Methodology and methodology. Methods of psychology The methods by which the subject of science is known is called
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classification |
possibilities |
restrictions |
notes |
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main |
Observation |
Intentional and purposeful perception, due to the task of the activity |
1) objective A) Simple when events are registered from the side B) contributory, when the researcher is involved in a social situation. 2) self-observation |
The ability to study mental processes in natural conditions. It does not confine itself to simply recording facts, but proceeds to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them on new observations and note exceptions, refine initial hypotheses or replace them with new ones. |
The description of phenomena on the basis of observation is correct if the psychological understanding contained in it of the inner psychological side of an external act gives a natural explanation of its external course under different conditions. In the study of phenomena in which the relationship between the external side of behavior and its internal psychological content is more or less complex, objective observation, while retaining its value, must for the most part be supplemented by other methods. | |
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Experiment |
It consists in the organization of purposeful observation, when, according to the plan of the researcher, the situation in which the subjects are located partially changes. |
Natural laboratory |
The researcher himself causes the phenomena he studies; may vary the experimental conditions and their quantitative ratio. With the help of the experiment, regular connections are established that determine the process under study. |
It is advisable only in the case when the researcher knows the elements of the hypothesis to be tested. The artificiality of the experiment. Analytic and abstract. The complicating role of the influence of the experimenter. |
methodical Means to identify patterns Multiple and wide application. |
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auxiliary |
The type of survey methods used to obtain empirical information relating to objective or subjective facts. |
By number of respondents group individual by procedure 1) anonymous 2) personalized |
Ability to reach large groups. Applicability to various aspects of life. Good formalizability of results. Minimum influence of the researcher on the respondent. |
Indirect nature between the researcher and the researched. Inability to control the process of filling out the questionnaire. Questionnaire collection problem. |
used in psychology. |
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psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information from the latter. |
Structured (interview) semi-structured free |
Allows you to get no less reliable information than in observations about past and present events, about stable inclinations, motives for certain actions, about subjective states. |
You need to know how to ask, what questions to ask, how to make sure that you can trust the answers you receive. It is very important that the conversation does not turn into an interrogation, since its effectiveness in this case is very low. | |||
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a standardized task, the results of which are used to judge the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject. |
Psychological (have many classifications) Achievement Tests |
the ability to conduct a test in a very short time and cover it with a huge number of subjects |
The test method cannot give characteristics of abilities in all their qualitative originality, in which they differ in each individual person. The test should be: valid, reliable, homogeneous, reliable and predictive. |
Concept test James Cattell at the end of the 19th century, but wide spreading received only in the first half |
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Product Analysis |
Quantitative-qualitative analysis of documentary and material sources, allowing to study the products of human activity. |
The products of activity make it possible to see in them the most diverse mental qualities and personality traits, their level of development. The data help to deeper and comprehensively know the mental, emotional, volitional and characteristic qualities and personality traits. Provides important material for clinical psychologists |
It is necessary to carefully take into account the individual characteristics of people whose products of activity are collected and analyzed, the characteristics of their age, social status, profession. |
4. Psychological knowledge has existed for as long as humanity has existed.
Psycho. Knowledge is initially formed as knowledge about the inner world of a person and the history of his knowledge.
It is customary to distinguish 3 major stages.
Psychology as a science of the soul (6th century BC-16th century AD)
2) psychology as the science of consciousness (17th century-19th century)
Psycho. As a science of behavior, activities, personality, etc. (20-21 century)
ANTIQUITY
The main problem of the study of the soul
*search for fundamentals
* mind-body ratio
Soul and body exist independently of each other
Soul and body are inseparable
*problem of knowledge
Achievements of antiquity:
1) the language of psychology
2) the principles of scientific knowledge (the principle of determinism, causality, nothing comes from nowhere)
(principle of development, qualitative change)
MIDDLE AGES
Religion-Opposition-Science
Renaissance (16th century)
Beauty, harmony of soul and body
The soul is considered here as something supernatural, as “the animal in the animal, the man inside the man. The activity of an animal or a man is explained by the presence of this soul, and his calm in sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance represents the temporary, and death the permanent absence of the soul. Since death is the constant absence of the soul, one can protect oneself from it either by closing the exit from the body to the soul, or, if it has left it, by achieving its return. The precautions taken by savages to achieve one of these ends appear in the form of prohibitions or taboos, which are nothing more than rules designed to achieve the permanent presence or return of the soul.
In contrast, the very first scientific ideas about the soul are aimed at explaining the soul and its functions. They originated in ancient philosophy and constituted the doctrine of the soul. The doctrine of the soul is the first
Teaching about the soul
The question of the nature of the soul was decided by philosophers depending on their belonging
towards the materialist or idealist camp.
So, Democritus (460 - 370 BC) believed that the soul is a material
a substance that consists of atoms of fire, spherical, light and very
mobile. Democritus tried to explain all the phenomena of mental life with physical
and even mechanical reasons. So, in his opinion, the soul receives sensations
from the outside world due to the fact that its atoms are set in motion by atoms
air or atoms directly "flowing" from objects. Materialism
Democritus had a naive mechanistic character.
A much more complex idea of the soul was developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC).
BC e.). His treatise "On the Soul" is the first specially psychological
essay, which for many centuries remained the main guide to
psychology. Aristotle himself is rightfully considered the founder of psychology, as,
however, and a number of other sciences.
Aristotle rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he does not
considered it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies), as it
done by idealist philosophers. To determine the nature of the soul, he used
"... The soul," he wrote, "necessarily is the essence in the sense of the form of the natural
a body that is capable of life. Essence (as form) is
entelechy; therefore, the soul is the entelechy of such a body." One
the image attracted by Aristotle helps well to understand the meaning of this
definitions. “If the eye were a living being,” writes Aristotle, “then
his soul would be sight." So the soul is the essence of the living body,
"realization" of his being, just as vision is the essence and "realization"
eyes as an organ of vision.
Aristotle laid the deep foundations of the natural-scientific approach to the study
psyche. The Soviet philosopher V.F. Asmus characterizes him as a "genuine
father of the future materialistic psychology ". Main function
Souls, according to Aristotle, are the realization of the biological existence of an organism.
It must be said that such an idea was subsequently fixed for the concept
"psyche": from the point of view of materialistic natural science, the psyche appeared
one of the factors in the evolution of the animal world (see Lecture 11). As for
the concept of "soul", then it narrowed more and more to reflect mainly
ideal, "metaphysical" and ethical problems of human existence.
The foundations of such an understanding of the soul were laid by idealist philosophers, and before
all by Plato (427 - 347 BC). Let's get to know his perspective.
somewhat more detailed.
When one speaks of Plato, the name of another immediately appears on the scene.
the famous ancient philosopher - Socrates (470 - 399 BC). Why
do these two names appear together?
The fact is that Plato was a student of Socrates, and Socrates did not write a single
lines. He was a philosopher who preached his own views orally, in
the form of conversations.
Most likely, Plato's texts organically combined the views
both of these great philosophers.
In the texts of Plato, we find a view of the soul as an independent
substance; it exists alongside the body and independently of it. Soul -
the beginning is invisible, sublime, divine, eternal. The body is the beginning of the visible,
base, transient, perishable.
Soul and body are in complex relationship with each other. In my own way
divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, direct life
person. However, sometimes the body takes the soul into its fetters. The body is torn apart
different desires and passions. It takes care of sustenance, is subject to
ailments, fears, temptations. Wars and strife come from needs
body. It also interferes with pure knowledge.
In the views on how the soul and body are related to knowledge, it is clearly manifested
the idealism of Plato (he is the founder of objective idealism).
Plato postulates the original existence of the world of ideas. This world of ideas
exists outside of matter and outside of individual consciousness. He is
a set of abstract ideas - ideas about the essence of objects in the external world.
There are ideas of virtue in general, beauty in general, justice in general.
What happens on earth in the daily life of people is only a reflection,
shadow of these general ideas. True knowledge is a gradual penetration into the world
ideas. But in order to partake of it, the soul must be freed from
body influence. In any case, she should not blindly trust the testimony.
sense organs.
At death, the soul is separated
with the body, and depending on what kind of life a person led, his soul
a different fate awaits: she will either wander near the earth, weighed down
bodily elements, or fly off the earth into an ideal world.
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE
The history of the Middle Ages covers a long period: from the 5th to the 16th centuries. and the first half of the 17th century. In historical science, it is defined as the era of the emergence, development and decline of a new social structure - feudalism.
In Aristotelian psychology, which determined the development of the doctrine of the soul up to the 17th century, the object of study was all the vital manifestations of the organism. Because of this, the psychological system of Aristotle is often called psychobiology. In connection with the development of anatomical and physiological knowledge about the structure and work of the body, the concept of the soul becomes redundant for explaining most of the phenomena of the vital activity of the body. Great discoveries and inventions in various fields of science and technology paved new paths of scientific knowledge. Experience, experiment, induction, mathematics are now the means of obtaining and explaining facts.
Method is a way, a way of knowing, through which an object is known
science (S. L. Rubinshtein).
Methods of scientific research are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information that is used further to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are.
All of the above applies to psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and peculiar, so difficult to study, that throughout the history of this science its success has directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it turned out to be integrated methods of various sciences: philosophy and sociology, physiology and medicine, biology and history, etc.
Method of psychology- this is a way of knowing internal mental phenomena through the analysis of external psychological factors.
Methods of psychological research reveal a dependence on the basic theoretical principles implemented by psychology and the specific tasks that it solves. common goal of all methods of psychological research lies in accurate registration, identification, fixation of psychological facts, in the accumulation of empirical, experimental data for subsequent theoretical analysis.
Thanks to the application of the methods of natural and exact sciences, psychology, starting from the second half of the 19th century, stood out as an independent science and began to develop actively. Until that moment, psychological knowledge was obtained mainly through introspection (self-observation), observation of the behavior of other people (for example, diary entries), speculative reasoning. However, the subjectivity of these methods, their lack of reliability and complexity caused psychology to remain for a long time a philosophizing, non-experimental science capable of suggesting, but not proving, causal relationships between psychological phenomena.
The intention to make psychological science a more accurate and practically useful science was associated with the introduction of a laboratory experiment. Since the second half of the 19th century, attempts have been made to quantify psychological phenomena. One of the first such attempts was the discovery of a series of laws that relate the strength of human sensations to the stimuli expressed in physical quantities that act on the body. These include the laws of Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, Stevens, which are mathematical formulas that determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the absolute and relative thresholds of sensations. The end of the 19th century is considered the initial stage in the development of differential psychological research, in which methods of mathematical statistics began to be used to identify common psychological properties and abilities that distinguish people from each other.
Today, in the course of psychological research, methods such as observation, experiment in its various forms, conversation, analysis of the products of children's activities, tests and socio-psychological methods are used. As a rule, several methods are used in specific studies that mutually complement and control each other. Specific research methods are based on methodological principles based on the theoretical principles of science. Any research method bears the stamp of one theory or another, which determines the choice of the object of study and the methods for deciphering the results obtained. Based on the characteristics of the object, subject and objectives of the study, certain variants of the main methods are developed - a methodology for studying certain aspects of the development of the child's psyche. The success of the research largely depends on the methodological ingenuity of the researcher, on his ability to choose such a combination of methods that exactly corresponds to the tasks set.
2.5.2. Classification of methods
There are several approaches to the classification of methods of psychological research. B. G. Ananiev identifies the following 4 groups of methods: v. Organizational Methods include: comparative method(comparison of different groups of subjects by age, type of activity, etc.), longitudinal method(examination of the same persons over a long period of time) and complex(representatives of different sciences participate in the study, one object is studied by different means), which combines the advantages of both of the above methods.
2. Empirical Methods - These are methods of collecting primary information. Include:
observational methods(observation and self-observation):
" different kinds experiment(laboratory, field, natural, ascertaining, forming);
psychodiagnostic methods(standardized tests, projective tests, conversation, interviews, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry);
praximetric methods- these are methods for analyzing processes and products of activity: chronometry, cyclography, professiogram, evaluation of products of activity;
modeling:
biographical method.
3. Data processing methods include: methods of quantitative(statistical) and quality(differentiation of material by groups, their analysis) analysis, allowing to establish patterns hidden from direct perception.
4. Interpretation methods, involving various methods of explaining patterns identified as a result of statistical processing of data, and their comparison with previously established facts. These include:
. genetic method- involves the study of genetic relationships (phylogenetic, ontogenetic, genetic and sociogenetic). the so-called research "in depth";
. structural(classification, tapologization) method: psychography, typological classification, psychological profile - research "in breadth".
The classification of research methods proposed by B. G. Ananyev is shown in Scheme 7.
A more simplified classification is offered by I. B. Grinshpun, according to which research methods are divided into non-experimental(various types of observation, survey, questioning, conversation, analysis of activity products), experimental(experimental method and its various modifications) and psychodiagnostic ( various tests) (Scheme 8).
R. S. Nemov proposes the following classification of methods: the main methods of psychological research and their variants used to collect primary data are shown in Scheme 9.
The above classifications of research methods are different in their structure, but the content of the methods does not differ.
Classification of research methods according to R. S. Nemov
2.5.3. Characteristics of methods
1. Non-experimental methods
Observation is a systematic, purposeful, deliberate and specially organized perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded in one form or another by the observer. Observation is the main, most common empirical method in psychology for a purposeful systematic study of a person.
At first, psychologists' observations of their own children appeared, drawn up in the form of notes and diaries (V. Preyer, V. Stern, J. Piaget, N. A. Rybnikov, N. A. Menchinskaya, V. S. Mukhina, etc.). However, it should be noted that the observations of different authors were carried out for different purposes, as a result of which it is difficult to compare them with each other. Then scientific institutions began to appear, where this method was the main one. So, P. M. Shchelovanov organized in 1920 in Leningrad a child development clinic, in which mainly foundlings and orphans lived, the development of which was monitored around the clock.
Attention should be paid to the fact that observation becomes a method of ihological study only if it is not limited to a description of external phenomena (as was the case in the first diary entries), but makes a transition to explaining their psychological nature of these phenomena. The essence of observation is not merely the recording of facts, but the scientific explanation of the causes of these psychological facts.
The possibility of using this method of the natural sciences in psychology is based on the methodological principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. It is well known that the human psyche is formed and manifested in its activity - in actions, words, facial expressions, etc. On the basis of external manifestations, we judge internal processes and states.
Observation in psychological research is used in various options:
observation as an activity
Observation as a method;
Observation as a private technique (technology).
The main features of observation as a method of psychological research are purposefulness and mediation (observation not directly, but through something). In this case, the researcher does not interfere in the course of the mental manifestations of the subjects, as a result of which they proceed naturally. However, this “non-interference” position of the observer has not only positive, but also negative consequences. In particular, not every even specially recorded perception of children's behavior can be considered a scientific observation. To become a genuine method of scientific research, observation must be correctly constructed (the purpose and objectives of the research must be clearly formulated).
Disadvantages inherent in observation as a method of scientific research:
Large time costs due to the passivity of the observer. Difficult
to anticipate when something important from the point of view of the investigated sample will appear;
lemmas; at the same time, some phenomena are completely inaccessible to observation.
The uniqueness and originality of the observed phenomena.
Difficulty in establishing the cause of the phenomenon (confluence of observed factors with
passing phenomena, as well as many unaccounted for conditions).
Subjectivity of the researcher. The danger of subjectivism increases as
tea, if the researcher not only records in the protocol what he
perceives, but also expresses his opinion about what is happening. This type of record
M. Ya. Basov called "interpretive".
The need to take into account the cultural and mental characteristics of the object
observations.
Difficulty in statistical data processing.
» Labor input. To implement the observation requires a high psychological education of the researcher and a huge investment of time. However, this method also has its own unconditional bostoinsteas:
Universal character.
Observation flexibility.
“Modesty” of observation (at the moment, however, it is outdated, because a video camera is needed).
Does not distort the natural course of mental processes.
The wealth of information collected. Thanks to observation, the concrete life of a certain person unfolds before the researcher, which can be compared with other specific observations and draw appropriate conclusions.
Monitoring must be systematic and planned. It is necessary to draw up a detailed program of what kind of people will be observed, on what days and hours of the day the observation is carried out, what moments of life will be observed, etc., i.e. answer questions about the object and subject of research. Of great importance is the development of an observation scheme, which is drawn up only after a preliminary study of the object and subject of research. The results are recorded in the protocol, after which they are subjected to mathematical processing. All this makes it possible, to some extent, to overcome the shortcomings of observation as a method.
At present, to achieve objectivity and accuracy of observation, such technical means as filming, tape recorder, and photography are also used. To clarify the result of the observation, a scale is used, on which the intensity of the course of a particular mental phenomenon is noted: strong, medium, weak, etc.
An important methodological problem in the implementation of observation is the question of the interaction between the researcher and the subjects: the subject must not know that he has become the object of study, otherwise the naturalness of behavior, which is the main advantage of the method, is lost. As a "cap of invisibility" the "mirror of Gesell" is used, included observation (when the observer becomes a familiar person for the observed, in which they behave naturally).
Depending on the object of observation, the following types are distinguished:
Self-observation - a method of observing a person for himself on the basis of
reflective thinking. As an object of self-observation can act
put goals, motives, results of activity. This method is the basis
self-reports. The disadvantages of the method include its subjectivity, due to
Why self-observation is used most often as an additional method;
Objective observation (external observation) - observation of another
person from the side.
In psychology, various methods of organizing objective observation can be used (Scheme 10).
Ways to organize objective observation
| Direct Indirect (carried out by the researcher himself, (using the results of observations directly observing prepared by other people: communication of the phenomenon and process being studied) educators, film, magnetic, video recordings) |
| Explicit (open) Hidden flowing in the conditions of a conscious fact (with the help of the “Gesell mirror”) of the presence of outsiders) |
| Included (involved) Not included (involved) (the observer acts as a member of the observed (the researcher observes the group, analyzes the event "from the inside") from the outside) |
| Systematic (continuous) Non-systematic (selective, (regular observation during an op-random) certain period, all (one manifestation of mental activity is observed) mental phenomenon) |
| Long-term (longitudinal) Short-term (during Single (for a long period of time) once) |
| Causal (causal) (for any Episodic specific case) (fix individual facts of behavior) |
Observation as a private technique involves:
Purpose and program of observation;
The presence of the object and situation of observation;
Obviously, in concrete psychological research almost never any one method is used. Each stage of the study requires the use of its own method or a combination of several. Usually, in psychological research with children who already speak, a conversation is used, which makes it possible to establish how the child himself understands this or that situation, what he thinks about it.
Conversation - this is a non-experimental method of psychological research, which provides for the direct or indirect accumulation of information through verbal (verbal) communication. A conversation can be used not only as a method of collecting primary information about a person in the process of communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions, But and as a method of studying and elucidating the individual psychological characteristics of a person (inclinations, interests, degree of upbringing, a person’s attitude to life phenomena, his own actions, etc.).
The conversation is distinguished by a relatively free construction of a plan, a mutual exchange of opinions and proposals. It takes place in the form of personal communication according to a specially designed program. The strength of the conversation is in the live contact between the researcher and the subject, in the possibility of individualizing questions, varying them, using additional clarifications, and in the possibility of promptly diagnosing the reliability and completeness of the answers.
During the conversation, the following style / questions:
Approximately psychological - used to relieve stress, for
moving from one topic to another;
Filter questions - provide an opportunity to find out some details from life
test subjects;
Control questions - checking the reliability of the information received.
The advantage of a well-designed conversation or other survey is not only that they give more reliable results, but also that children's answers can be processed statistically. Thus, in mass surveys, the results of which are then statistically processed, a standardized conversation with precisely formulated questions is used. At the same time, each question has a clear target setting, which then makes it possible to carry out a meaningful interpretation of the answers.
One type of conversation is an interview. This is one of the oldest and most widespread methods of obtaining information about people, which should be understood as systematic actions with a specific scientific goal, during which the subject must be moved to report verbal information using a series of conditional questions or verbal stimuli. An interview as a specific form of conversation can be used to obtain information not only about the interviewee himself, who knows about it, but also about other people, events, etc.
The interview can be divided into structured And unstructured. IN Interview questions of the first type are carefully formulated and skillfully arranged in the right order. In an unstructured interview, on the contrary, the questions are structured like this. so that the subject remains a certain freedom in the answers.
Interviews can be taken not only from an individual, i.e. it can be carried out not only in individual form, but also in group. A group interview approaches in form a group discussion.
The interview method can be a rich source of information. However, the interpretation of the data obtained is sometimes subjective and may be influenced by the bias of the interviewer. In addition, the personality of the interviewer may imperceptibly affect how open and sincere the subject will be during the interview. The latter fact is associated with the possible concealment and distortion of vital information. However, despite this, the interview, especially supplemented with information from more objective sources, is one of the most important methods for assessing a person.
A survey is a method of obtaining information about the studied individual, group in the course of direct (interview) or indirect (questionnaire, questionnaire) communication between the experimenter and the respondent, i.e. subject. The purpose of the survey is to reveal the opinions, attitudes, ideas of a person about himself, the people around him, and phenomena of reality.
Questionnaires will be discussed more fully in the section "Psychodiagnostic methods".
Questioning (questionnaire)
Questioning is an empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to questions specially prepared and corresponding to the main task of the study.
The questionnaire is a questionnaire containing a system of questions inserted in a certain way, taking into account the content of the questions, the form of their presentation (open, requiring a full detailed answer, and closed, requiring a “yes” or “no” answer), as well as the number and order. The order of the questions is most often determined by the method of random numbers
Questioning can be oral or written, carried out in individual or group forms, but in all cases it must meet the requirements of representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.
Analysis products (results) of activity (creativity) - This is a research method that allows you to indirectly study the formation of knowledge and skills, interests and abilities of a person based on an analysis of the products of his activity. This is a method of indirect empirical study of a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of material and ideal (texts, music, painting, etc.) products of his activity.
The peculiarity of this method is V that the researcher does not come into contact with the subject himself, but deals with the products of his previous activity. The use of this method is based on the methodological principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, according to which the human psyche e only formed, but also manifested in activity.
The study of labor products consists in the psychological analysis of various crafts, drawings, essays, creative works, etc. This method is widely used in educational psychology in the form of analysis of essays, abstracts, comments, speeches, etc., in child psychology - in the form of analysis of drawings, crafts and etc.
By the quality of the products of activity, one can draw a conclusion about the accuracy, responsibility, and accuracy of the subject. An analysis of the quantity and quality of products over a certain period of time makes it possible to detect the period of the highest duration of labor, the onset of fatigue, and draw conclusions about the best mode of labor.
Viewing pictures or drawings drawn by the subject can be of great help. V determining his abilities in artistic creativity, developed skills, the level of development of creative capabilities. When studying drawings, their plot, content, manner of depiction, as well as the drawing process itself (time spent on drawing, degree of enthusiasm), etc. are analyzed.
Sociometry(social measurement) - is a research method that allows you to study emotionally direct relationships within a small group, developed by J. Moreno. Test modification done I. L. Kolominsky. Sociometry serves as a means of obtaining data on how members of a small social group relate to each other on the basis of mutual likes and dislikes.
The main methodological tool of sociometry is the so-called sociometric test (sociometric choice test). It is made up of questions (selection criteria) addressed to each member of a particular social group.
Form of carrying out: individual and group. Depending on the age composition of the groups and the specifics of the research tasks, various options for the research procedures themselves are used: “Choice in action”, “Congratulate a comrade”. The data obtained during the study are entered into a sociometric matrix, on the basis of which a sociogram is compiled - a special drawing, a diagram that reflects a complete picture of relationships, mutual and unilateral elections, expected elections, and various coefficients of relations are calculated.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"IZHEVSK STATE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY"
APPROVE
Vice Rector for Academic AffairsProfessor____ P.B. Akmarov
"____" ____________ 2010
Compiled by Zhuchenko O.A. IzhevskFGOU VPO Izhevsk State Agricultural Academy
Content
| Topic 1. | Psychology as a science………………………………………………………….. | 3 |
| Topic 2 | Psychology of Personality……………………………………………………….. | 4 |
| Topic 3. | Psychological properties, processes and states……………………….. | 5 |
| Topic 4. | Features of mental cognitive processes…………………... | 7 |
| Topic 5. | Psychology of communication………………………………………………………... | 9 |
| Topic 6. | Psychology of small groups…………………………………………………… | 10 |
| Topic 7. | Pedagogy as a science………………………………………………………... | 10 |
| Topic 8. | Training and education: principles and methods…………………………….. | 11 |
| Topic 9. | The family as a socio-cultural environment for the upbringing and development of the individual………………………………………………………………… .. | 13 |
Topic 1. Psychology as a science
The ways in which the subject of science is known are called:
2. The main way to obtain new knowledge in scientific psychology is: experiment;
The psyche is the subject of study: domestic psychology.
The study of the psyche through oral communication is called: the method of conversation;
The creator of the first psychological system, set forth in the treatise "On the Soul", is: Aristotle;
The branch of psychology that studies the cognitive processes of the individual is: general psychology;
The object of study of psychology is: the psyche;
Psychology is the science of the patterns of development and functioning: the psyche.
The general concept that unites many subjective phenomena studied by psychology as a science is: the psyche;
The method of psychology used by registering behavioral acts that reveal mental processes is: observation;
The method of psychology, characterized by active intervention in the situation by the researcher, is: experiment;
The branch of psychology that studies the regularities of the stages of mental development and personality formation throughout human ontogenesis is: developmental psychology;
Psychology deals with the study of individual differences between people: differential;
A direction in psychology that denies consciousness and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior is called: behaviorism;
The founder of the direction of psychology, who considers unconscious drives and instincts to be the source of personality activity: Z. Freud.
Psychological system for the analysis of mental life, proposed by Z. Freud: depth psychology (psychoanalysis);
The concept of psychology, according to behaviorism, is understood as a set of muscular reactions to external stimuli: behavior;
According to Z. Freud, the main form of the relationship between consciousness and the unconscious as parts of the human psyche is: conflict;
In the center … humanistic psychology - the problem of the formation of personality, the need for creative self-realization.
The general quality of living matter to interact with the environment is called: activity;
The property of the brain, which provides a person and animals with the ability to reflect the impact of objects and phenomena of the real world, is: the psyche;
The author of the theory of the evolution of the psyche in phylogenesis adopted in Russian psychology is: A.N. Leontiev.
A specialized method of psychology, with which you can obtain a quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon under study, characterized by a standardized procedure for collecting, processing data and interpreting: test;
The science of the laws, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of man and animals is called: psychology;
The highest level of mental reflection and self-regulation, inherent only to man, is called: consciousness;
That content of the psyche, which under no circumstances can enter the sphere of consciousness, Z. Freud called: unconscious;
Consciousness: only human has.
29.A.N. Leontiev defined as an objective biological criterion for the emergence of the psyche: sensitivity;
30. Political psychology studies: psychological components of the political life of society; political consciousness and behavior of subjects of political processes.
Topic 2. Psychology of personality
What characteristics describe a person as an individual?
What characteristics describe a person as a person?
Human properties due to biological factors: inclinations;
Socially conditioned personal properties are: value relations;
According to the teachings of Z. Freud, the structure of the psyche, which acts as an internal censor, a source of moral feelings, is called: super-ego;
The lower sphere of the psyche, which includes attraction and impulses that have a decisive influence on thoughts and feelings, Z. Freud defined as: it;
The social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication is defined in psychology as: personality;
The concept of self-assessment is used to denote: an assessment by a person of his capabilities, qualities;
The individuality of a person is: the originality of the psychological properties of a person;
A person as a person is characterized by the following properties: value orientations, status, role;
A person as an individual is characterized by: gender, age, constitution;
In domestic psychology, personality is: a person developing in society, in the system of social relations.
The structure of personality, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, includes: abilities, character, orientation;
Needs are the source... activity personalities:
Needs are found in... motives motivating to action:
According to the concept of A. Maslow, if the need for security is satisfied, there is a need for ...: affection, love;
The “meeting” of a psychological need with an object of the external environment that satisfies this need is called: objectification;
The way of performing actions is called: operation;
The main source of individual activity, the internal state of need, expressing its dependence on the conditions of existence, is: need;
An incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of a certain need is: a motive;
The way to perform an action that has become automated as a result of exercises is: a skill.
Behavior as a type of activity includes: the presence of conscious control;
Activities as a type of activity include: the presence of a goal;
Skills brought to automatism are called: skills;
Innate needs are: vital.
Topic 3. Mental properties, processes and states
The property of the nervous system, which determines the ability of cells to withstand large overloads, means: the strength of the nervous system;
The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity belongs to: I.P. Pavlov;
Determine the type of temperament in Eeyore ("Winnie the Pooh and all, all, all"): melancholic.
Determine the type of temperament in Kolobok: choleric;
Determine the type of temperament in Little Red Riding Hood: sanguine;
The totality of stable individual characteristics is: character;
Extreme variants of the norm of character are called: accentuations;
Special abilities are those that are associated with: individual activities;
The physiological basis of temperament is: the type of higher nervous activity;
The dynamics of mental life is determined by: temperament;
Temperature being... congenital, is the basis of most personality traits;
The type of temperament, characterized by mobility, poise, sociability, is: sanguine;
A representative of a temperamental group, who is especially sensitive and has difficulty communicating with unfamiliar people, is: melancholic;
Identify the type in the following personality description: “Emotionally mature, stable, unflappable girl. Serious. Conscious, persistent, obligatory. A calm mood prevails, it is difficult to piss her off. Confident in yourself and your abilities. Easily switches from one activity to another. Sociable ": sanguine;
The most significant role in the formation of character is played by: actions;
The abilities that determine the success of a person in certain types of activity (mathematical, literary, technical, etc.) are: special;
Children with such a temperament cause the most problems for teachers with their discipline: choleric;
The properties of temperament are: biological properties;
Character traits, manifested in activities, are: initiative, diligence, efficiency;
Feelings, according to A.N. Leontiev, are of the following nature: objective, active;
Conscious regulation by a person of his behavior and activities, aimed at overcoming difficulties, is: will;
A persistent, long-term emotional state with great strength of feelings is: passion;
The emergence of motivation and goal setting, the struggle of motives, decision-making and execution are phases ... of the volitional process;
The ability of a person to act in the direction of a consciously set goal, while overcoming internal obstacles, is: will.
The experiences that arise in a person under the influence of the general state of the body and the process of satisfying needs are: emotions;
Of the listed types of emotions, passions are called: a strongly expressed passion of a person for someone or something, accompanied by deep feelings;
A negative emotional state that manifests itself when the subject receives information about possible damage, about real or imagined danger, is: fear;
What emotional state is described? “About midnight, M.'s neighbors, young spouses, raised a fuss in their room, danced, ran after each other, and finally fell into their bed. The thin plywood partition separating their room from M.'s room collapsed. From this noise, the child woke up and began to scream wildly. Suddenly, M. fell into a sharply excited state, changed his face, shouted something incoherently, pushed his wife away from him, rushed into the corridor, attacked a neighbor who was standing and struck him several times with a stick on the head. Then, screaming, he ran to his room, threw himself on the bed, and lay in oblivion for some time. When I woke up and learned about what had happened, I was very surprised, because I did not remember anything. There were no clashes with the beaten man before”: affect.
The degree of necessary volitional effort to achieve the goal is: willpower;
What function of the will manifests itself in the following situation: “Student Igor has been studying anatomy all night before the exam. The Latin names for muscles, bones, and nerves are confused and forgotten, but Igor encourages himself with the thought that he must pass this last exam so as not to lose his scholarship”: incentive;
What function of the will manifests itself in the following situation: “The waiter of the Modern-on-Upe restaurant, Georges Berezkin, was verbally insulted by the tipsy Pierre Afonkin, he was doused with Zhirinovsky vodka, received a serving of salad a la Caesar in his face, and about his tuxedo Pierre wiped his hands. Nevertheless, the waiter Berezkin steadfastly endured what he had done, counting on a generous tip”: braking;
A strong emotional state of an explosive nature, which is characterized by a violation of volitional control, is: affect;
The function of feelings, expressed in the fact that experiences arise and change in connection with ongoing changes in the environment and conditions, is: a signal function;
The feelings that a person experiences when perceiving the phenomena of reality from the point of view of morality are ... moral feelings;
Which of the following heroes refers to extroverts: Winnie the Pooh; Snow White; Ostap Bender; all answers are correct;
Which of the following heroes refers to introverts: Emelya; cat Matroskin; The Snow Queen; all answers are correct;
The properties of temperament are those indicated, except for: accuracy.
The typological properties of the nervous system include the following, except for: vulnerability;
Character traits are specified, except for: impressionability;
Which, from the point of view of psychology, of the following characteristics refers to abilities: the ability to versify; pedagogical abilities;
Which, from the point of view of psychology, of the following characteristics does not apply to abilities: the ability to recognize odors; ability to speak; ability to walk upright; all answers are correct;
Select from the following states of feeling: joy; fright; astonishment; all answers are wrong.
Topic 4. Features of mental cognitive processes
Such mental phenomena as memory, thinking and speech are related to: cognitive processes;
The strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called ... the threshold: the lower absolute;
The ability to sense is available: in all living beings with a nervous system;
A change in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called: sensitization;
Sensation is a mental process consisting in: reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world;
Mental processes include: sensation.
The remote type of receptors includes: vision;
Changes in the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of internal and external factors are: sensitization;
Of the listed types of sensations, auditory and visual include only: distant;
The reflection in the mind of a person of objects or phenomena in the aggregate of their properties is called: perception;
Arbitrary perception: has social roots;
Distorted, incorrect perception of objects that really exist and act on the senses is called: illusion;
Perception without an object in the absence of external stimuli is: a hallucination.
In short-term memory at the same time is on average: 7 elements;
The memorization technique, which consists in translating information into verses, lines, is called: rhythmization;
The form of reproduction of information, which is carried out in the absence of perception of the object, is: memory;
The type of memory, characterized by the ability to retain relevant information until the moment of need, is called: random access memory;
Memory is a mental process, which consists in: a mechanism for fixing information acquired and used by a living organism;
Arbitrary memory involves: remembering with the help of volitional efforts.
Retention of information in memory for a very short time refers to:
The type of memory that provides processing and storage of information with the special purpose of remembering is: arbitrary memory;
What kind of memory works in the following situation: “The air traffic controller focuses on the image of a moving point on the screen for several minutes, and after the plane lands, he immediately forgets about it, switching his attention to the next one”: operational;
What kind of memory works in the following situation: “When typing on a typewriter, as soon as a letter is typed, a person immediately forgets it in order to move on to the next one”: instantaneous;
By the nature of the tasks to be solved, ... theoretical and practical; thinking:
The main operations of thinking include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concretization;
The coefficient of intelligence is: a quantitative indicator indicating the general level of development of the individual's thinking;
The motive, the beginning of the movement of thinking is the emergence of ... situations: problematic.
Thinking, based on the direct perception of objects and their transformation, is: visual and effective;
Thinking, based on representations and images of situations and changes in them, is: visual-figurative;
A mental operation based on the allocation of essential properties and relationships of objects and abstraction from non-essential properties is: abstraction;
The totality of all mental abilities that provide a person with the opportunity to solve various problems is: intelligence;
The automatic process of translating thoughts into words and vice versa is called: inner speech;
The mental association of objects and phenomena according to their general and essential properties is: generalization;
The type of soundless speech, characterized by the extreme curtailment of structure and content and being the main tool of thinking, is: inner speech;
The property of speech, characterized by the volume of thoughts expressed in it, provided by the preparedness of the speaker, is: content;
The technique of imagination, with the help of which the essential, repeating in homogeneous images, is singled out, is: typification;
The technique of imagination, with the help of which certain features are emphasized, is: accentuation;
Recreating imagination is associated with the creation of: an image of an object according to its description;
The technique of imagination, with the help of which the connection of qualities, properties and parts of objects that are not connected in reality, is called: agglutination;
The mental process, characterized by the creation of images based on previously formed ideas, is called: imagination;
Imagination is the basis of ... thinking: visual-figurative;
Creativity is a special mental process, the result of which are: new material and spiritual values;
Imagination, which involves the independent creation of special images that are realized in original and valuable products of activity, is: creative imagination;
The images of the desired, created in the imagination, which do not contradict reality and can be realized, are: a dream;
Unrealizable images and thoughts created in the imagination, contradicting reality, are: dreams;
The technique of imagination, with the help of which the technique of creating creative images of the imagination by exaggerating parts or objects, is called: hyperbolization.
Active imagination includes: aimed at solving a creative or personal problem; images aimed at a way to resolve the situation; dreams; all answers are correct;
Passive imagination includes: dreams; dreams; dormant images; all answers are correct;
The orienting reflex is considered as an objective, innate sign of:) involuntary attention;
The concentration of consciousness on any object, phenomenon, experience provides: attention;
An example of the work of what property of attention is the situation described by M. Gorky: “Here, in Berlin, one lady shows tricks: with both hands at the same time she writes different phrases in different languages - English, German, French. He even does this: he takes two pencils in his hands, a fifth in his teeth and simultaneously writes 5 different words in different languages”: distribution;
The property of attention, which is manifested in the speed of its transfer from one object to another, is: switchability;
The simplest and initial form of involuntary attention is ... reflex: orientation;
Self-arising attention, caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new stimulus, is called: involuntary attention;
Conscious concentration on certain information, requiring volitional efforts, is called voluntary attention.
Prolonged focus on an object is: stability.
The psychological process, manifested in concentration on a relatively narrow area of external and internal reality, is: attention;
Performing two types of activity simultaneously, if one is at least partially automated, is: distribution;
Topic 5. Psychology of communication
Do you think that facial expressions and gestures are: a spontaneous expression of a person's state of mind at this particular moment; addition to speech; the imprint of culture and origin, which is difficult to hide; all answers are correct;
Non-verbal communication is the process of communication with the help of: facial expressions and gestures;
The perception of a person by a person has a special name: social perception;
The interaction of people and the exchange of actions in communication is: interaction;
When people see a person for the first time, they pay attention first of all to: appearance.
Most of the gestures and postures used are: passed down from generation to generation;
Facial expressions and gestures that mean the same thing all over the world are: when they smile;
Communication as one of the aspects of interpersonal communication is: information exchange;
Interaction as one of the aspects of interpersonal communication is: the interaction of individuals.
The ability to confirm your value in the process of communication refers to ... communication functions: confirming;
Verbal communication is the process of communication with the help of: language;
Non-verbal communication is the process of communication with the help of: gestures;
The distance that allows people to be at arm's length from each other is called: intimate zone;
Chronic, transient, situational - these are the types: loneliness;
Strict, definite rules of behavior, less intimacy, more rationality - this is the difference: friendship from love;
Topic 6. Psychology of small groups
A group where interpersonal relations are mediated by the socially valuable and personally significant nature of the activity is: a team;
A reference group is: a group whose values a person adheres to;
The process of likening oneself to another, identifying oneself with others is called: identification;
Determine your leadership style. “Stepan Lunin trusts his subordinates and skillfully distributes duties between them. Stepan is always ready to listen to criticism addressed to him and treats it with humor. He supports the undertakings of the young and respects the experience of the elders. No matter in the department is resolved without careful discussion. He often praises employees for their small achievements than condemns them for incompetence and mistakes”: democratic;
Determine your leadership style. “Maxim Ternin is in charge of the advertising department and is constantly looking for the best advertising images and slogans. He then rises to the heights of creative rapture, then plunges into the abyss of despair. But when the idea is embodied, he demands from his subordinates the most accurate implementation of it, gets angry and threatens if he notices inaccuracies and deviations from his plan. He often clashes with Anna Genina that she is not able to physically adjust to the level of tension in the department, and Gennady Pertsov was made a "scapegoat": authoritarian;
Behavior in which a person agrees with the opinion of the majority contrary to his point of view is called: conformism;
Formal groups include: patients in one ward; graduate students of one professor; student group; all answers are correct;
Informal groups include: a circle of cutting and sewing; yard domino players; mafia; all answers are correct;
Social roles are related to: social position; the behavior that members of the group expect from a person; their approval or disapproval in society; all answers are correct;
Who do you think Carlson is? leader;
Who do you think Winnie the Pooh is? leader;
Who do you think Jesus Christ is? leader;
Identification, suggestion, imitation, conformism are: mechanisms of socialization;
The interpersonal relations of the members of the team form ... the team: an informal structure;
Relationships between team members based on emotional attachments and interests are called: interpersonal;
Topic 7. Pedagogy as a science
The main categories of pedagogy are: education, upbringing, training;
Social pedagogy arose on the basis of the connection of pedagogy with: sociology.
The process and result of quantitative and qualitative changes in the human body is: development;
The section of pedagogy that studies the laws and principles of the organization of the upbringing process is called: the theory of upbringing;
The study of the patterns of functioning of the educational systems of various countries is engaged in ... comparative pedagogy.
The science that studies the patterns of influence of the social environment on the formation of personality is called ... social pedagogy.
The object of pedagogy are: all pedagogical processes and phenomena;
The purposeful interaction of the teacher and students, as a result of which the knowledge, skills and abilities of students are formed, is called learning;
The process of purposeful transfer of socially significant experience by previous generations to the next is called: development; education.
Education is about... social personality development factors:;
The process of becoming a person under the influence of external and internal, controlled and unmanaged, social and natural factors is called: development;
The process and result of students mastering the system of scientific knowledge and experience of cognitive activity is called: education.
The characteristic of the achieved level of education of a person is defined as result education;
Forms of education in Russia: full-time, part-time, part-time;
The central element of the education system of the Russian Federation is: general secondary education;
Schools, lyceums, gymnasiums are institutions of: general education;
Basic general education corresponds to: 5-9 grades;
Universities are educational institutions… higher professional education;
Vocational schools belong to educational institutions… initial vocational education;
A general education institution of an advanced type with a complicated curriculum is called: a gymnasium;
Technical schools and colleges are institutions of ... vocational education: secondary;
Postgraduate and doctoral studies refer to institutions: postgraduate professional education;
The pedagogical profession belongs to the group of professions: person - person;
The object of the teacher's professional activity is: a person;
26. A special branch of pedagogy that develops the foundations, principles, methods, forms, means of teaching and educating children with hearing impairments is called: deaf pedagogy;
27. Components of the pedagogical process: purpose, content, activity, result.
Topic 8. Training and education: principles and methods
Forms of organization of educational activities: lesson, lecture, seminar;
The use of various examples, illustrations, demonstrations, laboratory and practical work in the learning process allows you to implement the principle: visibility;
Taking into account the age characteristics of students when choosing the content and methods of teaching is an example of the implementation of the principle ... accessibility learning;
A book that lays out the foundations of scientific knowledge in a particular academic subject is called a textbook.
Additional educational institutions include: music and art schools, houses of children's creativity;
The most economical way of transferring educational information, in which the material is presented in a concentrated and logical way, is: a lecture;
A training session in the form of a collective discussion and discussion of reports and abstracts is called: a seminar;
Verbal teaching methods include: conversation, story, lecture, explanation;
The method of teaching, based on the independent conduct of experiments by students, experiments using devices and tools, is called: laboratory work.
The task of a standardized form, the implementation of which characterizes the level of assimilation of educational material, is called: test;
Orientation towards the greatest independence of students in educational and cognitive activity is characteristic of: a seminar.
The form of education, which provides for an in-depth study of academic subjects at the choice and desire of students, is called: elective;
The formation of professional skills and knowledge, the application of knowledge in real activities is the goal of: industrial practice;
The time spent, mode and duration are not regulated and depend on the abilities of the student and the specific conditions when performing ... home work;
The formation of personality traits that meet the requirements of public morality is the goal ... moral education;
Moral education is based on: universal values;
The conscious activity of a person to improve himself as a person is called: self-education;
The formation of the ability to perceive and understand the beautiful, the development of inclinations and abilities in the field of art is the goal ... aesthetic education;
The development of a person’s intellectual abilities, interest in knowing the world around him and himself is the goal ... mental education;
The development and preparation of a conscientious, responsible and creative attitude to various types of work is the goal ... labor education;
Knowledge and adherence to the basics of a healthy lifestyle is the essence ... physical education;
Punishment belongs to the group of methods: stimulation;
Encouragement belongs to the group of methods: stimulation;
Encouragement as a method of pedagogical influence is: an expression of a positive assessment of the actions of pupils;
The exercise refers to the methods of: organizing the activities and experience of the student;
The methods of stimulation and motivation of the pupil include: encouragement, punishment, competition;
Orders, instructions, instructions refer to: direct pedagogical requirements;
Request, advice, hint refer to: indirect pedagogical requirements;
Demonstration of a pattern of behavior by a teacher or parent refers to the method: example;
The principles of the pedagogical process are defined as: a system of basic requirements for training and education;
A specialist who conducts educational and educational work with students in a college and vocational school is called: a teacher;
The use of practical teaching methods in the pedagogical process contributes to the implementation of the principle: the formation of knowledge and skills in the unity;
Proper organization of the number and frequency of exercises, taking into account the individual differences of students, structuring the content, highlighting the main thing, designating logical connections, systematic control - the rules for implementing the principle: strength.
Topic 9. Family as a sociocultural environment for the upbringing and development of the individual
Family functions: reproductive; organization of leisure and recreation; educational; all answers are correct;
The objective factors influencing the development of personality include: the number of children in the family; acceleration of physical development; media influence; all answers are correct;
The function of the family, due to the need to continue the human race, is called: reproductive;
A family that includes parents and three children is called: nuclear;
A family that includes parents and one child is called: small;
Determining a person's lifestyle, the level of his claims, life aspirations refers to ... educational family functions;
Hyper-custody in family education leads to indecision and lack of initiative in children, to rebellion against parental authority.
9. The erroneous basis of raising children in the family: the satisfaction of all the desires of the child;
reference edition
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Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Peter", 2000 - 712 p.: ill.
CHAPTER II. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Methodology and methodology
Science is first and foremost research. Therefore, the characterization of science is not limited to the definition of its subject matter; it includes the definition of its method. Methods, i.e., ways of knowing, are the ways by which the subject of science is known.
Psychology, like every science, uses not one, but a whole system of particular methods, or techniques. Under the method of science - in the singular - one can understand the system of its methods in their unity. The basic methods of science are not operations external to its content, not externally introduced formal methods. Serving the disclosure of regularities, they themselves rely on the basic regularities of the subject of science; That's why the method of the psychology of consciousness was different from the method of psychology as a science of the soul: it is not for nothing that the first is usually called empirical psychology, and the second - rational, thus characterizing the subject of science according to the method by which it is known; and the method of behavioral psychology is different from that of the psychology of consciousness, which is often called introspective psychology after its method. In the same way, the understanding of the subject of psychology, which was given here, predetermines the corresponding solution to the basic questions about its method.
Whether the researcher is aware of this or not, his scientific work objectively in its methodology always implements this or that methodology. For the consistent and fruitful implementation of our methodology in psychology, it is very essential that it be conscious and, being conscious, not turn into a form mechanically imposed on the concrete content of science from the outside, so that it reveals itself within the content of science in the laws of its own nature. th development.
Marxist dialectics, as a theory of knowledge and scientific methodology, sets before scientific research the task of understanding and reflecting objective reality - a real object in its own real development and real, mediating relations: “... the thing itself in its relations and in its development must be considered,” V. I. Lenin formulates the first requirement of dialectics. Detailing further the “elements of dialectics”, the essence of which he defines as the doctrine of the unity of opposites, Lenin, in his commentary on the “Science of Logic” by G. V. F. Hegel, first of all highlights the following: “objectivity of consideration (not examples, not retreats, but the thing in itself), 2) the totality of the many different relations of this thing to others, 3) the development of this thing (respective phenomena), its own movement, its own life ”(V. I. Lenin. Complete collection of works, vol. 29, p. 202).
Methods of psychology
Psychology, like every science, uses a whole system of various particular methods, or techniques.
The main research methods in psychology, as in a number of other sciences, are observation and experiment.
Each of these general methods of scientific research appears in psychology in different and more or less specific forms; There are different types and observations and experiments.
Psychological observation can be self-observation or outside surveillance , usually in contrast to self-observation called objective. External, so-called objective, observation can, in turn, be divided into direct and indirect.
Similarly, there are various forms or types experiment. A variation of the experiment is the so-called natural experiment, which is an intermediate form between experiment and simple observation.
In addition to these basic methods, which receive a specific expression in psychology in accordance with the characteristics of its subject, a number of intermediate and auxiliary methods are used in psychology.
In view of the role that the genetic principle plays in the methodology of psychological research, one can further speak of the genetic principle or method of psychological research. Genetic method in psychology , i.e., the use of the study of the development of the psyche as a means for revealing general psychological patterns, is not compared with observation and experiment in the same row and is not opposed to them, but is necessarily based on them and is built on their basis, since the establishment of genetic data in turn is based on observation or experiment.
When using various methods of psychological research, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the problem under study. So, for example, in the study of sensations, hardly any other method can be as effective as experimental. But when studying the highest manifestations of the human personality, the question of the possibility of "experimenting" on a person seriously arises.
Research methodology always reflects one methodology or another. In accordance with the general fundamental principles of our psychology, its methodology should also have specific features.
1. The psyche, consciousness is studied by us in the unity of internal and external manifestations. The relationship between the psyche and behavior, consciousness and activity in its specific, from stage to stage and from moment to moment changing forms is not only an object, but also a means of psychological research, the supporting base of the entire methodology.
Due to the unity of consciousness and activity, the difference in the psychological nature of the act of activity is also reflected in its external course. That's why there is always some relation between the external course of a process and its internal nature; however, this attitude is not always adequate. The general task of all methods of objective psychological research is to adequately reveal this relationship and, thus, according to the external course of the act, determine its internal psychological nature. However, each separate, isolated act of behavior usually allows a different psychological interpretation. The internal psychological content of an action is usually revealed not from an isolated act, not from a separate fragment, but from a system of activity. Only taking into account the activity of the individual, and not just some isolated act, and correlating it with the specific conditions in which it is performed, can one adequately reveal the inner psychological content of actions and deeds that can be expressed and can be hidden in a person's utterances, but revealed in his actions.
This principle of objective psychological research is implemented by a variety of methodological means, depending on the characteristics of the subject of research.
2. Since the solution of the psychophysical problem, from which our psychology proceeds, affirms the unity, but not the identity, of the mental and the physical, psychological research, without being dissolved in the physiological and not being reduced to it, however, necessarily presupposes and often includes a physiological analysis of psychological (psychophysical) processes. It is unlikely, for example, that a scientific study of emotional processes is possible that does not include physiological analysis of their constituent physiological components. In this respect, too, psychological research cannot in any way close itself in a purely immanent, phenomenological description of mental phenomena, divorced from the study of their psychophysiological mechanisms.
It would be wrong to underestimate the importance of physiological methods in psychological research. In particular, the Pavlovian method of conditioned reflexes is a powerful tool for sensitivity analysis.
However, physiological analysis and, therefore, physiological methodology in psychological research can only play an auxiliary role and must therefore occupy a subordinate place in it.
The decisive question in this case, however, is not so much the differentiation and subordination of one of them to the other, but the ability to correctly correlate them, so that in the concrete practice of psychophysical research they form a true unity. From this point of view, the formulation of research in the traditional psychophysiology of sensation and movement, permeated with dualism, should be revised and a whole system of psychophysical research, concretely realizing the general principle of psychophysical unity, should be deployed.
3. Since the material foundations of the psyche are not reduced to its organic foundations, since the way people think is determined by the way they live, their consciousness is determined by social practice, methodology of psychological research , going to the psychological knowledge of a person, starting from his activity and its products, should be based on a socio-historical analysis of human activity. Only by correctly determining the true social content and significance of certain actions of a person and the objective results of his activity, one can come to their correct psychological interpretation. In this case, the mental should not be sociologized, that is, reduced to the social; psychological research must therefore preserve its specificity and independence, not dissolving, but only - where necessary - relying on a preliminary sociological analysis of human activity and its products in the socio-historical patterns of their development.
4. The purpose of psychological research should be the disclosure of specific psychological patterns.
For this, it is necessary not to operate with statistical averages alone, but analysis of specific individual cases
, because reality is concrete and only its concrete analysis can reveal real dependencies. The principle of individualization of research should be the essential principle of our methodology. However, the task of theoretical psychological research is not to describe the biography of an individual individual in his singularity, but to from the singular to the universal, from the accidental to the necessary, from phenomena to the essential in them.
For theoretical psychological research, the study of individual cases is therefore not a special area or object, but a means of knowledge. Through the study of individual cases in their variability, psychological research must move towards its true goal - to the establishment of ever more general and essential laws. The focus on the individualization of research and the discovery of real patterns should be put at the forefront in our psychology - in fundamental contrast to all concepts for which the essence is to set standards in terms of statistical averages.
5. Psychological patterns are revealed in the process of development.
The study of the development of the psyche
is not only a special area, but also a specific method of psychological research. The genetic principle is the essential principle of our methodology. At the same time, the essence of the matter lies not in making statistical cuts at various stages of development and fixing different levels, but in making the transition from one level to another the subject of research and thus revealing the dynamics of processes and their driving forces. In particular, when studying mental development in ontogeny, the task is not to fix, as it were, snapshots of various, essentially abstract, levels of mental development and to attribute to them different children, as if spreading them across different floors and shelves, but in the course of the study itself to advance children from one "level" to the next, higher, and to trace its essential patterns in the real process of development.
6. Since the advancement of children from one level or stage of mental development to another is carried out in the process of learning, the genetic principle in the above-disclosed understanding of it requires, as its essential development and addition in relation to the psychology of the child, in addition to individualization, also "pedagogization" of psychological research.
It is necessary to study the child, teaching him.
But the principle of pedagogization of the psychological study of a child does not mean a rejection of experimental research in favor of pedagogical practice, but the inclusion of the principles of pedagogical work in the experiment itself.
The proposition that it is necessary to study children by teaching them is a special case of a more general proposition according to which we know the phenomena of reality, acting on them (in particular, the deepest and most concrete knowledge of people is achieved in the process of remaking them). This is one of the main provisions of our general methodology and theory of knowledge. It can and should receive a diverse concrete implementation in the methodology of psychological research. Thus, when studying the pathological phenomena of the psyche in a sick individual, the therapeutic effect makes it possible not only to correct, but also to know them more deeply.
Thus, in the methodology itself, in the "practice" of research, unity is laid, the connection between theory and practice, between scientific knowledge of mental phenomena and real practical impact on them.
7. Within the framework of our general concept, a new meaning and character can be acquired by using in the methodology of psychological research activity products
, since the conscious activity of a person materializes in them ( study of products of mental activity and creativity in the study of thinking, imagination)
. At the same time, psychological research should in no way be based on the mechanical registration of the bare effectiveness of activity and try to establish in it and forever fix standard indicators of the mental state.
One and the same external result can have very different psychological content, depending on the specific situation in which it took place. Therefore, the disclosure of the psychological content of the results of each objective study based on external data, its decoding and correct interpretation require mandatory accounting, and hence study of a particular person in a particular situation. This position should become one of the main ones in the methodology of our psychological research, especially when studying the highest, most complex manifestations of personality, as opposed to depersonalization, which for the most part prevails in the methodology of foreign psychological science.
Since, in this case, the person and the situation in their concrete reality go beyond the limits of only psychological phenomena, psychological research, without losing its character and specificity of its object, requires careful consideration of a number of points that go beyond the purely psychological.
Methods, that is, the ways of cognition, are the ways by which the subject of science is known. Psychology, like every science, uses a system of private methods or techniques
Methodology in psychology is implemented through the following provisions (principles).
1. The psyche, consciousness are studied in the unity of internal and external manifestations. The relationship between the psyche and behavior, consciousness and activity in its specific, changing forms is not only an object, but also a means of psychological research.
2. The solution of a psychophysical problem affirms the unity, but not the identity, of the mental and the physical; therefore, psychological research presupposes and often includes a physiological analysis of psychological (psychophysiological) processes.
3. The methodology of psychological research should be based on a socio-historical analysis of human activity.
4. The purpose of psychological research should be to reveal specific psychological patterns (principle of individualization of research).
5. Psychological patterns are revealed in the process of development (genetic principle).
6. The principle of pedagogization of the psychological study of the child. It does not mean the rejection of experimental research in favor of pedagogical practice, but the inclusion of the principles of pedagogical work in the experiment itself.
7. The use of products of activity in the methodology of psychological research, since the conscious activity of a person materializes in them (the principle of studying a specific person in a specific situation).
According to Platonov, for medical (clinical) psychology, principles similar to those presented above are of the greatest importance: determinism, unity of consciousness and activity, reflex, historicism, development, structurality, personal approach. Probably only a few of them require explanation, in particular the last three principles.
Development principle. In clinical psychology, this principle can be concretized as the etiology and pathogenesis of psychopathological disorders in their direct (disease development) and reverse (remission, recovery) development. Specific is a special category - the pathological development of personality.
Structural principle. In philosophy, structure is understood as the unity of elements, their connections and integrity. In general psychology, the structures of consciousness, activity, personality, etc. are studied. The task of clinical psychology is to bring various psychopathological phenomena into a single system of particular structures and harmonize it with the general structure of a healthy and sick person.
The principle of personal approach. In clinical psychology, a personal approach means treating the patient or the person being studied as a whole person, taking into account all its complexity and all individual characteristics. It is necessary to distinguish between personal and individual approaches. The latter is taking into account the specific features inherent in a given person in given conditions. It can be realized as a personal approach or as a study of individual psychological or somatic qualities taken separately.
Tvorogova, considering the issues of concrete scientific methodology in psychology, additionally focuses on the principles activity(human behavior in a given situation is determined not only by its conditions, but also to a large extent by the person’s attitude to the situation) and consistency(the development of the whole variety of human mental properties cannot be based on a single source, for example, biological or social; a systematic approach involves a variety of sources and driving forces, both mental development and mental disorders in their interconnection).
Modern clinical psychology has a large arsenal of research methods. For the most part, these methods are borrowed from general psychology, some of them were created in clinical psychology as proper clinical psychological techniques. Conventionally, all methods of psychology can be divided into non-standardized and standardized. Non-standardized methods, represented primarily by a set of so-called pathopsychological techniques (B.V. Zeigarnik, S.Ya. Rubinshtein, Yu.F. Polyakov), are distinguished by their “targeting”, focus on certain types of mental pathology, and their choice is carried out individually for a particular subject. These methods are being created to study specific types of mental disorders. In the conditions of a psychological experiment, they are selectively used to identify the features of mental processes in accordance with the task, in particular, differential diagnosis.
The psychological conclusion is based not so much on taking into account the final result (effect) of the patient's activity, but on a qualitative, meaningful analysis of the methods of activity, the characteristic features of the process of performing work as a whole, and not individual tasks.
In the practice of a clinical psychologist, standardized methods are also used. Standardized methods can be defined as broadly understood tests, including tests for the study of mental processes, mental states and personality. The method of analyzing the results of each individual technique is based mainly on a quantitative assessment, which is compared with the assessments obtained earlier in the corresponding sample of patients and in healthy subjects. Standardized methods, in addition to unifying the tasks themselves, must be normalized, that is, have a rating scale (norms) created on the basis of an empirical preliminary study; must have a calculated degree of stability of results (reliability) and accurately assess the state of certain characteristics of mental activity.
The task of a research psychologist and a practical psychologist is to skillfully combine methods in accordance with the goals of the study.
Norm and pathology, health and disease. The categories of norm and pathology, health and disease are the main vectors that set the system of perception and criteria for assessing the human condition in clinical psychology. The category of the norm is used as a basic criterion for comparing the current (actual) and permanent (usual) state of people. The state of health is closely connected with the concept of the norm in our minds. Deviation from the norm is considered as pathology and disease.
Norm is a term that can contain two main contents. First - statistical content of the norm: is the level or range of levels of functioning of an organism or personality that common to most people and is typical, the most common. In this aspect, the norm seems to be some objectively existing phenomenon. Statistical norm is determined by calculating the arithmetic mean values of some empirical (occurring in life experience) data.
Second - evaluative content of the norm: the norm is considered to be some perfect sample human condition. Such a model always has a philosophical and ideological justification as a state of "perfection", to which all people should strive to some extent. In this aspect, the norm acts as ideal norm- subjective, arbitrarily set standard , which is taken as a perfect sample by agreement of some persons who have the right to establish such samples and have power over other people: for example, specialists, leaders of a group or society, etc.
The problem of norm-standard is connected with the problem of choice normative group- people whose vital activity acts as a standard by which the effectiveness of the level of functioning of the body and personality is measured. Depending on who the experts endowed with power (for example, psychiatrists or psychologists) include in the normative group, different boundaries of the norm are established.
Norms-standards include not only ideal norms, but also functional norms, social norms and individual norms.
Functional norms assess the state of a person in terms of their consequences (harmful or not harmful) or the possibility of achieving a certain goal (contributes or does not contribute to this state of the implementation of tasks related to the goal).
social norms control a person's behavior, forcing him to conform to some desired (prescribed by the environment) or established by the authorities pattern.
Individual norm involves comparing the state of a person not with other people, but with the state in which a person usually stayed before and which corresponds to his personal (and not prescribed by society) goals, life values, opportunities and circumstances of life. In other words, an individual norm is an ideal state from the point of view of the individual, and not of the dominant social group or the immediate environment, which takes into account the performance and possibilities of self-realization of a particular person.
Any deviation from the established norm can be characterized as pathology. In the medical lexicon, pathology usually means a violation at the biological level of the functioning of the body. However, in clinical psychology, the content of the concept of "pathology" also includes such deviations from the norm in which there are no biological components (hence it is quite possible and legitimate to use the terms "pathological personality" or "pathological development of the personality"). The use of the word "pathology" focuses on the fact that the normal state, functioning or development of the personality changes due to morphological and functional disorders (i.e., at the level of brain, psychophysiological, endocrine and other biological mechanisms of behavior regulation).
The original meaning of the ancient Greek word patos from which the term "pathology" derives is suffering. Therefore, pathology can be understood only as deviations from the norm, in which a person feels emotional discomfort.
Finally, the term “pathology” has a very strong evaluative component, which makes it possible to label any person who does not correspond to the dominant ideal or statistical norms as “sick”.
Due to the above features of the use of the word "pathology" (the obligatory presence of suffering, feeling unwell in a deviant person; the assumption of the action of one leading cause of the violation; a pronounced evaluative component), many scientists advocate its exclusion from the lexicon of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, suggesting instead the use of the term "disorder", limiting the use of the word "pathology" only to the biological level of disorders.
Disorder means the absence or violation of a state that previously existed normally for a person. The use of the term "disorder" does not imply the obligatory presence of unambiguous causal relationships for this or that deviation from the norm. Disorders can be caused by the interaction of a number of biological, psychological, and social factors, and in each specific case, one or another factor may be the leading factor in the onset, development, or outcome of the disorder. Therefore, the use of the word "disorder" in clinical psychology seems to be more preferable today.
Definition mental disorder based on three basic criteria:
1) certain types of reactions that exceed the statistically identified frequency of their occurrence in most people in a certain situation in a certain period of time (for example, if five out of nine signs of depression are observed in a person for two weeks or more, then only such a condition is recognized as a disorder);
2) conditions that prevent a person from adequately realizing his goals and therefore causing damage to him (the so-called "dysfunctional states");
3) types of behavior from which the individual himself suffers and receives physical damage or that brings suffering and physical damage to the people around him.
On social the level of human functioning, the norm and pathology (disorder) act as states health and disease.
In science, there are two approaches to determining the state of health: negative And positive.
The negative definition of health considers the latter as a simple absence of pathology and compliance with the norm. Here, the norm is considered as a synonym for health, and pathology as a disease. The characteristic of general well-being is the central link in the distinction between health and disease. A healthy person is one who feels well and is therefore able to perform daily social functions. A sick person is someone who feels unwell and is therefore unable to perform daily social functions.
Positive definition of health does not reduce the latter to the simple absence of the disease, but attempts to reveal its content, independent of the disease.
General definition of health, which was proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO), includes a human condition in which:
1) the structural and functional characteristics of the organism are preserved;
2) there is a high adaptability to changes in the usual natural and social environment;
3) emotional and social well-being is maintained.
Mental Health Criteria as defined by the WHO:
1) awareness and feeling of continuity, constancy of one's "I";
2) a feeling of constancy of experiences in situations of the same type;
3) criticality to oneself and to the results of one's activity;
4) the correspondence of mental reactions to the strength and frequency of environmental influences;
5) the ability to manage their behavior in accordance with generally accepted norms;
6) the ability to plan one's life and realize one's plans;
7) the ability to change behavior depending on life situations and circumstances.
Thus, health in general and mental health in particular are a dynamic combination of various indicators, while illness, on the contrary, can be defined as a narrowing, disappearance or violation of health criteria, that is, as a special case of health.
There are two points of view in the definition of a disease: 1) a disease is any condition diagnosed by a professional; 2) illness is a subjective feeling of being sick.
The concept of illness is not so much a reflection of the objective state of a person as it is a general theoretical and social construct, through which ordinary people and professionals try to identify and understand emerging health problems.
Disease construct, which exists in European culture, can be expressed as follows:
Thus, the construct of the disease assumes the following sequence: cause - defect - picture - consequences.
In modern medicine, there are two models of the disease: biomedical And biopsychosocial.
Biomedical model of disease exists since the 17th century. It is centered on the study of natural factors as external causes of disease. The biomedical model of disease is characterized by four main ideas:
1) exciter theory;
2) the concept of three interacting entities - "master", "agent" and environment;
3) cell concept;
4) a mechanistic concept, according to which a person is primarily a body, and his illness is a breakdown of some part of the body.
Within this model, there is no place for social, psychological and behavioral reasons for the development of the disease. A defect (including a mental one), no matter what factors it is caused by, always has a somatic nature. Therefore, the responsibility for treatment here lies entirely with the doctor, and not with the patient.
Biopsychosocial model of disease originated in the late 1970s. 20th century It is based on the systems theory, according to which any disease is a hierarchical continuum from elementary particles to the biosphere, in which each lower level acts as a component of the higher level, includes its characteristics and is influenced by it. At the center of this continuum is the personality with its experiences and behavior. Responsibility for recovery in the biopsychosocial model of disease rests wholly or partly on the sick people themselves.
In assessing the state of health, psychological factors play a leading role. Subjectively, health is manifested in a feeling optimism,somatic And psychological well-being, joys of life.Need for treatment is considered to exist when the existing signs of deviations (disorders) damage professional performance, daily activities, habitual social relations, or cause pronounced suffering.
Therefore, in addition to dominant in the clinical psychology of the disease construct (“a complex of biopsychosocial causes - an internal defect - a picture - consequences”), there are others - alternative disease constructs. First, mental and behavioral abnormalities can be interpreted as expression of disturbed processes in the system of social interaction.Secondly, mental and behavioral deviations can be considered not as a manifestation of an internal defect, but as extreme degree of expression individual mental functions or patterns of behavior in specific individuals. Thirdly, mental and behavioral abnormalities can be considered as a consequence delays in the natural process of personal growth(due to the frustration of basic needs, limitations in social functioning, individual differences in the ability to resolve emerging personal and social problems).
These problems associated with the use of the concept of disease have led to the fact that today the term is becoming more preferable. "mental, personality and behavioral disorders" , which covers various types of disorders, including diseases in the narrow sense of the word.
The problem of distinguishing between psychological phenomena and psychopathological symptoms. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that the mere observation of detected changes in mental activity or behavior and their assessment as violations is not yet a basis for interpreting them in terms of a disorder or illness. Externally, psychological phenomena (individual-personal features of functioning) and psychopathological symptoms have a significant similarity.
The most successful solution to this problem was proposed by K. Jaspers at the beginning of the 20th century. Based on the phenomenological philosophy of E. Husserl, he proposed to use phenomenological approach in clinical practice. K. Jaspers considered any mental state as a phenomenon, i.e. as a holistic experience of the current moment, in which two inextricably linked aspects can be distinguished: consciousness of the environment(objective consciousness) and self-consciousness(self-awareness). Therefore, the doctor and psychologist have two ways of assessing mental state patient, both of which are purely subjective:
a) imagining oneself in the place of another (feeling, achieved through the enumeration of a number of external signs of a mental state);
b) consideration of the conditions under which these features are related to each other in a certain sequence.
To distinguish between psychological phenomena and psychopathological processes, it is important to discover the logic by which the patient builds cause-and-effect relationships in objective consciousness (as he sees reality) and between objective consciousness and self-consciousness (which he considers necessary to do in such an understanding of reality). From this instruction of K. Jaspers, Kurt Schneider deduced first principle delimitations:
Only that which can be proved as such is recognized as a psychopathological symptom.
The proof is based on the generally accepted laws of logic (the law of identity, the law of sufficient reason, the law of the excluded middle) using the criterion of reliability (persuasiveness) and probability (using reasoning by analogy). According to the principle of K. Schneider, it is always necessary to compare two logics: external logic of behavior patient and logic of explanation this behavior by the patient.
One of the most widely used for solving this problem is the model deductive-logical explanations of events.A normal explanation of events must satisfy the so-called adequacy conditions:
- arguments (grounds on which the psychologist or the patient relies) explaining the patient's condition and behavior must be logically correct (i.e., must not violate the formal laws of logic);
- the events described by the patient must have empirical content (or be probable events under certain permissible circumstances; the degree of probability in clinical psychology is often determined by the principle of analogy- the event is the more likely, the more similar the psychologist sees in what the patient talks about with what happens to most other people, and also with what he already knows about the things told);
- the patient's claims must be convincingly substantiated.
As additional delimiting features K. Jaspers suggests highlighting the following:
- the presence of clearly attention-grabbing characteristics of the patient's behavior and personality (pretentiousness, demonstrativeness, eccentricity);
- the suddenness of their appearance in a relatively short period (while such characteristics were not previously present in a person’s personality and behavior);
- the appearance of additional positive or negative products of mental activity, as well as somatic phenomena, which are accompanied by various unusual interpretations;
- reduction of criticality level (partial, delayed, up to absence).
The main stages and factors of occurrence of mental and behavioral disorders. The following main phases of the development of psychological disorders are distinguished: pre- and perinatal (before and during childbirth), the phase of primary socialization, the phase immediately before the onset of the disorder (prodromal), the debut, the phase after the onset of the disorder.
In the first phase - before and during childbirth- genetic factors (congenital features of the brain mechanisms of mental activity), exposure to toxic, infectious agents during pregnancy, the nature of the course of childbirth and the characteristics of obstetric care, the attitude of parents towards the unborn child (newborn) and the nature of their interaction with the baby are of critical importance for the subsequent development of mental disorders , the nature of relations in the family of the newborn, environmental factors.
In the second phase - primary socialization- the development of mental disorders can be affected by infections that have a negative effect on the brain (direct or toxic), but socio-psychological factors begin to play a leading role at this stage: the nature of relationships with parents and peers (abuse, sexual abuse, rejection, emotional deprivation etc.), family upbringing style. The phase of socialization is limited to periods of early childhood and adulthood.
The first and second phases form vulnerability(biological and personal in the form of a set of specific character traits) to the development of mental disorders.
On prodromal phase of development of mental disorders, action begins trigger factors illness. The main trigger here is psychological stress arising as a result of sharply changing habitual conditions or the course of a person's life. At this phase, it is necessary to distinguish between harmful (provocative) and protective (protective) factors.
Debut- first manifestation painful symptoms disorders, when a person's habitual ways of coping with stressful situations cease to work and a state of disadaptation sets in, inappropriate behavior to the circumstances of life.
Phase after the onset of the disorder(debut of the disease) is associated with the action of factors that support the disturbed course of mental activity (behavior). Here it is also necessary to single out harmful (promoting the development of the disorder) and protective (interfering with the development of the disorder) factors.
According to the biopsychosocial model of illness, most mental and behavioral disorders have multifactorial nature.
It is for this reason that in modern clinical psychology it is customary to pay attention to the conditions for the occurrence of mental disorders and behavioral disorders, in which the action of various factors can be combined: genetic (hereditary), biochemical, neurophysiological, psychophysiological, personal, socio-psychological, sociological.
Methodology of clinical and psychological research. The purpose of clinical and psychological research is to give a psychological assessment of a personal or behavioral problem (mental disorder) for subsequent decision-making on how to provide professional assistance.
Main tasks conducting clinical and psychological research are:
- differential diagnosis of mental disorders;
- analysis of the structure and determination of the degree of mental disorders;
- determination of the level of mental development of the patient, the characteristics of his / her personality;
- assessment of the dynamics of mental disorders over time;
- solving expert problems.
Diagnostic process It is the process of distinguishing norm and pathology. It is carried out through the analysis of various information about the development and life of a person in order to draw conclusions about the nature and causes of the existing problem. The diagnostic process ends with a diagnosis - determining the nature of the disorder. It is necessary to distinguish between medical and clinical-psychological diagnosis. Medical diagnosis focuses on the formal assignment of a visible psychological problem to a particular taxonomic unit—the most appropriate name included in the accepted classification system. The correct definition of the name of the disorder automatically determines the possible range of its causes and the corresponding impact on them through specific treatment.
Clinical and psychological diagnosis is psychological analysis of the problem(assessment of behavior, mental functions and emotions, the state of the individual and the external circumstances of the violation). In fact, a clinical psychological diagnosis is not just the correct recognition and selection of an appropriate name for a disorder, but a description of the behavior, thoughts and feelings characteristic of a particular mental disorder.
Clinical and psychological diagnostics includes the following components:
- description problems or disorders (main and accompanying signs; severity - duration, intensity, frequency of occurrence and depth of the problem; circumstances under which the occurrence or exacerbation of the pathological condition occurs);
- formal classification problems or disorders (type definition);
- explanation possible causes or conditions for the problem or disorder;
- forecast development of a problem or disorder (formulation of assumptions about the development of a pathological condition in certain circumstances);
- general psychological assessment(allows you to draw up a further plan of action and then evaluate their effectiveness in the process of comparing the assessment before and after the end of therapeutic interventions).
In diagnostics, two opposite approaches can be distinguished: explaining And understanding.The first is related to nosological paradigm of clinical and psychological diagnostics, the second - with descriptive-phenomenological. In the nosological paradigm, the psychologist relies on general conclusions applicable to wide groups of people. In the descriptive-phenomenological paradigm, the psychologist focuses on the unique developmental situation of a particular child or family.
The leading nosological principle of diagnosis- principle explanations, which is based on the comprehensibility or incomprehensibility for an outside observer (psychologist or doctor) of a person's behavior and the features of his mental activity.
The main emphasis in nosologically oriented clinical and psychological diagnostics is on distinguishing individual features disorders and determination of their connection with the pathological process. Pathological signs are indicated by symptom systems.
Symptom- it is a description of a sign, strictly fixed in form, correlated with a certain pathology.
In other words, a symptom is a designation pathological sign. Not every sign is a symptom, but only one for which a causal relationship with pathology has been established. Psychopathological symptoms are divided into positive and negative.
positive symptoms designate signs of pathological production of mental activity (newly emerging signs that were not there before). These include senestopathies, hallucinations, delirium, melancholy, fear, anxiety, euphoria, psychomotor agitation. Negative symptoms include signs of damage, defect, defect in the mental process.
The sum total of all the symptoms symptom complex , in which it is possible to distinguish a number of symptoms that are naturally combined with each other, forming syndrome .
Syndrome- this is a strictly formalized description of a regular and stable combination of symptoms.
In the syndrome, there are mandatory, optional and optional symptoms. Mandatory Symptom indicates the origin of the disorder. Additional symptom reflects the severity, severity of the disorder (may be absent in specific cases). Optional symptom associated with the modifying influence of various factors.
At the same time, in child clinical psychology, along with a pronounced normative bias, there is a tendency to consider the process of mental development in close connection with the formation of a biologically expedient optimum for the functioning of organic processes that ensure the mental activity of the child. The younger the child, the greater the role in the manifestation of pathological symptoms is played by biological disturbances in the development process. With an increase in biological age, biological factors from causal factors become factors of predisposing internal conditions that interact with causal factors of a socio-psychological plan.
Descriptive-phenomenological paradigm Clinical and psychological research does not adhere to a clear distinction between normal and disturbed mental activity (or behavior). Here, the patient's holistic subjective experiences and his own interpretations of his condition are essential for diagnosis. Phenomenologically oriented clinical and psychological research relies on four basic principles : the principle of understanding, the principle of the era (refraining from judgment), the principle of impartiality and accuracy of description, the principle of contextuality.
The principle of understanding involves an analysis of the subjective meaning that the patient puts into certain phenomena that seem strange, abnormal to us. After all, the same external phenomenon after the act of understanding can be called autism or introversion; ambivalence or indecision; reasoning or demagogy.
Epoch principle suggests that it is necessary to abstract from syndromic thinking and not try to fit the observed phenomena into a nosological framework.
The principle of impartiality and accuracy description consists in the requirement to exclude any subjective interpretations of the patient's condition inherent in the diagnostician from the standpoint of his own life experience, moral attitudes and other evaluation categories. It also involves careful selection of words to describe the patient's condition.
The principle of contextuality implies that the phenomenon does not exist in isolation, but is part of a person's general perception and understanding of the world around him and himself. Contextuality allows you to determine the place, adequacy of the conditions and the degree of awareness by the patient of a particular mental phenomenon.
Exists four methods clinical and psychological research: conversation (interview), experiment, observation of the patient's behavior, analysis of the life history (anamnesis).
Construction of clinical and psychological research. There are several stages of clinical and psychological research. The first - before meeting the patient - stage of formulating a clinical problem.This includes a conversation with people surrounding the child: teachers, parents, friends, classmates, doctors - about the characteristics of his behavior and personality, problems that arise; determination of the characteristics of the systems of interpersonal relations of a problem child (social conditions of his life), assessment of the material and cultural circumstances of his life; familiarization with the general state of physical health: are there any concomitant somatic diseases, is the child receiving psychotropic substances. It is undesirable to conduct a study after a sleepless night, physical overwork, on an empty stomach or immediately after eating. Repeated studies are best done at the same time as the primary ones. At this stage, a preliminary research plan is drawn up: the choice of methods, their sequence.
Second phase - conversation with the patient .The conversation should begin with a questioning of passport data, on the basis of which the first judgment is made about the state of memory. Then the state of memory is specified (short-term and long-term - dates of one's own life, historical events, recent events), attention is assessed, the state of consciousness is characterized: orientation in time, place and one's own personality. Questions should be asked in a casual, natural manner, as in normal conversation. It also clarifies the patient's attitude to his disease, problem, explains the purpose of the EPI. In a further conversation, personality traits are clarified (before the disease and at the moment), an assessment of the ongoing changes, an assessment of well-being, performance, and the cultural and educational level are determined.
Third stage - experimental psychological .The implementation of each task should be preceded by an instruction that should define the situation of the study and ensure the cooperation of the psychologist and the patient. Careless instruction may lead to inadequate results. The instruction must be pre-tested before the start of the EPI. It should be as concise as possible, correspond to the mental abilities of the patient, exclude the possibility of conflicting understanding. It is possible to use preliminary examples. If the patient is not doing well, it is important to discuss the reasons for this together. It is also important to assess whether the help from the psychologist is accepted by the patient or rejected by him (negativism, deliberateness = resistance). A complete and accurate record of the circumstances of the experiment, the patient's judgments is required.
Fourth stage - drawing up a conclusion .Conclusion should always be the answer to the question posed to the psychologist. There is no single form of conclusion. But the conclusion is never a simple repetition of the study protocol. It is important to characterize the mental state on the basis of the data obtained, the features of behavior, the attitude to the study, the presence of attitudinal behavior should be noted, the leading pathopsychological features (syndromes) are highlighted, the features of the course of mental processes are indicated (for example, the rate of reactions, exhaustion, stability), the preserved aspects are described. mental activity. It is allowed to bring characteristic vivid examples. At the end, a summary is made reflecting the most important data (for example, the structure of the pathopsychological syndrome). The conclusion should not be categorical in terms of the style of the statements.
Basic terms and concepts:
disease, biomedical model of the disease, biopsychosocial model of the disease, health, individual norm, method, methodology, norm, evaluative content of the norm, pathology, the principle of impartiality and accuracy of description, the principle of determinism, the principle of unity of consciousness and activity, the principle of historicism, the principle of contextuality, the principle of personal approach, the principle of understanding, the principle of development, the reflex principle, the principle of structurality, the principle of the era, mental disorder, symptom, syndrome, social norm, statistical content of the norm, functional norm.
Questions and tasks for self-examination
1. What are the differences between the neurobiological and informational approaches to mental activity?
2. How is the norm defined in clinical psychology? What types of norms does a clinical psychologist focus on in his work?
3. What is the difference between the concepts of "pathology" and "disorder"?
4. What approaches exist in clinical psychology to the definition of health? List the psychological mechanisms that ensure health.
5. What are the main differences between the biomedical disease model and the biopsychosocial model?
6. By what principles can one distinguish between the individual characteristics of the human psyche and psychopathological syndromes?
7. What stages can be identified in the development of mental disorders?
8. What factors should be taken into account when assessing the conditions for the onset of mental disorders?
9. What is a clinical psychological study for?
10. What does clinical and psychological diagnostics include?
11. What is the difference between the nosological paradigm of clinical and psychological research and the descriptive-phenomenological one?
12. What is a symptom and syndrome?
13. What types of psychopathological symptoms do you know?
14. What methods of clinical and psychological research do you know?
15. What are the features of conducting a clinical psychological interview?
16. What determines the choice of methods for experimental psychological research?
17. What is mental status?
18. How many stages are distinguished in a clinical psychological study?
