In this article you will find the answer to the question: "What is metonymy?" First of all, we will give a definition of this concept, after which we will talk about it in detail. The term "metonymy" comes from the ancient Greek word meaning "renaming". Briefly answering the question of what metonymy is, we can say that this is a transfer by adjacency of a certain name, as well as the figurative meaning obtained as a result of it.

Feature of metonymy

Unlike the metaphorical one, which necessarily implies the similarity of properties, actions, objects, metonymic transfer is based on contiguity, juxtaposition of objects, actions, concepts that are nothing like each other. Metonymy, the definition of which was given above, can unite dissimilar objects. For example, an industrial enterprise and its employees, seemingly so different concepts, can be called the word "plant" ("the plant has fulfilled the plan", "the plant is being built"). We also refer to the state, the country and its government in one word ("Russia has concluded a treaty", "the people of Russia"), etc.

There are logical, temporal and spatial metonymy, depending on the contiguity that links actions, concepts or objects.

Spatial metonymy

What is spatial metonymy? It is based on the physical, spatial arrangement of phenomena, objects. Transfer of the name of the premises (its part), institution, etc. on people working or living in it is a common case of such metonymy. For example, "close edition", "huge workshop", "spacious hut", "multi-storey building", "student dormitory". In these examples, the words "dormitory", "editorial office", "workshop", "hut", "house" are used in their direct meaning. They designate the enterprise, the room. And here are other examples: "the huts were asleep", "the entire editorial office was against it", "the workshop went on strike". In them, these same words, denoting people, appear in a metonymic sense. Examples of transferring the name of a receptacle, a vessel to its contents can also be called spatial metonymy. When we say “the frying pan hisses”, “the samovar boils”, “the kettle boils”, we mean, of course, not a samovar, a kettle or a frying pan, but what is poured into them or fried on them.

Temporal metonymy

Phenomena and objects in temporal metonymy "contact", that is, adjacent in time of their appearance, existence. There is a transfer of the name of some action expressed by the noun to the result, that is, to what occurs in the process of this action. This is what temporal metonymy is. "Publishing a book" is an action, and "gift edition" is its result. "The depiction of details made it difficult for the artist" - the action, and "images of animals carved on the rock" - the result. The words "embroidery", "setting", "cutting", "translation", "correspondence", "polishing", "editing", "carving", "chasing", "sewing" and many others have the same metonymic meanings.

Logical metonymy

Logical metonymy is also very common. It can include, for example, the transfer of the name of the container, vessel to the volume contained in it. Compare "break a cup, jug, glass", "lose a spoon", "tie a bag", "smoke a pot", where the nouns are used in the direct meaning, and "drink 2 cups", "try a spoonful of jam", "eat a bowl of soup" , "buy a bag of potatoes", where the same words have a metonymic, figurative meaning, naming the quantity, volume of content.

Another variety is the transfer of the name of the material, substance to the product made from it: "won bronze, gold", "porcelain exhibition", "collect ceramics", "break glass", "transfer paper", etc. This also includes the transfer of the name the creator, the author of something on his creation: "use Ushakov", "reread Gogol", "love Levitan", etc. All this is a logical metonymy (examples can be continued). Here we note the transfer of the name of some action to an object (substance) or people with the help of which this action is carried out. "Impregnation", "putty", "suspension", "clamp", "change", "attack", "defense" is also a logical metonymy. Examples are not limited to the above.

Adjective metonymy

The adjacency of concepts, objects can also cause the transfer of the name of the attribute expressed by the adjective. For example, in addition to their direct meaning, many qualitative adjectives also have metonymic ones. An example of the use of these words in a figurative sense is the phrase "stupid physiognomy". The basis for the transfer was the contiguity of the objects "physiognomy" and "man". Other similar examples: "sly smile", "bold act", "smart advice", etc.

Verb metonymy

Answering the question about what metonymy is in Russian, it should be noted that verbs are also characterized by metonymic transfer. It can be based on the adjacency of the subject, for example: "knock out a carpet", "pour out a statue", "forge a sword", "boil laundry", "string a necklace", "cover a snowdrift". A metonymic meaning can also arise due to the adjacency of two actions. An example would be the following sentence: "The store opens at 8 o'clock." Here, the opening of the doors is a signal of the beginning of its work.

Synecdoche

A special case of metonymy, when a name is transferred from a part to a whole, is called synecdoche. It is used to highlight various features or aspects of an object. Examples: figure, face, personality when referring to a person ("historical figure", "responsible person", "personal role"). However, the main function of synecdoche is the identification of an object by pointing to a certain distinguishing feature, a detail characteristic of it. Therefore, it often includes definitions. Typical for synecdoche is the function of nominal members (address, object, subject) of the sentence ("Hey, beard!"). Its use is situational (pragmatically) or contextually conditioned. Usually we are talking about some object or something that is directly included in the field of perception of the speakers. In order to call a person a "hat", "cap" or "panama", you must first inform the addressee about his headdress. Thus, the synecdoche is anaphoric, that is, pretext-oriented. Therefore, it cannot be used in existential sentences or their analogues, introducing some object into the world of narration. We can't say, "One little red riding hood."

Metonymy in the work of Russian poets

Metonymic research played a prominent role in the work of Russian poets of the early 19th century. At that time, the traditions of classical poetry, largely rational, were still strong. Including metonymy is often found in the work of some romantic poets, such as K.N. Batyushkov and the young Pushkin. Particularly metonymic paraphrases were saturated with works that go back to the "high" genres of classic poetry.

Use of metonymy by Pushkin

It is no coincidence that in the ode "Liberty" created by Pushkin in 1817, which glorified "Law" and "Liberty" as the main social values, there are a lot of metonyms. In addition, we can also note "Cythera is a weak queen" - a metonymic paraphrase denoting Venus, the goddess of love. In the same work, the words "freedom, a proud singer" are found, denoting a new muse that the author wants to see. The metonymy is Pushkin's use of the phrase "coddled lyre" and "wreath", which should be plucked from a poet who wrote so much about love.

Alexander Sergeevich also uses metonymic allegory when he writes about quite ordinary objects. This applies in particular to the famous novel "Eugene Onegin". In it, the means of expressiveness of speech is metonymy (besides many others, of course). The novel is permeated with allusions and references to information known to readers ("Petrarch's language" is Italian, "London trades", etc.).

Further use of metonymy

Metonymy in the romantic poetry of Pushkin's contemporaries was used much less frequently. Their role was incomparable with the role of metaphorical paraphrases and metaphors in a work of art. Metonymy never again became the leading means of expression in Russian poetry, as it was in the 18th and early 19th centuries. The allegories obtained with the help of this technique, many poets later evaluated as too rational, dry, schematic and abstract, associated their use with literary archaism.

Now you know what metonymy is in Russian. Of course, this technique is used not only in poetry. Metonymy is used in literature, for example, in the title of the work "White Bim Black Ear" by Gavriil Troepolsky.

The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. This person did not take into account that guarding the door meant, in this case, guarding the premises located behind the door (that is, metonymy was used when formulating the order). METONYMY (Greek: Μετονυμία, renaming) - usually defined as a type of trope based on association by adjacency.

Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy. Like metaphor, metaphor is inherent in language in general, but it is of particular importance in artistic and literary creativity, receiving in each specific case its own class saturation and use. In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939.

From this point of view, attempts have been made to establish a different order of distinction between metonymy and related synecdoche. And this is why, if metaphor is sometimes defined as a concise comparison, then metonymy could be defined as a kind of concise description. For metonymy, see the general essays on stylistics and poetics listed in the article "paths". M. Petrovsky. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky.

See what "Metonymy" is in other dictionaries:

METONYMY - (Greek). This fascinating fairy tale about the native language and its vocabulary, at the end of which “culinary and language recipes” are given, will not only please the children - it will be very useful to them.

The presenter, talking on the phone with a friend, will use the metonymy "I'll sit behind Chekhov." But she does not mean Chekhov himself, but his wonderful plays. It’s just that Vasilisa Nikolaevna used a common phenomenon of literature in her conversation. Metonymy is a phrase in which one word is replaced by another word associated with it in space or time. After all, she cannot sit behind a real Chekhov - a man. And here are examples of metonymy in literature.

We ate what was in it - soup, fish soup. Or, if we do not know the name of a person, then we can call him by some distinguishing feature. There is another interesting kind of metonymy, which is responsible for the quantitative relationships between words.

An example of such metonymy in literature is Gogol's "Dead Souls", where the father teaches Chichikov: "Most of all, take care of a penny." Of course, he meant not one penny-coin, but money in general. The pear is a metaphor. Metaphor is the transfer of the meaning of one word to another based on some similarity between objects or phenomena.

The mechanism of metaphor formation is best depicted in the form of a table. It can be seen from the table that if we make the comparison incomplete, that is, we remove “what is being compared” and the comparative union, then “what is being compared with” will remain. This is the metaphor. In September, there are frosts, and the puddles are covered with fragile ice. You go to school, and the saucers are fragile, fragile under your feet. Metonymy is formed differently.

This is metonymy, because between the author and his works there is a connection, adjacency, a point of intersection, they are not similar to each other, like a pear and a light bulb, they are simply always connected. Metonymy is the transfer of meaning from one word to another by contiguity, connection. In the table you see the main ways of forming metonymy. I forgot your Tolstoy on the train. I have one "Spark" and two "Murzilki". Detachment of a thousand sabers (same).

In task B8 (expressive means of vocabulary and syntax), metonymy is rare. This is both good and bad. Good because there is less room for error. And the second reason is that you need to know metonymy at least in order to, when solving B8, know for sure: there is no metonymy here, but there is something else.

Preparation in Zelenograd

Synecdoche is a very easy to understand trope. This is a type of metonymy based on what is called a part instead of a whole, less often - a whole instead of a part. For example: there is no bear in this forest. This means that not one bear is found, but in general there is no such type of animal in this forest. The berry was born this year. We are not talking about just one cherry, but in general about all berries: cherries, currants, strawberries, etc.

I mean not one student, but the entire student body. You can name a person by one of his things, body parts, etc. For example: I stand behind a red coat, that is, behind a man in a red coat. Not one ear in the field fell, but all the ears were cut. Metonymy is the replacement of an object or phenomenon by other objects or phenomena. Bypassing the taboo, sacred objects could be designated through other objects that were directly related to the first.

Fictitious persons also serve as metonymy. Due to the typicality of Gogol's creations, a boastful person is called a whiplash, a stingy person is a plush, an empty dreamer is called a manilov. In tsarist Russia, first and second class carriages were painted yellow and blue, and third class carriages were painted green.

Metonymy, like metaphor, can be extended to all poetry. Here is the metonymy, repelled from the forest, came out from the pen of S. Marshak: “What do we plant when planting forests? Light wings - fly to heaven. What do we plant when we plant forests? A leaf on which dew falls, freshness of the forest, and moisture, and shade - that's what we plant today. ”Metonymy has retained its original meaning.

Meanwhile, in literary dictionaries, personification is interpreted as animation, which is a distortion of this literary term. Comparison - As a poetic trope, comparison appears in its pure form only when both juxtaposed sides are present in the speech. Comparison does not change the meaning of the compared concepts, which is what distinguishes it from a metaphor. Metonymy is very different from metaphor.

That is, we say one thing and mean another. But, unlike allegory, metonymy is based not on cultural codes and attitudes, but on completely objective connections. The description contains objective facts. Lomonosov - originally from Arkhangelsk, from a simple fishing family (by origin - a commoner), became the founder of Moscow University.

Metonymy is also used in poetry and prose. In prose par excellence, to avoid repetition of words. And in poetry, of course, first of all, for figurativeness. There are many varieties of metonymy. 5) The name of the material from which the thing is made, instead of the thing itself: "Porcelain and bronze on the table." This is also one of the varieties of metonymy.

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

It means that the Swedes and Russians are fighting, many people on each side, and not one Swede and one Russian. Even in everyday life, we often use the phrase: "I've already told you a thousand times" without realizing that we are using synecdoche. It is possible and necessary to use the figurative meaning of words. So you can achieve greater figurativeness and expressiveness. Give your poem depth through allegory and metonymy.

The poem must be, first of all, understandable. A trope is the use of a word in a figurative sense. Comparison, metaphor, paraphrase, hyperbole are all tropes. About one of the interesting varieties of tropes - metonymy, as always accessible and fascinating, says S.V. Volkov.

One student after visiting the A.S. Pushkin in Mikhailovsky wrote in an essay: "Pushkin loved Byron very much, and therefore hung him over the table." Thus, metonymy is transformed into a metaphor. Due to a misunderstanding of the phenomenon of metonymy, a variety of funny situations can arise.

Often there is a problem with the definition of certain tropes that are found mainly in poetic texts. This article will be devoted to this problem. We will analyze, give a definition of the term and consider in detail the cases of use in the literature.

What is metonymy?

So, consider the meaning of the word "metonymy". Metonymy is the transfer of a word by adjacency (relatedness of concepts). The famous ancient Greek philosopher Mark Quintilian said, defining this concept, that the essence of metonymy is manifested in the replacement of what is described by its cause. That is, there is a replacement of related concepts.

Here is an example of metonymy:

• “All flags will visit us” (A. S. Pushkin), different countries are meant by flags, while if we replace the word “flags” with “states”, then the meaning of the line will not change at all.
• "Bronze Age" - it is understood that not the century was made of bronze, but that this time became famous for the beginning of the use of this material.
• “Applicant for the director's portfolio”, that is, an applicant for the position of director, whose attribute is the portfolio.

Metonymy is used to enhance the expressiveness and richness of the language. This technique is widespread in poetics, lexicology, stylistics, and rhetoric. With it, you can influence the audience for a long time.

Communication in metonymy

Metonymy in Russian has such a property as establishing an adjacent connection between two objects. Actually, this is its main essence and purpose. So, there are the following metonymic connections:

• To name not the thing itself, but the material from which it was made: “Walked in gold” instead of “Walked in gold jewelry”.
• The concrete noun is replaced by an abstract one. “My beauty is indescribable,” says the lover about the object of sighing.
• Content is replaced by content or owner is indicated instead of ownership: "I'll have another glass" instead of the name of a particular drink.
• The name of the item is replaced by its attribute: "Man in Black" instead of giving a clear description of his clothes.
• Replacing an action with a tool with which it is usually performed: “His pen breathes revenge” (A. Tolstoy) instead of “His poetry breathes mysticism.”
• Naming works by the name of the author: "I read Chekhov" instead of "I read Chekhov's works."
• Substitution between the person and the place where he is: "It was quiet in the house" instead of "No one made noise in the house."

All metonymic connections are divided into types.

Types of metonymy

Metonymy is divided into three main types, which are determined depending on the contiguity of concepts, objects, actions:

• Spatial.
• Temporary.
• Logical.

We will analyze each of these types separately in order to understand the specifics of use and not make mistakes in the future in practice.

Spatial

Such a metonymic transfer is based on the physical, spatial arrangement of phenomena or objects.

The most common example of this type of metonymy is the transfer of the name of a room (institution, etc.) or part of it to persons working or living in a given house or enterprise. For example: a spacious workshop, a dark hut, a cramped editorial office, a multi-storey building. In these cases, the words "workshop", "hut", "editorial office" and "house" are used in their direct meaning. Now consider the following phrases: “the entire editorial board went out for a subbotnik”, “the whole house was asleep”, “all the huts took part in the competition”, “the whole shop was in favor”. Here the same words acquire a metonymic meaning and are perceived in a figurative sense.

Also, spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a receptacle or vessel to its contents. For example, “the kettle is boiling”, that is, the liquid poured into the kettle boils.

Temporary

This type of metonymic connection occurs when the compared objects are in contact with each other in time.

An example of metonymy: when the name of an action, which is a noun, is transferred to its result (what should occur in the course of actions). Thus, the action will be "publishing a book", and the result of the action will be "a beautiful gift edition"; “the artist had difficulties with depicting details” - “images of dragons are carved on the bas-relief” (that is, the result of drawing).

Also examples of a temporary type of transfer would be "embroidered shirt", "bring in the translation on time", "decorate with carvings", "ancient sewing", "collection embossing", "polishing worn off".

logical

Logical metonymy is widespread. Examples in Russian of this type are not only extensive, but also differ in the specifics of transfer:

• Transferring the name of a container or vessel to the volume of the substance contained in this item. Consider the phrases: "break the plate", "find a spoon", "wash the pan", "untie the bag". All nouns are used in their direct meaning and are called receptacles. Compare these examples with usages such as "try a spoonful of jam," "eat two bowls," "buy a bag of sugar." Now the same nouns are already used in a figurative sense and serve to denote the volume of the substance they contain.
• Transferring the name of a material or substance to what is made of it. The method of metonymy of this kind is used as follows: “win silver” (that is, a silver medal), “put on furs” (fur clothes), “collect ceramics” (ceramic products), “shift papers” (documents), “write watercolors” ( paint with watercolors).
• Transferring the name of the author to the creation he created. For example: “reread Pushkin” (Pushkin’s books), “love Shishkin” (Shishkin’s paintings), “use Dahl” (a dictionary edited by Dahl).
• Transferring the name of an action to the people or object with which it is carried out. For example: "pendant" (decoration), "putty" (substance to eliminate defects), "change" (people who make up a certain group).
• Transferring the name of the action to the place where it is performed. For example, signs with the inscriptions "exit", "entrance", "stop", "detour", "transition", "crossing", "turn", "passage", etc.
• Transferring the name of a quality (property) to something that has this property or quality. Consider the phrases “tactlessness of words”, “mediocrity of a person”, “tactless behavior”, “caustic expressions”, “banality of assessments”. The words used indicate abstract qualities and properties. Now let's compare: "to commit tactlessness", "to talk nonsense", "she was surrounded by mediocrity", "to speak banalities", "to allow barbs". There is already a metonymic transfer of meaning.
• Transferring the name of the area to the material or substance that is mined or produced there. For example: "harbor", "Gzhel".

Types of metonymy

Now we list the main varieties of metonymy:

• General language.
• General poetic.
• General newspaper.
• Individually-author's.

Let's consider each type in more detail.

general language

Various types of tropes are used everywhere in Russian, and metonymy is one of the most common. Often people using it do not even notice it. This is especially true for this species.

So, what will relate to common language metonymy:

• The words "silver", "casting", "crystal", "porcelain", when they denote products. For example, "porcelain collector", that is, a collector of porcelain products.
• The words "impregnation", "putty" and others denoting a substance.
• The words "factory", "shift", "factory", "attack", "defense" when they refer to people. For example: "The plant took part in the competition", that is, the workers of the plant took part in the competition.
• The words "turn", "exit", "entry", "crossing" when they indicate the place of action.
• The words "hare", "mink", "fox", "squirrel" and others, when used instead of the name of the product. For example: "dressed in a mink", that is, in a product made of mink fur.

general poetic

Perhaps the most expressive form is the general poetic metonymy. Examples from fiction belong to this group:

• “A cloud / One you rush through a clear azure” (Pushkin). The word "azure", meaning blue sky, is a metonymy here.
• "Transparent and cold day" (Kuprin). "In the transparent cold" (Yesenin). The word "transparent" is a metonymy.
• “In fights ... Meeting fatal lead” (Pushkin). “The deadly lead tore the heart of the poet” (Tyutchev). The word "lead" is a metonymy.
• "The blue wind whispers" (Yesenin). “On such a blue day” (A. Tolstoy). The word "blue" is a metonymy.

Thus, general poetic metonymy is a type of metonymy that is typical for use in artistic (more often poetic) texts.

General newspaper

Such metonymy includes the following words: "fast" ("quick seconds", "fast water"), "green" ("green harvest", "green patrol"), "golden" ("golden flight", "golden jump" ). That is, these are the methods of metonymy that are most often used in journalistic texts.

Individual-author's

The types of trails have a huge variety, this is due to the fact that most of them have several types and types, and metonymy, as we see, is no exception.

Individual-author's metonyms are metonyms that are characteristic of the work of a single writer and are not used everywhere. For example: “I’ll put you to sleep with a quiet fairy tale ... I’ll tell you a sleepy fairy tale” (Block); “From the cool wooden purity of the house” (V. Solovyov).

Synecdoche

Another frequently encountered problem is the question of how synecdoche and metonymy relate to each other. Often these two concepts are mistakenly perceived as completely separate, but they are not. Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy and means the transfer of a name (name) from a part of an object (substance, action) to its whole. Usually this subspecies is used when it is necessary to highlight some particular side or function of the object. For example, let's take the words "figure", "person", "personality" and apply them to a person: "historical figure", "legally responsible person", "the role of personality in our victory".

But the main function of synecdoche is its ability to identify an object, using indications of its distinguishing feature or a detail peculiar only to it. Therefore, a definition is usually included in this trope. If we talk about the structure of sentences, then the synecdoche will take the role of nominal members, that is, the object, subject or address. For example: “Hey, beard! And how to get from here to Plyushkin? (Gogol). The word "beard" is a synecdoche. Knowing this feature can help when you need to find a synecdoche in a text.

The use of synecdoche in the text contextually or situationally (pragmatically) is always conditioned: most often it will be about an object that either enters directly into the speaker's field of vision, or its characterization was given earlier in the text. For example, if a person is called a “hat”, “cap” or “bowler hat”, then the addressee is first given a description of his headdress: “An old man in a panama was sitting opposite me, and a woman in a flirty hat was sitting obliquely. Panama was dozing, and the flirtatious hat was chirping about something with the young man ... ”Thus, as we could see, the synecdoche is always context-oriented, that is, anaphoric. Therefore, its use in all kinds of existential sentences (they first introduce readers to the characters) is unacceptable. Let's illustrate such a mistake with the following example: let's start the fairy tale with the words: "Once upon a time there was Little Red Riding Hood." Such a beginning would mislead the reader, since the main character would not be a girl in a red cap, but the object itself, that is, a cap painted red.

Metaphor and metonymy

Also, questions arise in cases when it is necessary to distinguish in the text such tropes as metaphor, metonymy, epithet. And if things are quite easy with epithets - this is an adjective that enhances the expressiveness of a word, then it is much more difficult to deal with metaphor and metonymy.

So let's look at what a metaphor is. It serves as a connecting link not for related concepts that have common structural connections in the real world (like metonymy), but for correlating completely different objects, united only by an association, function or characteristic. Consider the example of two sentences: “Lera is meek” and “Doe is meek”, from this we conclude that “Lera is as meek as a doe”, the final metaphor will be: “Lera is a doe”.

The structures of constructing metaphor and metonymy are similar: two objects are taken, in which a common semantic element is distinguished, which allows to reduce some elements of the description, but at the same time preserve the semantics. But in the case of metonymy, the connection (semantic element) is always materialized and can only be perceived with the help of the senses. When creating a metaphor, the semantic element is synthesized in our minds on the basis of associations and memory.

Metaphors, in essence, are a folded comparison that can be expanded when doing. For example, a “family tree”: if you graphically depict family ties, they will look like a tree.

A metaphor is created on the basis of a comparison, but not every comparison is suitable for its creation. Only logical structures that serve to combine heterogeneous (foreign, heterogeneous) phenomena can be used.

To clarify, let's give an example: "Katya is as wise as Veronica." In this case, a metaphor cannot be created, since objects of the same kind are taken as the basis: a girl is compared with a girl (the action would not work if a person were compared with a person). But if you build a sentence like this: “Katya is as wise as a snake,” then the metaphor would turn out, since the compared objects are heterogeneous (animal and human).

Despite the fact that the metaphor has a very abstract meaning, the basis (comparison) of the transfer is as easy to determine as in the case of metonymy.

Thus, metonymy, in comparison with metaphor, always has a more real connection between the concept and the object that replaces it, and it also eliminates or significantly limits the features that are insignificant for the described phenomenon (object).

Metonymy in literature

Metonymy is very common in this area. Examples from fiction are full of all sorts of types of this trail. As noted above, metonymy is widespread in all types of speech, including everyday speech. However, nowhere does it play such a significant role as in a literary work.

Tropes were especially popular with writers of the first half of the 20th century. Especially among those of its representatives who were engaged in constructivism and created poems on the basis of this teaching. Metonymy and metaphor in their works were opposed to each other, and preference was given to the first. They believed that only the text is of primary importance, and the reader should not interfere with its content with his associations and memory, and therefore metaphorical images could not be created.

Yu. G. ALEKSEEV

SOME STYLISTIC FEATURES
ROMAN I. A. GONCHAROV "OBLOMOV"
IN ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS

Despite the significant interest in the work of I. A. Goncharov all over the world, most foreign readers get acquainted with the works of the writer in translations.

Often the quality of such translations leaves much to be desired. For example, German potters note that it is necessary not only to translate and publish the writer's letters and essays into German, but also to correct errors in existing translations of Goncharov's novels or replace translations with completely new ones.

The attitude of I. A. Goncharov himself to the translation of his novels is well known. Firstly, at the will of the translators and without the knowledge of the author, the first part of the novel Oblomov, translated into French at the end of the 19th century, was passed off as the entire work. Secondly, in his letter to Goncharov, the "translator" S. Delen notes that even in the translation of this part there are "many places" that "do not satisfy" the writer. In addition, S. Delen "confesses" that he "did not understand" why "the blacksmith Taras almost suffocated, exhausting himself with steam baths so that then he had to treat him with water to bring him to his senses" and asks for an "explanation" for the French reader. It is not surprising that in a response letter to S. Delen Goncharov writes: “I<···>never encouraged those who have done me the honor of being a consultant on the translation of my novels into foreign languages.

In the same letter, the writer explains the reason: “... a more or less faithful reproduction of some national types is, perhaps,

the only merit of my writings in this genre and<···>these types, little known outside the country, cannot be of interest to a foreign reader.

However, despite the understandable national and cultural differences in the perception of foreign-language literary works by readers and translators, translators are trying to achieve the greatest possible adequacy, taking into account the latest achievements in translation studies. The translation into English by D. Magarshak of lexical units in the novel "Oblomov", which we have considered, although not free from shortcomings, can be considered quite successful.

Naturally, the range of issues facing the translator of fiction is much wider. It is impossible to achieve the same degree of emotional impact on the reader of the translation, which the author of the work achieves on the reader of the original, only by the correct transmission of vocabulary. One of the problems he faces is the need to take into account the significance of the stylistic features of the work and the adequacy of their translation into a foreign language.

Among the stylistic means in I. A. Goncharov's novel "Oblomov", metonymy, metaphor and hyperbole stand out, cases of litotes, paraphrase and euphemism are more rare. Consider their translations into English by D. Magarshak and E. Dannigen. The examples were selected by random sampling.

Translators translate almost the same cases of litotes and euphemisms, obviously due to the fact that the example of euphemism we encountered has a well-established equivalent: “fallen woman” (7, 22) - a fallen woman (8, 34; 9, 44), and hardship has a specific semantic-syntactic structure: cf. “not without laziness” (7, 262) - none too eargely (8, 321; 9, 373), i.e. “ not too willing»; “not without guile” (7, 275) - not without guile (8, 338; 9, 391), i.e. “ not without deceit, cunning»; "used not to consider them an inconvenience" (7, 100) - even stopped regarding them as such (8, 129) and even ceased regarding them

As such (9, 149), i.e. " even ceased to consider them [inconveniences] as such».

Similarly, translators had no difficulty in translating metonymy when:

1) the name of the object was transferred from the material to the products made of this material: “places the crystal and lays out the silver” (7, 60) - placing the glasses and the silver (8, 81), setting out the silverware and crystal (9, 96);

2) the name was transferred from the place to the totality of its inhabitants: “there is half the city there” (7, 16) - half of the town is there (8, 27), half the town goes there (9, 36); “with the whole house” (7, 379) - all together (8, 466), i.e. “ together", the entire household went together (9, 537-538), i.e. " let's go home together»,

3) the name was transferred from the institution to the totality of employees: “our editors are all dining at St. Georges today” (7, 24) - the whole staff dine at St George’s to-day (8, 37), our editors are all dining at St. George's today (9, 47), i.e. " the entire editorial staff dine at Saint-Georges»;

When translating metaphor, hyperbole and periphrase, D. Magarshak and E. Dannigen show more noticeable differences. If in some cases translators convey the meaning of the metaphor almost equally close to the original: cf. "to distinguish between the painted lie and the pale truth" (7, 130) or cf. “Let a whole ocean of evil and evil worries around him...” (7, 373) - a regular ocean of evil and baseness may be surging round him (8, 459), a whole sea of ​​evil and depravity could be surging around him (9, 530), in other cases D. Magarshak follows the path of clarifying the metaphor: he translates the phrase “they bathed in the crowd of people” (7, 33) as enjoying being among a crowd of people (8, 49), i.e. e. " they liked being in a crowd of people", while E. Dannigen - they swam with the crowd (9, 60), i.e. " floated with the crowd". Similarly, the phrase “scolded him with an “old German stick-in-the-mud” (7, 363) by D. Magarshak is translated as scolded him for being “an old German stick-in-the-mud” (8, 446), i.e. scolded, t . to. he was " an old backward German”, and E. Dannigen - scolded him for being an “old German periwig” (9, 515), that is, “an old German wig”, as in the original.

Consideration of the transmission of the hyperbole also reveals similarities and differences. Some hyperbolas are translated in the same way: cf. “I would give half my life” (7.205) - I’d gladly give half my life (8, 253) and I would give half my life (9, 292), and some D. Magarshak or conveys more adequately to the original: “a hundred miles from that place "(7, 330) - a hundred miles away (8, 405), i.e. " for a hundred

miles" (cf. far away (9, 469), i.e. " far”), or translates more deeply and boldly: “I rubbed my back and sides, tossing and turning” (7, 134) - I’ve worn myself to a shadow worrying about it (8, 167), that is, literally “ turned into a shadow worrying about it” (cf. I’ve worn myself out over these troubles (9, 196), i.e. “ exhausted due to problems»).

When translating the paraphrase "To the gray hair, to the grave" (7, 144), the translators could not, to some extent, avoid retaining the indirect designation of the phenomena: cf. Yes, till old age till the grave (8, 180), i.e. " to old age, to the grave”, this translation directly indicates age, the paraphrase “until gray hair” is lost, and Till you grow gray - till you are laid in the grave (9, 209), i.e. “ until you turn gray, until they put you in the grave”, which seems to be a somewhat straightforward indication of death.

Thus, in the translations of I. A. Goncharov's novel "Oblomov" by D. Magarshak and E. Dunnigan, the tendency to preserve the stylistic features of the author's text is not fully traced, despite the fact that most of the stylistic means are conveyed quite adequately. A small number of such errors in the considered translations allows us to hope that when working on new translations, it will be possible to avoid such shortcomings and take into account not only the cultural distance between the author of the novel and the readers of the translation, but also take into account the stylistic features of the author's text.

Metonymy in Greek means "renaming", replacing a word with other words that are close in meaning, while maintaining the original semantic load. This literary device is usually used to add elegance to simple phrases. Metonymy, whose examples from fiction can be cited ad infinitum, is a popular way for writers to increase the aesthetic level of a work. It is applied both to individual words and to whole sentences, making them sound at a higher artistic level. Sometimes metonymy, the definition and examples of which are quite clearly indicated, is used to transform several sentences combined into one block. This technique is considered unique; only a few writers and poets own it. The highest skill in this was achieved by the American writer William Faulkner (1897-1962), whose work we will talk about later.

Among other things, metonymy, examples from the literature of which characterize it as a reliable way to preserve the accuracy of the description, is sometimes used to increase reader interest. The principle of metonymy can be explained by the following example: "... the hall stood up and the applause did not subside for a long time ...". However, the hall cannot rise, it is a room, inanimate and motionless. It would be more correct to say: "... the audience in the hall stood up, and the applause did not subside for a long time ..." But then the phrase turns out to be boring. As a fairly subtle literary device, metonymy, examples from fiction confirm this, can be a good tool for creating original texts.

It is sometimes confused with metaphor, since there is some connection between these two literary devices. Both of them are intended to change a word, phrase, sentence in order to increase the aesthetic level of what is said or written. However, if the scheme for applying the metaphor is elementary, i.e., there is a replacement of words according to the principle of similarity, synonymization, then the metonymic replacement of words operates according to the principle of contiguity. In addition, metonymy, examples from fiction are evidence of this, is part of a rather complex literary process.

William Faulkner, already mentioned by us, widely used metonymic devices in his work. Stories, novels, novels of the writer are popular all over the world, he is one of the golden five of American prose writers. Faulkner's skill is of an elitist nature, the writer writes in a stylistically complex, but at the same time understandable language, his works are read in one breath. Through allegory, William Faulkner gives the story a special appeal, creates the impression of a slight intrigue that readers "solve" with pleasure. It is not for nothing that his metonymy, examples from fiction confirm this, is considered the most striking and highly artistic. In the short story "Full Circle", which William Faulkner dedicated to the military theme, there are several wonderful metonymic examples: "He claims that he hides the ship under the pier. At nightfall, he drives the ship under the pier and then is not able to get it out until the very low tide ..." Here it is, Faulkner's famous metonymic intrigue. The bottom line is that the ship is real, and the reader will have to understand the situation.