with lace, patterns, impregnated with perfume. Marie de Medici bought expensive gloves that cost several villages. While Italian and Oriental perfumes were used, French ones appeared at the end of the 16th century. A man from high society - associated with gloves.

Collars of the 16th century - flat cutters. Skirts - puffy, made on a frame, reached several meters in diameter. It was necessary to be able to wear them, a long train was supposed to be attached to the skirt - manto-de-cours. But not every noblewoman could afford a long train. In 1710, it was said that the queen has a train of 11 cubits, for her daughter - 9, granddaughter - 7, princess - 5, duchess - 3. The high hat - ennen was replaced in the 16th century. small, in the XVI-XVII centuries. walked with an open head, but with complex hairstyles. Shoes made of velvet and brocade, clothes were complemented by a muff and a fan, a small mirror.

Rapid change of fashion in the XVI-XVII centuries. was explained by the fact that the ruling class sought to withdraw into its own circle, since the bourgeoisie tried to penetrate into the higher nobility by buying estates and annobling.

From the end of the 16th century with the advent of mercantilism, the state forbade spending on a suit, the church also advocated this. The pope himself issues a series of bulls threatening women of fashion with excommunication. They were followed by royal prescriptions. Thus, ordinances against luxury were issued in 1613, 1624, 1634, 1636, 1639, 1644, 1656, 1660, 1679. It was forbidden for all subjects to wear imported things, except public women and swindlers who did not comply with the order were fined, sometimes their clothes were confiscated.

The Huguenot costume was strict, dark in color, without decorations. Sully's costume was made of magnificent drape, velour, velvet. From the end of the 17th century fashion was dictated by the king's court. With the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the adherence of the nobles to fashion begins to be ridiculed. Fashionable clothes = idleness. "A nobleman carries all his income on his shoulders."

The highest clergy used the most expensive fabrics for their robes. Cardinals and bishops had the most luxurious vestments, their clothes were decorated with embroidery, precious stones, and furs. Cardinals wore a red robe, white or lilac for bishops, and their hair was cut short. Each order had its own costume, members of the monastic orders were recognizable by their hooded robes, sandals on thick clothes and differed in color - Franciscans - brown, Dominicans - white, Jesuits, Capuchins could wear secular dress. From 1549, a royal ordinance ordered the clergy to dress modestly, not to wear an arquebus, not to go where it was not supposed to, i.b. in taverns, etc.

From the middle of the XV century. a bourgeois estate is formed, its costume differs from that of the nobility until the bourgeoisie has realized itself as a class. The nobility of the mantle, the bourgeois, who acquired fief, wore a robe (roben). In 1614, in the States General, it was forbidden, under a fine of 1,000 ecu, to wear bourgeois noble clothes. From the end of the 17th century the bourgeois, who wore noble attire, aroused ridicule. See plays by Molière. Bourgeois dress - from inexpensive fabrics, linen, dark colors. Bourgeois women wore dresses made of grisette fabric (gray) (grisette = poor bourgeois), no decorations, except for lace - guez. On the head is a chaperon - a cap or mantilla, the neck was covered with scarves. Puffy skirts, (several), the top one is the most expensive to keep, it was pinned up and everyone else was visible. Footwear - leather shoes.

The peasant suit is functional. To make it convenient to work. The fabrics that went to the costume - canvas, homespun linen, artisans used drape for tailoring. Colors - soft, gray, blue. Festive clothes were sewn from velor and silk. The wedding dress was extremely good, which was sewn from expensive fabric and passed down from generation to generation. The chest of the woman was described, the wedding suit was included in the inventory. A wedding cap - chapeau de roses was given by the father, moreover, it was a must. In some provinces, girls did not receive land, but received chapeau de roses. Men wore short pants, a linen shirt, women wore short dresses. The headdress for men is a felt hat, for ladies - a cap. For winter clothes, rabbit, sheep, and dog fur was used. Shoes - bare feet, clogs, rope shoes, rough leather shoes. (See Le Nain brothers). Engravings by Callot - give an idea of ​​the clothes of the urban poor.

There were livery costumes - the people of the king, duke, prince, baron are dressed in the same costumes, often from the master's shoulder. On the occasion of church holidays, the clientele is usually presented with cloth or dresses. Members of the royal, city council, pages, officials of the state apparatus also had the same costume. The king and his relatives had a suit of silk or velor in black or red. The courtiers wore a gray suit. An official suit appears - for everyday wear - black, for holidays - red. All black dressed judges, lawyers, doctors, scientists. The king's advisers have a black bottom robe, a red top. The president of the royal council wore a black jacket, a long black cloak. Members of the city municipality dressed in city colors. For France - red-white, blue. Parisian echevins wore black robes, scarlet robes, white collars. The Dijon municipality preferred clothes with a predominant lilac color - the color of Burgundy.

The rector of the University of Paris wore a blue cape trimmed with ermine. Deans - red, with expensive fur, masters - black capes. Doctors of theology put on a cap - baret (bone). Students wore a black jacket, purple pants, but they could dress differently. Students of senior faculties wore a bone′ caret - a 4-coal cap.

Color was still of great importance. The preferred layers are red, as well as black combined with red. The colors of infamy are green and yellow. A green headdress distinguished the debtor. Yellow color - meant belonging to the Jews, who were ordered to wear circles on their sleeves from the age of 12, for women - on the head of yellow - a coral. Only Jewish doctors were not required to wear these badges. Courtesans wore black gloves, a white ribbon or a circle of other fabric on their sleeves. They were not allowed to wear collared dresses, veils and furs. But of course this is all in theory...

Since the 17th century fashion itself appears, since 1672, when the first fashion magazine was published. Moreover, to be dressed like a king means to express your loyalty.

From the middle of the XV-XVI centuries. there is an increase begging, vagrancy. There was a hierarchy among the poor and beggars - the privileged, the domestic poor, the inhabitants of shelters, hospitals, conventions. Then came those who had privileges to collect alms - pilgrims, monks of mendicant orders, guild students, schoolchildren, students, vagabonds were landsknechts returning from service, from Turkish captivity. The most cohesive organization was the blind, who had their own "king". Alms were collected on the streets, at the temple, in the temple itself, and "at the door." The process of pauperization, the growth of begging, vagrancy led to the fact that the authorities considered vagrants as a dangerous element that needed to be fought: control of the poor, limiting the influx of newcomers, a charity system.

Holidays. Religious. winter cycle. Pre-Christmas - November 11 - St. Martina (Martynov goose), 25.12. - Christmas - Christmas time, processions, mysteries, games; 2.

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1566 - A spontaneous uprising began in the Netherlands, accompanied by the destruction of Catholic churches. 1572 - The Northern Netherlands is completely liberated from the occupying forces and proclaims Prince William of Orange as its ruler. 1588 - Northern provinces proclaimed themselves an independent state - the Republic of the United Provinces. 1641-1688 — English bourgeois revolution. 1642 - 1646 - Civil War in England. 1644 - victory at Marston Moor. 1645 - victory at Naseby. 1646 - Charles I is extradited to parliament, the civil war is over, the principle of "knight's holding" is abolished. January 1649 - execution of Charles I. May 1649 - a republic is proclaimed in England. December 1653 Parliament was dissolved, and Cromwell was proclaimed head of state with the title of Lord Protector. The protectorate regime lasted until 1660. 1669 - 1688. - temporary restoration of the royal dynasty of the Stuarts. 1688 - "Glorious Revolution", during which the last Stuart - James II was overthrown and the throne was taken by the ruler of Holland - William III of Orange. The meaning of the revolution: - a powerful blow to feudalism. - 1689 - the Bill of Rights limited the competence of the king in the legislative sphere in favor of parliament; laid the foundations of a bourgeois constitutional monarchy. The party that wins the majority in parliamentary elections becomes the ruling party. The government is formed from the leaders of this party and is accountable to parliament. - Acceleration of the process of breaking down feudal relations and the formation of bourgeois relations in Western Europe. The Great French bourgeois revolution had the greatest significance for Western civilization. King Louis XVI of France convenes the Estates General. May 5, 1780 - The Estates General began work. After the States General proclaimed themselves the National Assembly, that is, the body representing the interests of the entire nation, the king began to gather troops to Paris. July 14, 1780 - Capture of the Bastille. This event became a symbol of the beginning of the revolution, was the transition to an open struggle against the ruling regime. Historians identify several stages in the course of the French bourgeois revolution: the first (summer 1789 - September 1794) - the constitutional stage; the second (September 1792 - June 1793) - the period of struggle between the Jacobins and the Girondins; the third (June 1793 - July 1794) - the Jacobin dictatorship and the fourth (July 1794 - November 1799) - the decline of the revolution. August 1789 - The National Assembly adopted a number of important resolutions that destroyed the foundations of feudal society in France: the church tithe was canceled free of charge, the rest of the duties of the peasants were subject to redemption, and the traditional privileges of the nobility were also liquidated. On August 26, 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted, within the framework of which the general principles for building a new society were proclaimed - natural human rights, equality of all before the law, the principle of popular sovereignty. By the autumn of 1791, the preparation of the first French Constitution was completed, which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in the country. An important feature of the revolution in France was that the counter-revolution acted mainly from outside. The French nobility, who fled the country, formed an "invading army" in the German city of Koblenz, preparing to return the "old regime" by force. April 1792: French war begins against Austria and Prussia. On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place in Paris; Louis XVI and his entourage were arrested. The Legislative Assembly changed the electoral law (elections became direct and universal) and convened the National Convention. September 22, 1792 France was proclaimed a republic. The first stage of the revolution is over. The events in France at the second stage of the revolutionary struggle were largely of a transitional nature. The leading position in the Convention is occupied by the most radical grouping of the Jacobins. Fight between Girondins and Jacobins. On April 6, 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created to fight against the counter-revolution and wage war, which later became the main body of the new revolutionary government. On June 2, 1793, the Jacobins organized an uprising against the Girondins, during which the latter were destroyed. More than a year-long Jacobin dictatorship began. The revised Constitution (June 24, 1793) completely abolished all feudal obligations, turning the peasants into free owners. Although formally all power was concentrated in the Convention, in reality it belonged to the Committee of Public Safety, which had virtually unlimited powers. With the coming to power of the Jacobins, France was swept by a wave of large-scale terror: thousands of people, declared "suspicious", were thrown into prison and executed. Largely due to these measures, the French revolutionary army, recruited on the basis of universal military service, in 1793-1794. was able to win a series of brilliant victories, repelling the offensive of the English, Prussian and Austrian interventionists and localizing a dangerous royalist uprising in the Vendée (in northwestern France). The deputies of the Convention, who were not satisfied and frightened by the cruelty of Robespierre, organized an anti-Jacobin conspiracy. July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor on the revolutionary calendar) he was arrested and executed. The Jacobin dictatorship fell. In 1795 a new constitution was drafted. The Legislative Assembly was re-created; executive power passed into the hands of the Directory, consisting of five members. In the interests of the big bourgeoisie, all emergency economic decrees of the Jacobins were cancelled. 1796 - 1799 - the grandiose Italian and Egyptian campaigns, during which the young talented general Napoleon Bonaparte gained immense popularity. On November 9 (Brumaire 18), 1799, a coup d'etat took place (the Directory was deprived of power. A new provisional government headed by Napoleon Bonaparte was created).