The literary heritage of our time is truly inexhaustible. Today, anyone can find an incredible amount of materials on absolutely any topic, from biology to astronomy and political science, from mechanics and aeronautics to didactics, etc. And everyone who is interested in literature in general should know that a huge part of the world's literary heritage belongs to the authors of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece. In this article we would like to tell you about Cicero, who became famous for his incomparable speeches and left behind many unique works. And you will find out why this person deserves special attention by reading the material presented.

Marcus Tullius Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero was a famous ancient Roman politician, orator and philosopher. Despite the fact that he was born into an ordinary family, he managed to make an amazing career - he became a member of the Senate and consul. The reason for this was largely his oratorical gift.

Cicero received his oratory and philosophical education initially in Rome, and then continued his studies in Rhodes, Asia Minor and Athens. As he advanced in his career, he occupied increasingly higher government positions. Cicero devoted his entire life, as well as his literary work, to politics.

Speeches of Cicero

Cicero's activities, in particular his speeches and written works, were greatly influenced by his political views, which were changeable, but to which he was always completely faithful. Separately, it should be noted the speeches of Cicero against Verres, Catiline and Mark Antony.

Cicero vs Verres

Initially, in the speeches and writings of Cicero, the interests of the equestrian class prevailed, to which, in fact, he himself belonged from birth, and he opposed the Roman nobility. This can be judged by his speeches directed against Verres, who was the former governor of Sicily and plundered the country. The inhabitants of this province themselves asked Cicero to oppose the profit-hungry man. Cicero prepared for the trial in the most thorough manner, collecting a huge amount of factual material, looking for witnesses, and then acting as an exposer of the criminal acts of the former governor.

Already during the first court session, Cicero made two speeches that forced Verres to plead guilty, and the matter did not even come to the second session. But the accuser did not stop, and all seven speeches “Against Verres” were published, outlining in detail all the predatory behavior of the villain, as well as the arbitrariness of the governors who ruled the provinces, and mutual responsibility within the Roman nobility, i.e. nobility

Over time, Cicero began to side with the Senate party, directing all his efforts to reconcile the warring classes.

Cicero vs Catiline

However, the period when Cicero was consul deserves special attention - it was during this time that he managed to expose Catiline’s conspiracy, and also spoke out against him with numerous speeches.

For reference, we note that Catiline was a member of the Senate, and took his origins from a noble patrician family. He conceived his plot during the election struggle for consular power, and this struggle was between him and Cicero. Catiline was able to attract a considerable number of people from various social strata to his supporters, and his main slogan was the demand to cancel old debts.

Catiline's entire political campaign was uncertain, but had as its main goal the seizure of power. Cicero, being consul, organized an emergency meeting of the Senate, which, of course, included Catiline. At this meeting he made his first speech “Against Catiline.”

This speech was extremely effective and successful and complied with all oratorical rules. Cicero described the actions of the attackers and the personality of Catiline in rather gloomy colors. He called him “an enemy of the fatherland” and added many unpleasant epithets to this. The main demand for Catiline was to leave Rome, which he did not hesitate to do at the end of the meeting.

Over the next few days, Cicero made three more speeches against the enemy before the Senate and the people, and then published all four speeches. However, the success of the speeches, which helped expose the conspiracy, did not allow the consul to remain in Rome. So, after the expiration of consular powers, Cicero had no choice but to become an exile, because the discontent of Catiline’s supporters was growing, which threatened Cicero with execution without trial.

Cicero vs Mark Antony

Cicero wrote as many as fourteen speeches against Mark Antony, who killed Caesar. These speeches were called “Philippics”, because. were very similar to the speeches of Demosthenes, who spoke out against the Macedonian tyrant, King Philip.

In his speeches “Against Mark Antony,” Cicero called on the Senate to defend the freedom of the republic against the heir of Caesar. But later, Mark Antony and his supporters created a second triumvirate, and the Senate simply became unable to resist, which is why Cicero was included in the list of outlaws and later killed. But the fame of Cicero not only did not sink into oblivion, but was able to overcome centuries.

Features of Cicero's speeches

Cicero's speeches were always filled with the most diverse content and were distinguished by first-class skill. Both his political and judicial speeches appealed to high moral principles and condemned cruelty, ignorance and greed.

Cicero formulated in a special way the tasks that the speaker must perform. He said that an eloquent speaker can be considered a speaker whose speeches both in council and in court will be convincing, delightful and captivating. The first is a consequence of necessity, the second is required for pleasure, and the third is the path to victory, because has a large amount of funds necessary for success in business. And depending on the number of tasks that the speaker sets for himself, one can name the same number of types of eloquence - it can be precise - for persuasion, moderate - for pleasure, powerful - for enthusiasm. The speaker considered the process of delivering a speech in front of the public to be the most important moment.

As for the language of Cicero’s speeches and writings, they are something between the basic rhetorical directions - Atticism, which is a simple dry style, and Asianism, which is a lush and colorful style.

As time went on, Cicero gravitated more and more towards a moderate and strict type of eloquence. They paid great attention to speech rhythm, euphony of endings and the alternation of long and short syllables. By skillfully matching all this, Cicero was able to become the most outstanding master of political speeches in Rome.

Cicero masterfully mastered words that can enhance pathos in speech. Among these are exclamations, rhetorical questions, appeals to the gods, fictitious speeches that seem to come from the characters of allegories, metaphors, etc. And Cicero’s works are always stylistically processed at the highest level.

It is for these reasons that Marcus Tullius Cicero is credited with a major contribution to the development of a normalized Latin language and Roman classical prose.

Literary legacy and significance of Cicero

Cicero, as we just mentioned, is considered the founder of Roman classical prose. The language of his speeches, letters and treatises is the norm of classical Latin. The style of his prose works was appreciated by critics of Antiquity, and the works themselves became exemplary.

The letters written by Cicero formed the basis of European epistolary culture, and the speeches, mainly the Catilinaria (the "Against Catiline" speeches), are among the most prominent examples of the genre.

Humanistic prose also, in the process of its formation, took the language of Cicero as a basis. Even in the 18th century, prominent French revolutionary politicians took the rules and techniques of Cicero as the basis for their eloquence.

Cicero's treatises on philosophy can be called a unique presentation of the entire philosophy of his era, and today data is drawn from them on many aspects of life in Rome in the 1st century BC.

After himself, Cicero was able to leave a voluminous literary legacy, most of which can be found today. This includes his literary works: more than eight hundred letters, several treatises and 58 speeches.

Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Mariupol State University

Faculty of Philology

Essay

By subject“Communicative strategies and speech tactics”

On the topic"The Oratory of Cicero"

Voloshchuk A.A.

Teacher

Karpilenko V.A.

Mariupol, 2011

Oratory of Cicero

The greatest classic of ancient eloquence and theoretician of oratory was the ancient Roman orator and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC).

Cicero was born into a family belonging to the equestrian class in the small town of Arpina. When the future speaker was 15 years old, his father moved to Rome to give his sons a good education.

One of his first speeches that has survived to this day, “In Defense of Roscius,” Cicero delivered in censure of the freedman and favorite of the dictator Sulla, which was a risky step at a time when Sulla widely used proscription executions to get rid of undesirables. Fearing the dictator's revenge, Cicero, who won the trial, went to Athens, where he continued to study philosophy and rhetoric.

After Sulla's death, he returned to Rome, where he began to act as a defense lawyer in court.

In 75 BC. e. Cicero was elected quaestor and received an appointment to Sicily, where he supervised the export of grain during a period of grain shortage in Rome. With his justice and honesty, he earned the respect of the Sicilians, but in Rome his successes were practically unnoticed.

Cicero gained wider fame after the case of Verres, the former governor of Sicily. In 70 BC. e., filing a claim of extortion against Verres, the Sicilians turned to Cicero for help, remembering his oratorical talents. The praetors, bribed by Verres, delayed the proceedings so much that they did not leave Cicero time to deliver an indictment before the start of the holidays, but he so skillfully presented to the judges evidence and testimony of witnesses accusing the governor of bribery, extortion, outright robbery and murder of Sicilians and even Roman citizens, that his speech decided the matter, and Verres was forced to go into exile. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected curule aedile, and in 66 BC. e. - praetor.

In 63 BC. e. Cicero was elected to the post of consul, being the first "new man" to achieve this post in the previous 30 years. His election was facilitated by the fact that his rival, Catiline, openly spoke about his readiness for revolutionary changes if he received the post of consul. This greatly worried the Romans, and preference was eventually given to Cicero.

After his defeat in the elections, Catiline began to prepare a plot to seize power, which Cicero managed to uncover. “How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience? How long will you continue to mock us in your rage? To what extent will you boast of your unbridled insolence? Weren't you alarmed either by the night guards on the Palatine, or by the guards going around the city, or by the fear that gripped the people, or by the presence of all honest people, or by the choice of this so reliably protected place for the meeting of the Senate, or by the faces and looks of all those present? Don’t you understand that your intentions are open?” This is how Cicero began his first speech against Catiline. With four speeches, considered examples of oratory, Cicero forced Catiline to flee Rome to Etruria. In the ensuing meeting of the Senate, which he led, it was decided to arrest and execute without trial those conspirators who remained in Rome, since they posed too great a threat to the state, and the usual measures in such cases - house arrest or exile - would not be effective enough . Julius Caesar, who was present at the meeting, opposed the execution, but Cato, with his speech, which not only exposed the guilt of the conspirators, but also listed the suspicions that fell on Caesar himself, convinced the senators of the need for a death sentence.

During this period, Cicero's fame and influence reached their peak; praising his decisive actions, Cato called him “the father of the fatherland.”

In 60 BC. e. Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus joined forces to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. Recognizing Cicero's talents and popularity, they made several attempts to win him over to their side. Cicero hesitated and refused, preferring to remain loyal to the Senate and the ideals of the Republic. However, this left him open to attacks from opponents, including the tribune Clodius, who had disliked Cicero since the orator testified against him at his trial.

Clodius sought the adoption of a law condemning Cicero to exile as a person who executed Roman citizens without trial. Cicero turned to Pompey and other influential persons for support, but did not receive it; in addition, he was subjected to physical persecution by Clodius' followers. In April 58 BC. e. he was forced into voluntary exile. In his absence, the law was passed, his property was confiscated, and his houses were burned.

In September 57 BC. e. Pompey took a tougher position towards Clodius (the reason for this was the attacks of the tribune). Pompey drove him out of the forum and achieved the return of Cicero from exile with the help of the people's tribune Titus Annius Milo.

In 51 BC. e. He was appointed by lot as governor of Cilicia, where he successfully ruled, put an end to the rebellion of the Cappadocians without resorting to weapons, and also defeated the robber tribes of Aman, for which he received the title of “emperor.”

After the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), Cicero refused the command of Pompey's army offered to him, and after a skirmish with Pompey the Younger and other military leaders who accused him of treason, he moved to Brundisium. There he met with Caesar and was forgiven by him. During the reign of Caesar, he left the political scene of Rome, unable to come to terms with dictatorship, and began writing and translating philosophical treatises.

After the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC. e. Cicero returned to politics, deciding that with the death of the dictator, the republic could be restored.

In the struggle for power between Mark Antony and the young Octavian, Caesar's heir, he took the latter's side, believing that he could manipulate the young man and with his help achieve power. In order to weaken Anthony’s position, he made 14 speeches directed against him, which he called “philippics” by analogy with the speeches of Demosthenes, in which he denounced Philip of Macedon. However, when Octavian, thanks to the support given to him by Cicero, came to power, he entered into an alliance with Antony and Lepidus, forming the Second Triumvirate. Antony ensured that Cicero’s name was included in the proscription lists of “enemies of the people,” which the triumvirs published immediately after the formation of the union.

Cicero was killed while trying to escape on December 7, 43 BC. e. When Cicero noticed the killers catching up with him, he ordered the slaves carrying him: “Place the palanquin right there,” and then, sticking his head out from behind the curtain, put his neck under the killer’s knife. His severed head and right hand were delivered to Antony and then placed on the oratorical platform of the forum.

During his lifetime, Marcus Tullius Cicero published more than a hundred speeches, political and judicial, of which 58 have survived completely or in significant fragments. 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics and philosophy have also reached us, from which many generations of lawyers studied oratory, studying, in particular , and such Cicero techniques as lamentation. More than 800 letters from Cicero also survive, containing a wealth of biographical information and a wealth of valuable information about Roman society at the end of the republic.

Three treatises on oratory reflect the rich experience of ancient rhetoric and his own practical experience as the greatest Roman orator. These treatises - “On the Orator”, “Brutus, or On Famous Orators”, “The Orator” - are monuments of the ancient theory of literature, ancient humanism, which had a profound influence on the entire European culture.

What are Cicero's views on oratory? Cicero's theory of eloquence occupies a middle position between Asianism and moderate classical Atticism. In his treatise “On the Orator,” Cicero complains that eloquence has the fewest representatives among all the sciences and arts. And this is no coincidence. In his opinion, there are few truly good speakers, because eloquence is something that comes more difficult than it seems. Eloquence is born from many knowledge and skills. " In fact,” he writes, “here it is necessary to acquire a wide variety of knowledge, without which fluency in words is meaningless and ridiculous; it is necessary to give beauty to the speech itself, and not only by selection, but also by the arrangement of words; and all the movements of the soul with which nature has endowed the human race must be studied to subtlety, because all the power and art of eloquence must be manifested in order to either calm or excite the souls of listeners. To all this must be added humor and wit, education worthy of a free man, speed and brevity, both in repelling and attacking, imbued with subtle grace and good manners. In addition, it is necessary to know the entire history of antiquity in order to draw examples from it; familiarity with laws and civil rights should also not be neglected. Do I still need to expand on the performance itself, which requires monitoring body movements, gestures, facial expressions, sounds and shades of voice?.. Finally, what can I say about the treasury of all knowledge - memory? After all, it goes without saying that if our thoughts and words, found and pondered, are not entrusted to her for safekeeping, then all the merits of the speaker, no matter how brilliant they may be, will be in vain.”

Cicero believes that the basis of oratory is, first of all, a deep knowledge of the subject; if there is no deep content behind the speech, assimilated and cognized by the speaker, then verbal expression is empty and childish chatter. Eloquence is an art, but the most difficult of the arts.

This is how, according to Cicero, the formation of an orator occurs: “So, we can say: to a gifted person who deserves support and help, we will pass on only what experience has taught us, so that under our leadership he can achieve everything that we ourselves have achieved without a leader; and we are not able to teach better than this.” The main thing is the gift of words, which must be constantly developed.

Cicero analyzes the construction of judicial speech, which must prove the correctness of what we are defending; to win over those to whom we speak; direct their thoughts in the direction necessary for the business. He elaborates on types of evidence and their application.

The speaker's duty is to: find something to say; arrange what was found in order; give it verbal form; confirm all this in memory; pronounce. As we see, Cicero adheres to the established classical scheme, according to the canon, which gives a five-part division of the rhetorical process, that is, the entire path “from thought to the spoken public word.” In addition, the task of the speaker is to win over the audience; state the essence of the case; establish a controversial issue; reinforce your position; refute the opponent's opinion; in conclusion, to give shine to your positions and finally overthrow the enemy’s positions.

According to Cicero, the most important thing for a speaker is the verbal expression of thoughts and the delivery of speech. The first requirement for speech is purity and clarity of language (expression of thought). Purity and clarity are developed by training and improved by reading exemplary speakers and poets. For clarity of speech, it is necessary to choose words impeccably and use morphological forms correctly. Clarity of speech is associated with correct, normative pronunciation: the speaker needs to correctly control the organs of speech, breathing and the sounds of speech themselves. “It’s not good when sounds are pronounced too emphatically; it is also not good when they are obscured by excessive negligence; it is not good when a word is pronounced in a weak, dying voice; It’s also not good when they are pronounced while puffing, as if short of breath /.../, there are, on the one hand, such shortcomings that everyone tries to avoid, for example, a weak, feminine voice or, as it were, unmusical, dissonant and dull. On the other hand, there is a drawback that others consciously strive for: for example, some people like the rough peasant pronunciation, because it seems to them that it rather gives their speech a touch of antiquity.”

Cicero’s philosophical discussion about morality and eloquence is interesting: “ A true speaker must research, re-listen, re-read, discuss, disassemble, try everything that a person encounters in life, since the speaker revolves in it, and it serves him as material. For eloquence is one of the highest manifestations of a person’s moral strength; and although all manifestations of moral power are homogeneous and equivalent, some types of it are superior to others in beauty and brilliance. Such is eloquence: based on knowledge of the subject, it expresses in words our mind and will with such force that its pressure moves the listeners in any direction. But the more significant this power, the more obligatory we must combine it with honesty and high wisdom; and if we gave abundant means of expression to people deprived of these virtues, we would not make them orators, but would give weapons to madmen.” Here Cicero, perhaps for the first time, raises the question of the image of the orator so broadly. The word, the art of eloquence is connected with the personality of the speaker, through them the speaker’s mind, erudition, his knowledge, experience, as well as the will that acts on listeners through speech are expressed. Eloquence is the highest manifestation of a person’s moral strength. Consequently, the more moral a person is, the more eloquent, according to Cicero. In this case, eloquence is a benefit that the speaker uses for people. The power of oratory, according to Cicero, is necessarily combined with honesty and high wisdom. Only in this case can speech bring satisfaction to people. If dishonest people use the power of words, then this powerful weapon will fall into the hands of madmen who can use it for evil. A philosophical approach to the word as good and hell, as a tool of honest and dishonest people, makes it possible to look at Cicero’s theoretical research from the angle of the humanistic direction of rhetorical art, its highest purpose as an exponent of general humanitarian ideas. It is no coincidence that Cicero connects the power of words with wisdom, noting that the ancients called this science of thinking and speaking, this power of words, wisdom. “After all, in the old days, science,” he notes, “apparently, taught both good words and right deeds; and not special teachers, but the same mentors taught people both to live and to speak.”

Cicero repeatedly emphasizes that the speech should be as exciting as possible, make as much impression on the listeners as possible and be supported by as many arguments as possible, because arguments are truly enormous and important material.

Treatises of Cicero

Treatises "Brutus" and "Orator", written in 46 BC. e., he turns to Brutus, a representative of the new Attic movement, defending his point of view. The purpose of these writings is to substantiate the legitimacy and superiority of that oratorical ideal, the path to which Cicero indicated in the dialogue “On the Orator.” He substantiates this direction both from a historical point of view (in Brutus) and from a theoretical point of view (in Orator). In the dialogue “Brutus, or On Famous Orators,” Cicero lists almost all famous orators - over two hundred - in chronological order with brief characteristics of each. For Cicero, Roman eloquence is a source of national pride, and he is happy to become its first historian. This work is a critical and polemical work, aimed not only at characterizing the speakers, but mainly at defending and developing the ideas expressed in the previous treatise.

In his history of eloquence, he paints a thoughtful picture of historical progress and the gradual ascent of eloquence from insignificance to perfection. For Cicero, eloquence is still not an end in itself, but only a form of political activity, and the fate of eloquence is inextricably linked with the fate of the state. The development of Roman eloquence, Cicero believes, is determined primarily by internal reasons, the breadth and depth of assimilation of Greek culture and the development of Roman culture. Using examples of critical analysis of the speeches of Greek and Roman orators, he once again affirms the ideas that he expressed in his treatise “On the Orator.”

"The Orator" is the final work of Cicero's rhetorical trilogy. At first he paints the image of a perfect speaker, but makes a reservation: “ By creating the image of a perfect speaker, I will portray him as, perhaps, no one has ever been.”

In this treatise, Cicero speaks most of all about verbal expression and rhythm, which is dictated by his desire to prove to the Atticists - and it was on these issues that the dispute was going on - that he was right: he sought to defend his right to a majestic and magnificent syllable, rejecting reproaches of Asianism and exposing the insufficiency and the weakness of the simplicity preached by the Atticists. He puts forward as an argument the Hellenistic doctrine of three styles of eloquence: high, middle and simple. A simple style is designed to convince, a medium style is to delight, and a high style is to excite and captivate the listener.

Selected Quotes from Cicero

- “Paper doesn’t turn red, paper tolerates everything”

In letters “To friends” there is an expression “a letter does not blush”

- "Sword of Damocles"

From the ancient Greek myth about the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder, retold by Cicero in the essay “Tusculan Conversations”

Damocles was jealous of Dionysius, although he flattered him. Wanting to teach a lesson to the flatterer, who called him the happiest of people, Dionysius ordered Damocles to be seated in his place during the feast, having first attached a sharp sword hanging from a horsehair to the ceiling above the throne. This sword was a symbol of the dangers that constantly threatened the ruler.

-“When weapons thunder, the muses are silent”

This proverb is known from Cicero’s speech in defense of Milo.

-"Father of History"

This honorary title was first given to him by the Greek historian Herodotus by Cicero in his essay “On the Laws.”

- “Oh times! Oh morals!

Cicero often used it in speeches, for example, in the first speech against Catiline. Quoted in Latin: “O tempora! O more!”

Cicero in the work “On...: M. A. Nevskaya “Rhetoric”, M., “Eksmo”, 2005 2. Apresyan G.Z. " Oratory art", M., Moscow State University, 1986 3. Alexandrov D.N. "Rhetoric", M., "UNITY" ...

Let us first dwell on the individual main features of the ideal Cicero orator, considering them from the point of view of their origin.

As you know, Cicero poses the question: what shapes an orator - innate data (ingenium), or knowledge of the theory of eloquence (ars), as well as exercises (exercitationes)? This issue was not considered for the first time in the ancient theory of eloquence; with the development of oratorical schools, it was also put forward by Greek theorists, for example Isocrates, with whose school Cicero was well acquainted; but this question was also very relevant in the context of the development of Roman eloquence. In Rome from the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. schools of oratory operated; Latin rhetoricians, who were first persecuted by the aristocratically minded orator Crassus (On the Orator, III, 93 et ​​seq.), took traditional dry rhetoric as the basis for their training and taught them to recite meaningless speeches, without paying attention to whether the students had oratorical abilities.

Cicero does not reject the need for traditional rhetorical theory for the education of an orator; he himself outlined it in his early Rhetoric (De inventione); he himself practiced recitation in Latin, and more often in Greek (Brutus, 301); later he recognized its benefits for the orator (On the Orator, I, 23; II, 81, 85) and even published two small works “Oratorical divisions "(Partitiones oratoriae) and "Topeka". However, according to Cicero, the speaker must first of all have natural abilities - the ability to speak fluently (linguae solutio), sonority of the voice (vocis sonus), strength of the chest (1atera), strong physique (vires), certain proportionality in the shape of the face and body ( conformatio et figura) (On the speaker, I, 114). These innate qualities should be stimulated by his ability to navigate the situation (diligentia) in the process of his speech, and “between the natural gift and the ability to navigate (diligentia) there is a little room left for theory (ars),” says Antony Cicero (On ​​the Orator, II, 147–150). Cicero calls “very funny” (perridiculos) all those rhetoricians who study with their students only rhetorical theory (On the Orator, III, 75).

Theory is needed, but Cicero bases it on oratorical practice: “It was not eloquence that was born from theory, but theory from eloquence” (On the Orator, I, 146). This statement was suggested to Cicero by his many years of oratory experience and was caused by training in rhetoric schools, divorced from practice. Cicero says directly: “We will teach the future orator only what experience (usus) has taught us.” This influence of practice was reflected, for example, in Cicero’s judgment about the parts of oratorical speech established in rhetoric (introduction, story, etc.). Cicero does not reject them; they seem to him to be harmoniously distributed, but not established on the basis of life experience (non perite) (On the Speaker, II, 81). So, for example, theory requires in the introduction to win over the audience, make them favorable (benevolos facere), inform them about the matter (docere), arouse their attention (attentos facere), but experience shows that these requirements should apply not only to the introduction to a speech, but also to its other parts (On the speaker, II, 81 ff.). For the introduction, the material should be taken “from the very interior of the matter” (ex ipsis visceribus causae) (On the Speaker, II, 318).

The same applies to the “story” in speech: credibility, clarity and brevity should be qualities not only of the story, but also of other parts of speech.

The speaker's speech should be filled with a variety of content, indicating the broad education of the speaker. Cicero talks about this many times. Oratory is not empty rhetoric. Already in early rhetoric, Cicero wrote that wisdom in content (prudentia) without eloquence brings little benefit to states, and eloquence without wise content is for the most part too harmful and never brings benefit (On Rhetorical Invention, 1.1).

In his treatise “On the Orator,” Cicero demands a versatile education for the orator: “No one should be considered among the orators unless he is distinguished by his knowledge of all the sciences worthy of a free person” (I, 72). “If anyone wants to give a comprehensive and specific definition of the power of an orator,” writes Cicero, “then, in my opinion, that orator is worthy of this authoritative name who will speak about any subject that is subject to verbal expression with understanding of the matter (prudentia), harmoniously , beautifully, without forgetting anything and even with a certain general dignity” (On the speaker, I, 64; cf. I, 20).

The need for extensive education for an orator as a judicial and political figure was caused by historical conditions back in the 2nd century. BC e.; it was demanded by the satirist Lucilius, to whom Cicero refers in his treatise “On the Orator” (I, 72). Licinius Crassus, Cicero's predecessor in the oratory field, was a widely educated orator. He spoke Greek so “that he seemed to know no other language”; and for him there was “nothing new or unheard of” (On the Speaker, II, 2). Roman orators lack Greek education, says Crassus in Cicero’s On the Orator (III, 94). Cicero was a student of Crassus and received a broad education steeped in Greek culture.

In the essay “Brutus” (308), he admits that in his youth he “spent all his days and nights in in-depth studies of all sciences.”

The need for a broad, versatile education for an orator was especially felt during the tense period of political life in Rome in the 1st century. BC e., when oratory was a powerful force that allowed a politician of one or another party to move up the ladder of government positions and pursue his political line.

Broad education was contrasted by Cicero with the empty chatter of rhetoricians and lightweight orators - these “craftsmen with a nimble and familiar tongue” (On the Orator, I, 83), who “bark and do not speak” (Brutus, 58). “We are not looking for some reciter from school or a loudmouth from the forum, but the most educated and perfect orator,” says Cicero (Orator, 47).

The main content of education, according to Cicero, should be philosophy. And in this regard, Cicero proceeded primarily from his own experience. In the treatise "The Orator" (12) he states that "he came not from the schools of rhetoricians, but from the halls of the Academy." “Without philosophy it is impossible to form such an eloquent person whom we are looking for,” says Cicero. “After all, without philosophy no one can speak very extensively and meaningfully about important and varied things” (Orator, 14).

Based on practical purposes, the Romans, as is known, mastered mainly ethics in Greek philosophy. The speaker especially needed such a philosophy so that he could “recognize human nature and characters” (About the Speaker, I, 48). “Who does not know what the greatest power is; does the speaker consist in arousing in people either anger, or hatred, or sorrow, or in aversion from these affects to gentleness and compassion? - says Cicero. “The orator will not be able to do this as much as he wants if he does not penetrate deeply into all the characteristics of human nature and into the reasons why the minds are excited or calmed down” (On the Orator, I, 53). And the speech itself must reflect the moral qualities (mores) of the speaker, so that in thoughts, in the way of expression, in the entire external delivery of the speech, the speaker seems to be an honest, moral, “well-intentioned” person - Cicero’s vir bonus.

In the 50s of the 1st century. Cicero, the ideologist of the optimates and the Senate, could not understand the deep socio-economic reasons that led to the death of the Roman Republic, could not understand that traditional Roman morality, which constituted the main quality of a “well-meaning husband” (vir bonus), began to decline. Cicero considered the cause of the crisis of the republic to be a decline in morality. “Thanks to our vices, and not thanks to some chance, we maintain the republic in words, but in reality we lost it long ago,” Cicero wrote in his treatise “On the State.” “After all, the morals themselves perished due to the lack of real people ( virorum penuria)".

Therefore, in his “perfect orator”, Cicero wants to revive the ideal of the viri boni (well-meaning citizen), as a member of the “consensus bonorum omnium”, which Cicero, as optimate, proclaimed as the basis of the state.

The speaker must talk about the noble and the shameful, the useful and the useless, about valor and justice, about restraint, about wisdom, about greatness of spirit, about generosity, about piety, about friendship, about loyalty, about duty and other virtues (On the Orator, II , 67).

Thus, eloquence, according to Cicero; should have an educational effect, and in the spirit of the ancient Roman virtus (virtue). This educational value of eloquence corresponded to the general aesthetic views of Cicero; he was against the tendency of the “new poets”, neoterics, towards “art for art’s sake”; from the point of view of the conservative ideology of the optimates, Cicero recognized the educational value of literature that corresponded to the spirit of ancient Roman virtues.

However, rebelling against the school of empty declamators and chatterbox speakers, demanding first of all a varied content of speech, Cicero also insists on verbal expression corresponding to it. He speaks sharply against those who separate words from thoughts, “like the body from the soul”; he wants to show that neither verbal decoration can be found without thoughts, nor any brilliant thought without illuminating it with words (On the Speaker, III, 24). Only rich content will give birth to elegance of verbal expression. Grace is achieved if the speaker speaks in the literary Latin language characteristic of the city of Rome (urbanitas). He will be eloquent who can adapt the verbal expression of speech to any content. Having established such a principle, the speaker, no matter what he speaks about, will speak in such a way that he will not express a speech rich in content dryly, elevated content - in a reduced style, and, on the contrary, all verbal expression of the speech will fully correspond to its content (Speaker, 123 ). Therefore, the orator should not imitate the Roman Atticists, who take the Greek orator Lysias as a model with his simplicity of verbal expression; he must imitate the true Attic orator Demosthenes, whose verbal style of speech varied depending on the content. In this observance of the correspondence between verbal form and content, the speaker shows decor (appropriate, decent), which makes him similar to the poet. By varying verbal expression depending on the content, together with other means and techniques of speech, the speaker, unlike the poet, must “shock” the listeners (permovere). This is an obligatory and unique task (On the best kind of orators, 3; Brutus, 322).

If a speaker manages to shake the people, then he is a “perfect speaker”; the judgment of specialists about the speaker must coincide with the judgment of the people (Brutus, 185–192). “For an orator,” writes Cicero, “the ears of the people are like flutes: if they do not perceive the breath, or the listener, like a stubborn horse, does not respond at all, then one must stop urging him on” (Brutus, 192).

This is the connection between the main features of the image of the orator in Cicero that we have considered with the specific living conditions of Rome in the middle of the 1st century. BC e. In conclusion, it must be said that in the image of the “perfect orator”, Cicero, as was noted long ago, clearly wants to present his self-portrait. In the treatise “Brutus” (321), extolling his merits, he concisely lists all the main features of the “perfect orator”, developed in more detail in the essay “On the Orator”; at the same time, he first modestly notes that he will not say anything about himself, but will talk about the other speakers, none of whom were distinguished by the qualities of a “perfect speaker.”

In eloquence, two directions were known: Asian (florid language, aphorisms, predilection for constructing the ends of a period and its parts) and Attic (concise, simple language). Cicero developed his own middle style, which combined the features of both directions.

The main principles of oratory Ts. (according to our textbook) are too brief, but I couldn’t isolate anything else. Ts. largely uses what he writes about in the “Orator”, you will see for yourself:

1. State the essence of the case so that the public and the tribunal believe in its truth.

2. Ts. himself notes in his speeches “an abundance of thoughts and words,” most of which came from the speaker’s desire to divert attention from unfavorable facts.

3. Ts. often changes the tone of the story - sometimes he speaks pathetically, sometimes simply, sometimes seriously. That's mocking.

4. Uses amplification - a technique of exaggeration.

(Briefly about the “Orator” according to our textbook: In the treatise “The Orator” Ts. sets out his opinion or the use of various styles depending on the content of the speech in order to convince listeners, impress with the grace and beauty of speech, captivate and excite with sublimity. Much attention is paid to periodization speech, the theory of rhythm is described in detail, especially in the endings of the members of the periods (shta??)

Ladies! As it turned out, Cicero had at least two works devoted to oratory. These are the treatise “The Orator” and the treatise “On the Orator”. In our question, only “Speaker” is indicated, a good and complete retelling of which I found on the Internet. I'll send it to you. In reality, it is not so easy to read, but, believe me, it is easier than Cicero’s original “Orator”, flowery and verbose.

The treatise “Orator” should, according to Cicero, answer the question that Brutus often asked Cicero: what is the highest ideal and, as it were, the highest image of eloquence? The ideas presented in this work were touched upon in the treatise “On the Best Kind of Orators,” which was also written in the last years of Cicero’s life. The question of the ideal speaker arose in connection with the debate about the role model.

When they talk about high, average and simple types, or genus, they do not mean different types or genera of eloquence, which is in fact one, but speakers who, depending on the degree of their talent, are closer or further from the ideal. Anyone who skillfully handles thoughts and words will be a speaker, but his proximity to the ideal will depend on the degree of his talent. The ideal speaker is the one who in his speech instructs his listeners, gives them pleasure, and subjugates their will. The first is his duty, the second is the guarantee of his popularity, the third is a necessary condition for success.

Cicero's oratorical theory, set forth in The Orator, was a summation of the rich practical experience of the orators preceding Cicero and his own, and at the same time a justification of his theory and practice, since his authority was encroached upon. In the treatise “The Orator”, in a condensed form, Cicero repeats the main provisions of his theory, but here he pays main attention to the verbal expression of speech, the theory of three styles and the theory of rhythm.

Cicero was a great stylist. Even his most zealous critics, who in modern times condemned him as an unlucky politician and rejected him as an orator, recognized his fame as a master of style. The neo-Atticists, contemporaries of Cicero, encroaching on his authority as a stylist, deprived him of the only support that he still had after all his political and life failures. He therefore defends his ideal of the orator and defends his theory in the Orator with particular conviction and passion. Based on the somewhat discordant nature of the treatise, some researchers are inclined to believe that it was written in a hurry: Cicero seemed to be in a hurry to justify himself to his contemporaries and defend himself in a situation that was very unfavorable for him.

As in the treatise “On the Orator,” Cicero dwells here on the need for broad education for the orator: without knowledge of history, law and especially philosophy, there is no ideal orator (“he who does not know what happened before his birth will always remain a child”) . He regrets that the opinion about the necessity of erudition is still not generally accepted among his contemporaries. He discusses the difference between eloquence and philosophy, sophistry, history and poetry, reflects on whether it is appropriate for a statesman to argue about eloquence, but pays main attention to the characteristics of style and rhythm, based on the conviction that a modern speaker must master all three types of eloquence and all styles of speech. This is how he characterizes his task in this treatise: to draw the image of a perfect speaker who is not an “inventor”, not a “disposer”, not a “pronouncer”, although he has all this in him - no, his name is ρήτωρ (rhetor). Anyone can claim partial possession of any art of orator, but his main strength - speech, that is, verbal expression - belongs to him alone.

Characterizing the three types of speech, it is no coincidence that he dwells in particular detail on the simple - it was this type that the latter-day Attics preferred. And it turns out that this simple genus is far from simple. True, the simple gender does not require rhythm, but it forces you to pay more attention to the correctness, purity and appropriateness of expression. He will not have pomp, sweetness and abundance, but he may well use decorations, although more restrained and less often than other types of speech. Humor, tactful and appropriate, is not contraindicated for him. “He will be such a master of jokes and ridicule,” says Cicero, “which I have never seen among the new Attics, although this is undeniable and highly characteristic of Atticism.”

Cicero characterizes the moderate and high kind of eloquence much more briefly, arguing that an eloquent speaker is “a speaker who knows how to speak about the low simply, about the high - important, and about the average - moderately.” Agreeing with Brutus that this has never happened before, he nevertheless refers to his own practice, which should lead his interlocutor to the idea that he is the most like such a speaker: “My entire speech for Caecina was devoted to the words of the interdict: we clarified the hidden meaning with definitions, referring to civil law, and clarified ambiguous expressions. Regarding the Manilian Law, I needed to praise Pompey: moderate speech gave us the means for praise. The case of Rabirius gave me every right to touch upon the greatness of the Roman people: therefore here we gave full freedom to our flame to spread. But sometimes it needs to be mixed and varied. What kind of eloquence cannot be found in the seven books of my accusations? In a speech for Gabit? For Cornelius? In many of our defensive speeches, I would have picked up examples if I didn’t think that they were well known or that those who wanted could pick them up themselves.” “There is no such oratorical dignity in any kind that would not be in our speeches, even if not in perfect form,” Cicero modestly notes, “but at least in the form of an attempt or sketch. If we don’t reach the goal, then at least we see what goal we should strive for.” And although he immediately stipulates that he is far from admiring himself and that even Demosthenes is in some ways far from perfect, nevertheless, the model of the ideal speaker, whose image is formed in “The Orator,” is certainly himself.

Cicero attached great importance to the principle of appropriateness (πρέπον, decorum, tact) - speaking in accordance and agreement with the subject of discussion: “the most difficult thing in speech, as in life, is to understand what is appropriate in what case. The Greeks call this πρέπον, but we will call it, if you like, appropriateness... Moreover, the speaker must take care of appropriateness not only in thoughts, but also in words. After all, not every position, not every rank, not every authority, not every age, and certainly not every place, time and public allow one to adhere to the same kind of thoughts and expressions for all cases... How inappropriate it would be to talk about gutters in front of only a judge , use pompous words and commonplaces, and talk lowly and simply about the greatness of the Roman people! Having established this, the speaker will speak in such a way “so that the juicy does not turn out to be dry, the great does not turn out to be small and vice versa, and his speech will correspond and befit the objects.”

Here are short and precise instructions as to what is appropriate in each part of the speech: “The beginning is restrained, not yet inflamed by high words, but rich in sharp thoughts, aimed at harming the other side or in defense of one’s own. The narrative is plausible, stated clearly, in language that is not historical, but close to everyday. Further, if the matter is simple, then the connection of arguments will be simple both in statements and in refutations: and it will be maintained so that the speech is at the same height as the subject of the speech. If the matter happens in such a way that all the power of eloquence can be deployed in it, then the speaker will spread wider, then he will rule and rule souls, setting them up as he pleases, that is, as the essence of the matter and circumstances require.” The “royal power of speech” is to excite and disturb souls. According to Cicero, there are two means for this: ethos and pathos. The first, which serves to depict characters, morals, every state of life, is intended to evoke sympathy, compassion, the second is aimed at evoking stronger feelings that contribute to the victory of the speaker.

Cicero especially appreciated the orator’s ability to pathos, believing in his limitless possibilities: “I am a mediocre orator (if not worse),” he says, in fact thinking, of course, the opposite, “but always acting with a powerful onslaught, I have more than once knocked down the enemy.” all positions. Hortensius, defending a loved one, could not answer to us. Catiline, a man of unprecedented impudence, was speechless before our accusation in the Senate. Curio the Elder began to answer us on a private matter of great importance, but suddenly sat down, declaring that he had been drugged, depriving him of his memory. What can we say about arousing compassion? In this I have even more experience, because even if there were several of us, defenders, everyone left the conclusion to me, and I had to rely not on talent, but on spiritual sympathy in order to create the impression of superiority.”

Much space in the treatise is devoted to the theory of periodic and rhythmic speech. In the history of ancient oratory, the creation of periodic and rhythmic speech belongs to Isocrates. The Romans adopted rhythm from the Greeks; they were distinguished mainly by supporters of the Asian trend in rhetoric. Cicero brought this quality of speech to perfection. Musicality and rhythm of phrases are one of the most remarkable properties of Cicero’s speech, which is difficult for a modern person to appreciate, but to which the ancients were very sensitive. Cicero tells how a spectator in a theater was indignant, intuitively sensing a violation of the rhythm: “the whole theater raised a cry if even one syllable in a verse was longer or shorter than it should be, although the crowd of spectators does not know the feet, does not know the rhythms and does not understand that , why and in what way it offended her hearing; however, nature itself has placed in our ears sensitivity to the longitude and brevity of sounds, as well as to high and low tones.” The rhythm of speech facilitated the path to the heart of the listener and thereby contributed to the achievement of the main task of the speaker - persuasion. Cicero explains in detail what constitutes the concept of “rhythm” (Greek has the Latin equivalent numerus). It is created not only by the combination of syllables - long and short, but also by the choice of words, the order of their arrangement, the symmetry of expression and the volume of phrases.

Cicero attached particular importance to the choice of words: “There are two things that please the ear: sound and rhythm. Now I will talk about sound, immediately then about rhythm. Words should be selected as euphonious as possible, but still drawn from ordinary speech, and not just exquisitely sounding, like those of poets... Therefore, we will prefer the quality of our words to the brilliance of Greek ones.” When choosing words, the main point was taken into account: speech was perceived by ear, and therefore words should be chosen whose meaning comes immediately, which can be understood at the very moment of utterance. Therefore, Cicero used correct and well-known words and expressions, familiar and natural, avoiding in their choice excessive poetry and excessive everyday life. He almost did not use archaisms and rare words, constantly remembering that in order to achieve the main task of the speaker - persuasion, he must be understandable to everyone.

Not only the choice of words, but also their combination is important for rhythm. Here you need to ensure, first of all, that “the endings of one are most coherently and, moreover, harmoniously combined with the beginning of the next; or so that the very form and consonance of words create a unique integrity.” However, this must be done so that the efforts are not noticeable. Excessive concern for this should not come out. After advice to avoid gaping and harsh sounds, Cicero dwells in detail on the use of archaisms in modern speech, agreeing to their admission, provided that they do not hurt the ear. “There are two means of giving beauty to speech: the pleasantness of words and the pleasantness of rhythms; words, as it were, represent some kind of material, and rhythm is its finishing. But, as in everything else, here the more ancient inventions were caused by necessity, the later ones by the desire for pleasure.

Cicero believed that the meter does not have to be maintained throughout the entire period; the rhythmic end of the phrase - the clause (clausula) should be predominantly rhythmic; the whole phrase should also be harmonious: “The pattern should be observed not only in combinations of words, but also in completions, for this consists the second requirement of hearing we indicated. Completions are obtained either as if involuntarily - by the very arrangement of words, or with the help of words that themselves form consonances. Whether they have similar case endings, or correlate equal segments, or contrast opposites, such combinations are already rhythmic in nature, even if nothing is added to them intentionally. In striving for such consonance, they say, Gorgias was the first...” Cicero illustrates this consonance, recognizing himself as a classic, with an example from his speech for Milo: “Therefore, judges, there is such a law, not written by us, but born with us: we have not heard it, have not read it, have not taught it, but from nature itself received, gleaned, assimilated: it is in us not from teaching, but from birth; We are not educated by it, but proptans.”

Cicero pronounces entire tirades in defense of the rhythm of speech, imbued with polemical pathos directed against the Atticians. He condemns those who, instead of speaking coherently and completely, speak in abrupt and chopped phrases, believing that they simply have “inhumanly coarse hearing.” He tells the history of oratorical rhythm, starting with Isocrates, the reason for its emergence, the essence of rhythm, and notes the spontaneous desire for rhythm in any prosaic speech. He notes that the rhythm of prose speech should differ from poetic speech, although oratorical prose uses the same meters as poetry. Asianists, for example, liked to use dichoreus - double trochee - in endings (clauses). Cicero does not recommend ending a sentence with several short syllables. His favorite endings are a cretic combined with another cretic, or a cretic with a spondee, or a trochee, or a peon with a trochee (the famous essë vïdëâtür).

Thus, the speaker, according to Cicero, must use all the rich possibilities that language provides him.

He ends the treatise with praise for rhythm, polemically pointed against the Atticists: “Everyone would like to speak in this way (i.e. rhythmically) and everyone would speak if they could; and whoever said otherwise simply did not know how to achieve this. That is why these Attics appeared with their unexpected name...” “To show that they really despise the kind of eloquence that is dear to me, let them either write something in the spirit of Isocrates, or Aeschines, or Demosthenes... In short, I think that the situation is like this: speak harmoniously and coherently, but without thoughts, is a lack of reason, and to speak with thoughts, but without order and measure of words, is a lack of eloquence... A truly eloquent person should evoke not only approval, but, if you like, delight, shouts, applause.” .

Cicero demanded harmony and compared the Atticists with those who tried to tear apart the shield of Phidias. He was not a pioneer of rhythmic speech in Roman eloquence, but the most complete and broad development of the theory of rhythm and periodic speech belongs to him. He believed that appealing to the audience's ears was one of the surest guarantees of his oratorical success - and, apparently, not without reason. With his oratorical theory, which was the fruit of his talent, education and rich practice, he, like no one else in Roman eloquence, demonstrated a deep insight into the essence of eloquence. He breathed new life into the old scholastic doctrine, deepening and expanding it. And his oratorical activity proved his ability to creatively apply this theory in practice.

Cicero was not only a brilliant theoretician of oratory, but also a brilliant practical orator. The depth of development of the theory of oratory, the wide and detailed coverage of all the particulars relating to it, he owes to a large extent to his active practical work as an orator.

Questions:

1. What are the main parts of rhetorical teaching?

2. What rules should be followed when developing the content of a speech? What are the requirements for public speaking?

3. What types of compositions are there?

4. In what ways can the speaker achieve contact with the audience?

5. What is text dialogization?

6. What lexical and syntactic features of the speech contribute to its easier perception?

7. What is the difference between the beginning and the beginning of a speech?

8. What is the essence of the “laws of the region” of speech?

Exercises:

1. The pinnacle of Roman eloquence is the oratory of Cicero. Read an excerpt from Cicero's treatise "The Orator". Title each point of Cicero's plan for preparing a public speech with an appropriate rhetorical term. A description of which part of the ancient rhetorical canon is missing in the analyzed fragment?

M.T.Cicero. Speaker (fragment)

A speaker should be concerned about three things - what to say, where to say it and how to say it...

What can I say - finding. Indeed, finding and choosing what to say is a great thing; it is like a soul in a body; but this is a concern of healthy sense rather than eloquence, and in what matter can you do without healthy sense? Of course, the speaker in whom we seek excellence will know where to extract reasons and arguments. Whatever is said in a judicial or political speech, it is necessary to clarify, firstly, whether the act took place, secondly, how to define it and, thirdly, how to evaluate it. The first question is resolved by evidence, the second by definitions, the third by the concepts of right and wrong...

Where to say - location. And with what care he arranges everything he finds! - For this is the second of the three concerns of the speaker. Of course, he will build worthy approaches and magnificent vestibules to his subject, he will capture attention from the first onslaught, confirm his opinions, reflect and weaken the opposing ones, put the most compelling arguments partly at the beginning, partly at the end, and between them he will insert weak ones.

How to say. So, we have briefly and briefly described what a speaker should be like in relation to the first two parts of eloquence. But, as we have already said, these parts, for all their significance and importance, require less art and labor; but when he finds what to say and where to say it, then it will be incomparably more important to take care of how to say it.

Some people like the flowing roundness of words, and they consider eloquence to be non-stop speech; others like separate dissected segments with stops and breaks. What could be more different? However, there is something excellent in both. Some excel in calmness, smoothness and, as it were, in the purity and illusory quality of their kind of speech; others, using harsh and strict words, strive for a kind of sorrowful word. And since we have just established the division that some want to appear important, others simple, others moderate, then as many types of speech as we have counted, it turns out that there are just as many types of speakers.

Pronunciation. If anyone wants to be the first in eloquence, let him speak in a tense voice in angry places, and in a soft voice in calm ones; a low voice will give it importance, a wavering voice will give it touchingness. Truly amazing is the nature of the voice, which, with the help of only three sounds - low, high and variable - achieves such varied and such sweet perfection in melodies.

He will control his movements so that there is nothing superfluous in them. He will hold himself straight and slender, walk - occasionally and not much, step forward - with moderation and also infrequently; no relaxation of the neck, no playing with his fingers - he will not even beat out the rhythm with a joint, but, in control of his entire body, he can tilt his waist, as befits a husband, stretch out his hands in tense places and swell them in calm ones.

And what a dignity. What attractiveness will his face portray, which is second only to his voice in expressiveness! At the same time, one must avoid any excess, any antics, but skillfully control the gaze. For just as the face is the image of the soul, so the eyes are its expression. And how happy or sad they should be will be shown by the very objects that will be discussed.

2. Read the sayings. Come up with short recommendations for a beginning speaker that would include these sayings as a component.

Sample: To lead a speech is not to weave bast shoes. – Any oral statement must be prepared. You can't expect to perform well without preparation.

1. Know more, but tell me. 2. Where there are many words, there is little sense. 3. It’s better not to say anything than to say enough. 4. Don’t say everything that is being remembered. 5. It’s good to listen to a short speech, but it’s good to think while listening to a long speech. 6. A living word is more valuable than a dead letter.

3. Start a speech on the topic “Student family” (“The problem of paid healthcare/education”, “Modern advertising”, “Computer in our life”), using different types of openings (referring to an event, time, place; arousing curiosity; demonstrating an object; telling a story about yourself, your personal experience, an incident from life; quoting; a historical episode, etc.) .

4. Read the endings of the speeches. Which ones are correct and which ones are incorrect?

1. Everything. Goodbye. 2. And in conclusion, I’ll tell you an anecdote that I recently heard... 3. I’m done. 4. That's it. Unfortunately, I didn’t tell you a lot because I didn’t have much time. 5. Goodbye. I would like you to listen to me more carefully next time. Your audience is inattentive. 6. Thank you for your attention. It was a pleasure to perform with you. 7. So, let's conclude: if everyone takes their responsibilities responsibly, we will have prosperity and order in our country. 8. That's it, I'm finished. Sorry if I talked too long. 9. I hope you all have a great holiday season ahead. All the best! 10. If you have questions, I am ready to answer them.

5. Simplify the phrase syntactically and lexically, breaking it into several sentences and thus preparing it for listening comprehension.

1. In principle, there are several important reasons explaining why young people do not like to listen to symphonic music, preferring light music, and also why modern young people prefer serious dance music. 2. all necessary efforts should be urgently made to eliminate the negative consequences of what happened, creating a commission of specialists who have experience in such situations.

6. Dialogize the statements below: introduce elements of dialogue into them, turn part of the statement into a question for the audience, replace book phrases and words with colloquial ones, etc.

Sample: In winter, real chaos reigns on the streets of our city due to the lack of a sufficient number of snow removal equipment - the entire city is served by only 20 snow removal machines, and up to half of them are constantly under repair, so snow is removed from the roadway extremely slowly, which leads to constant traffic jams . - Every winter we all wait with great fear - what if a lot of snow falls again. What does our city look like after a snowfall? All the streets are covered with snow. Cars skid, people are late for work and they curse everything in the world. Why don't they remove the snow from our streets? How many snowplows do you think we have in our city of a million people? Only 20. How many of them work? At most half. The rest are broken. That's why we have such traffic jams on the streets in winter.

1. It is difficult to understand those adults who say that young people are lazy, that among them there are only drug addicts and drunkards. This is said only to relieve oneself of responsibility for raising children.

2. Looking at the current composition of the City Duma, we can definitely say that there are only a few professional leaders and production managers in it.

7. Describe the methods of organizing a solemn speech “Eternal values ​​of our Holding”.

The eternal values ​​of our Holding are:

Customer focus

Our most important asset is our clients. All activities of the Holding are aimed at meeting their needs as fully as possible. We try to achieve maximum openness in relations with our clients and strive to provide an individual approach to solving the problems of each of them.

Professionalism

High professionalism of our employees is the key to the success of our activities. Today the Holding employs the best specialists with serious experience in the market. The company's employees are our main asset.

Reliability and trust

The trust of our clients and partners is the basis for the existence and development of our business. We try to do everything possible to ensure that our cooperation with clients and partners develops on an ongoing and long-term basis.

Innovation

We are constantly searching for new opportunities for our clients, developing and implementing new effective technologies for providing services, the list of which is constantly expanding.

Corporate Policy

We value the ability to work in a team and encourage individual initiative. We try to provide all employees with the opportunity to realize their best qualities by constantly improving the level of professional training.

Constant development

We are constantly improving ourselves, improving our products and operating technologies, which ensures continuous growth of both employees and the company itself. (From the annual report of the Investment Holding "FINAM")

INDEPENDENT WORK

Independent work is a mandatory component of the Program for studying the course “Russian Language and Speech Culture”. Independent work allows students to develop linguistic thinking, promotes the development of criticality in assessing various grammatical and speech errors, helps to develop skills in working with reference and scientific literature on speech culture and stylistics, and expands their general cultural horizons.

For independent study, topics are provided that are well developed in textbooks and teaching aids and do not pose any particular difficulties for students. In order to develop skills in the practical use of language, which is an important point in the professional training of a specialist in any profile, students are invited to independently study topics related to the description of the functional and stylistic features of language units of different levels and the practice of their use in their own and others’ speech.

During self-study, students must study the necessary scientific and methodological literature proposed on each topic, get acquainted with different points of view on the subject of study, and compare them.