Bunge Nikolai Khristianovich - economist and statesman. Born in 1823, died on May 3, 1895. The life and work of Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge is subject to double assessment - as a scientist and as a minister of finance, and both these areas are quite closely, although not completely, interconnected. First of all, let us note in chronological order the main moments of his life: since 1850 Bunge has been a professor of political economy and statistics at Kiev University, since 1869 he has been a professor of police law, three times at the same Bunge University he was elected rector: 1859 - 62, 1871 - 75 and 1878 - 80, and from the same position in 1880 he was appointed Deputy Minister of Finance (A.A. Abaza), from 1881 to 1886. was Minister of Finance, from 1887 to the day of his death Chairman of the Committee of Ministers, since 1890 - Academician of the Department of Political Economy. The most important scientific works of Bunge: A Course in Statistics, 1865; Fundamentals of Political Economy, The Theory of Credit 1852; Historical outline of economic doctrines and a review of various branches of economic activity - namely, 1st ed. course of police law, 2 no. 1869, besides this: a historical sketch, 4 no. 1869 - 73, police law (improvement), 2 volumes, 1873 - 77, warehouses and warrants 1871. Public accounting and reporting of England 1891. Bunge's last creation, compiled partly from previously published articles and studies, partly supplemented and altered with the addition of new ones sections - this was published in 1895: "Essays on Political and Economic Literature", which included the above-mentioned historical essay, supplemented by the teachings of A. Wagner, Scheffle, G. George, Marx, Flursheim and others; ibid.: Consensus of Private Interest Theory (Carey system), J. St. Mill as an economist, Schmoller about Menger.

Under the editorship and with a note by Bunge, the work of A. Wagner was published in 1871: Russian paper money, with the application of Bunge's project on the restoration of metal circulation. In addition, many smaller articles. It is hardly necessary now to criticize and analyze all these main works of Bunge, because. most of them have lost the interest of modernity, even in a purely scientific sense. But at one time, almost every one of them was outstanding and perhaps the best study in its subject. Historical sketches of economic doctrines and the course of police law have, however, their price to this day. In terms of his general views, Bunge stood at the boundary between the old classical school of economists and the emerging historical school, to which his sympathies leaned. In the same way, Bunge preferred the historical school over the newest abstract school of K. Menger, for the sake of which he even conveys in his own words the criticism of this school by Schmoller (in the titled "Essays"). And despite his high administrative post, Bunge followed the release of economic literature until the end of his life, so that in the named "Essays" he analyzes the teachings of both G. George, and Marx, and Flursheim, and others; but he could not understand and appreciate the last two writers, so that criticism of them is the weakest point of his work.

In the field of economic policy, which he essentially only expounded in his course on police law (which has absolutely no section on the so-called decency or security), Bunge is a representative of economic liberalism rather than protectionism, without falling, however, into the extremes of the theory of non-intervention of the state authorities. Meanwhile, in fact, in his practical ministerial activity, Bunge most deviated from these views of his, supporting a more protective customs policy, although, of course, not to the same extent as the two successors of financial power who followed him. But, regardless of some shortcomings in Bunge's scientific works, the latter, in any case, by themselves will preserve his memory for a long time, as one of the greatest Russian economists of his time. And there is no doubt that Bunge's greatest merits as Minister of Finance were the direct result and practical application of his earlier scientific views. The state-financial results of Bunge's activities are undoubtedly much more interesting at the present time and are undoubtedly the best page in our financial and economic history in general, which is why it is worth dwelling on them in somewhat more detail.

Of Bunge, more than of any of our finance ministers, it can be said that he really put into practice a certain system that went even quite far beyond financial policy, in the full sense of the word. In support of the latter, it suffices to point out at least the following main merits of Bunge: the establishment of a factory inspectorate under him and, in general, the emergence of modern factory legislation in the form of a law on the work of minors (1882 - 1884), the publication of correct factory hiring and supervision of factory enterprises (1886). .). And in another area, the creation of a peasant land bank in order to expand peasant land ownership (1883). Under him, a noble land bank was also established (1885). It is also impossible not to note the attempt he began just before his death to reduce the appetites of our sugar refiners, who organized a syndicate in order to maintain high prices for their product by limiting its sale to the domestic market. The government normalization planned by Bunge was supposed to differ quite significantly from the practiced one and differed little from the tasks of the former syndicate.

In the area of ​​purely financial reforms, Bunge's system can be characterized by carrying out the most perfect principles of financial theory, namely the application of the requirements of proportionality and fairness in taxation. Therefore, Bunge's main attention was turned to facilitating the various payments of the peasants and to raising the old taxes and introducing completely new ones for the better-off classes of society. Both were directly connected with each other, since the decrease in state revenues in one article had to be covered by their increase in others. In relation to the peasants, the following measures were most significant: 1) a significant reduction in the redemption payments of the former landowning peasants and the integration of the redemption operation with the general system of our budget; 2) the transfer to compulsory redemption of all former owners of the peasants who remained in the position of temporarily liable and paid dues to the landlords; 3) the abolition of the most unfair theoretically, and the heaviest in fact tax - the poll tax, in connection with which was also 4) the transformation of the quitrent tax of the former state peasants into redemption payments. Here it will suffice to pay attention to the internal connection of these measures with each other, which consists in the fact that the direct payments of the peasants were facilitated and more evenly distributed, and with them a more homogeneous legal and economic relation to the land was created. And although from some points of view it is possible not to share Bunge’s view at all on the advantage of the peasants buying land into their private property, even if it was communal property, but from a purely financial point of view, this was the only means to lay at least the beginning of a more homogeneous, t e, not based on class principles, the taxation of land in general.

In accordance with this, Bunge carried out a number of measures aimed at higher taxation of the wealthy classes of society. These include: 1) the introduction of an additional layout tax for commercial and industrial (ordinary) enterprises and, at first, a 3%, and soon a 5% tax for joint-stock and credit enterprises. Bunge's own plan was to introduce in general the taxation of industrial incomes by income tax or a proportional tax, but he did not immediately succeed in implementing this in a purer and more general form, although he undoubtedly paved the way for this for the latest reform of this taxation. 2) The introduction of a tax on the gratuitous transfer of property, gifts and inheritance, with a progressive increase in the percentage of taxation, depending on the remoteness of the degrees of kinship (1, 4, 6 and 8%). 3) Introduction of a 5% tax on income from money capital. The great significance of these reforms speaks for itself enough; and if anything is to be regretted, it is the increase along with this of our indirect taxes, which bear the greatest burden also on the lower classes of the population, especially the excise on drinks. But the latter was almost inevitable, since, on the one hand, it was necessary to replace with something the terms from the peasants or their direct taxes and payments reduced, and, on the other hand, the new direct taxes introduced (of the second category) could not be immediately established in rather high salaries, since both the abolition of the former and the introduction of the latter met with strong resistance from other departments and trends, the struggle against which eventually led to the limitation of the fruitful financial activity of Bunge for a little over five years. But even in this short time, Bunge managed to do so much that a number of other ministers did not even dream of.

In conclusion, let us briefly mention Bunge's other financial and economic measures. Under him, the foundation was laid for the regulation of our railway economy and the purchase of railways, the ground was prepared for the unification of our loans and their enhanced repayment was carried out, the settlement of debt relations between the state treasury and the state bank began in connection with the streamlining of our paper money circulation (the number of state credit notes in the amount of more than 130 million, taking into account the 25 million destroyed according to his plan when he was a deputy minister of finance), the monetary charter was changed (1885), a wider development of savings banks began, the institute of tax inspectors was introduced, etc. .

For a general characterization of the time of his management of the Ministry of Finance, it is only necessary to add that it did not shine with a successful balance of accounts of state revenues and expenditures, and vice versa, it is characterized by deficits. But you can’t blame him for this, because. he could not resist the increase in expenses, but his main task was to facilitate the payments of those who most needed it. And Bunge understood perfectly well that it was necessary to rush with his reforms in this direction, although he had to consciously go for temporary deficits, because. the fruits of his policy will be used by the next generations, which is what actually happened. You need to be a determined person to refuse the amount of about 100 million different kinds of peasant payments, which suddenly disappeared from the budget. But after all, they could appear in it in essence fictitiously, if we take into account the huge debts accumulated on them. Bunge preferred to represent and call a spade a spade, hence the obvious deficits. And then there are critics who accuse him of indecision. Yes, in the personal traits of his character she undoubtedly was; but if we take into account that almost all the time of his activity as a minister, he had to go alone, if not against all, then against many, then here one should rather be surprised at the opposite.

From Milan - to the Italian part of Switzerland, to the city of Lugano, an hour's drive by car. Then another eight kilometers up, to the village of Roverado. And then - only on foot, along a steep mountain slope, past lonely houses and through the forest. So Orthodox pilgrims get to the skete to the hermit monk Gabriel Bunge, who has been living here in solitude and almost inseparably for more than thirty years. I have never met a person who would have contained Christ to such a measure. This is really so. Christ lives in him, he no longer has that human inside to which we are all accustomed, which we meet in other people, Christ lives in him. And communicating with him, you feel it, This spirit that lives in him. When I first saw him, I had a thought: what this Russian Orthodox elder is doing here, even if he was in different clothes, it doesn’t matter. This spirit surprised me: what is he doing here in these mountains. Frequent visitors from Milan are not only pilgrims here, but also helpers. Not far from the skete, a tree fell and blocked the road - they will saw it up and remove it. Previously, Father Gabriel did everything himself, but now he is already 75 years old, and he entrusts the young and strong with the hardest work. When I was younger, I did it all myself: sawing trees, chopping wood, and now I can only take care of the garden and vegetable garden. I used to bake bread myself, but now I don't eat much bread, so I don't bake anymore. Father Gabriel spent three decades in the skete in prayer and studying the works of the holy fathers of the ancient Church in the original. Several years ago, finally convinced that his native, Catholic, church had moved away from patristic and even apostolic traditions, Father Gabriel Bunge converted to Orthodoxy. And now every year more and more pilgrims come to him - as a man of great spiritual experience, the author of the interpretations of the holy fathers, an ascetic monk and a wise old man. These houses seem quite large, but inside they are very small - here the walls are very thick, made of stone. Mountain Skete - only four houses and a church. For the native of Cologne, Gabriel Bunge, once and for all the established order of life is the law. In the morning - cell prayer, reading books and writings, in the afternoon - lunch: the only hot meal for the whole day, in the evening - work: both physical and spiritual. The elder receives pilgrims - he confesses in German, and in French, and in Italian, and in English. In this room I receive people, they come for confession or for "spiritual conversation" (in Russian). People here open their whole life - like a book, and it takes a lot of time to penetrate and realize what spiritual problems a person has and explain something to him. Everyone who has ever visited this skete feels incomparable serenity and peace here: not a single extraneous sound reaches here. Absolute silence. Calm down, peacefully. Here, of course, nature plays its role - mountains, Switzerland, silence. There are very few people. At night it was very hard to get used to silence, to absolute silence. That is, here in Milan, this is not Moscow or any other large city, but in Milan at night, when you sleep, there are noises, but there is silence. Absolute. It is so calm there that... When I lay down for the first time, I lay and listened to myself. This is what Father Gabriel was looking for in the Swiss Alps - complete solitude: so that nothing distracts from prayer. In the monastery, the noise never stops - it's like a mechanism that is constantly working. My friend, a monk of a large monastery in Russia, says: I have a job 24 hours a day, how can I keep a prayerful spirit when my life is full of work? He wanted to become a monk from a very young age. The elder likes to remember how, as a student at the University of Bonn, he came to Greece for two months, where he met Orthodox believers. Then, at the age of 21, for the first time he seriously thought about which church more fully preserved the tradition. I then said to the Greeks: "I really like it in your Church, but it's a pity that you are in schism with us." And then Janis Galanis, who later became a famous theologian, said: "You are wrong, you are in schism with us!" Imagine what a shock it was for me! This is where the search for Truth began for me. At 22, Gabriel Bunge retired from the world and spent 18 long years in the Benedictine monastery of Chevetonne in Belgium. But it seemed to him that it was not enough to be only a monk - he aspired to the feat of hermitage. And in 1980, with the blessing of the clergy, he settled here, at an altitude of 800 meters. At that time, it was an abandoned piece of land, on which stood several dilapidated buildings for livestock. He said that the first winter when he lived there in Switzerland, in the mountains, there was no isolation in his house where he lived. He was cold and hungry. There were, of course, friends who helped him. But there was very severe weather, cold, snow, etc. Brother Gabriel was inspired by the feat of the first hermits, the fathers of the ancient church. My idea was to return to the way of life of the first monks in everything - how to pray, how to stay in your cell. It's a very concentrated lifestyle. You are a monk day and night, around the clock, and you are focused on the essence of this life. He spent the first few years in complete solitude. He read and translated the holy fathers and strove for only one thing - constant communion with God. It is impossible to really tell about the monastic inner life. A monk shouldn't talk about it. It's like keeping the door of the bathhouse open: it will get cold very soon. The bath must be closed. One day a young man began to visit the skete, who soon became a monk and stayed here forever. His name was Father Raphael. For him, as for the only student, Father Gabriel compiled those practical guides for spiritual life, which later become books and will be published in many languages. Father Gabriel said that you can attend services in the monastery, everyone prays, even if you do not pray, the service still goes on. If you are a hermit, if you don't pray yourself, nothing happens. And indeed it is. And very quickly then you fall into despondency. It is no coincidence that the first book, one of the first books that Father Gabriel wrote, is exactly about this, based on the writings of Evagrius of Pontus. Because it was not a theoretical problem for him. This is really for every hermit, I think, life, such a moment. And all the other books that he later wrote are precisely the problems of the spiritual life that he himself struggled with. About anger. I think because these are really the spiritual problems of all Christians. The hermit, he feels it alone, perhaps more strongly. Together, the monks lived in the skete for 18 years, absolutely autonomously: they cut trees and chopped wood, ground flour and baked bread, grew grapes and vegetables themselves. The long illness and death of the only brother was a difficult test for Father Gabriel. It was very difficult. Father Raphael was seriously ill for six years, and how many times I had to run to the hospital, call doctors ... I had no idea that the monastic lifestyle implies this too. Since then he has lived alone. Assistants do not stay long: someone comes for a few hours, someone - for a few days. Yuri Sofoklov, a lawyer from Germany, specially took a vacation to spend two weeks in a skete with Elder Gabriel. This man really stands on the foundations of Orthodoxy, stands on the foundation of the holy fathers. Moreover, the most ancient holy fathers, whom he studied in the original. He knows these languages, he knows Greek, he knows Latin, of course. But, moreover, he knows, I can’t even list everything, Arabic, Kurdish, Syrian. And all these creations of the holy fathers, he studied them. And he generously shared them with me. And for that I am, of course, immensely grateful. Because nothing can replace live communication with such a person. I think that the simplicity of life is what people come here for. That is, precisely in order to renounce their worldly problems, precisely in order, perhaps, not to spend so much time thinking about food, about what will be on the table today, about all their other affairs, but that's it so that these days, similar to one another, so that they just give the opportunity to live just like that. That is, not to think, but to live this eternity, which, in fact, is what it is - measured, calm, like a straight line. And here you are walking along it in this eternity. There is no Internet, no television, no radio. There is a telephone with an answering machine in the refectory, and Father Gabriel listens to it from time to time. For mail in the nearest village, he asks an assistant to go. During fasts, the doors of the skete are completely closed to everyone. I don't even have newspapers here. For a long time I subscribed to weekly publications, but I was so frustrated by the systematic misinformation, it's so tiring! And now I only read books. Living in isolation, away from the news, the hermit kept hoping for the reunification of the churches - Orthodox and Catholic. But a few years ago I realized that he could not wait for this. And I decided to take a step forward. If today John Chrysostom would be at the Liturgy of his own name, he would not be greatly shocked, because the changes were insignificant. But I think that if Gregory the Great had come to the mass bearing his name, he would have learned nothing at all, because there was nothing left of the order that he established. Very soon I was forced to admit to myself that the reunification of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches was impossible. These are two different systems - like Microsoft and Apple - that are very difficult to reconcile. And I thought: what is impossible for the Church is possible for a person. I took this step personally for myself, I became Orthodox. But I did not change my faith, but simply returned to the ancient Church, which has always been my mother. Metropolitan Hilarion Alfeev performed the ceremony of joining Fr. Gabriel to Orthodoxy. It was as if Vladyka Hilarion did not immediately agree to this, since it was quite unexpected for us, after all, Father Gabriel is not a boy, and he spent his entire conscious life, both priestly and monastic, in the bosom of the Catholic Church. And everyone knows him as a famous confessor, a famous theologian. Therefore, of course, it was such an event quite loud, as it were, in the inter-Christian world. For both Orthodox and Catholics. Vladyka Hilarion asked Fr. Gabriel several times whether this was really his conscious decision. And is it not just provoked by some kind of emotion. Or someone else's actions. On August 27, 2010, the Benedictine monk Gabriel was named Hieromonk Gabriel, and a year later he accepted the great schema. In the Orthodox Church, Father Gabriel feels as if he has returned home. From time to time he visits Moscow, meets with his new brothers in Christ and serves together with them at the throne. Now the only reason that can make me leave my hermitage is a trip to Russia. It is important for me to maintain a lively contact with my Church and with Russian monasticism. Father Gabriel assumed that after his conversion to Orthodoxy, he would be left completely alone in his skete, and his Catholic spiritual children would turn away from him. But that did not happen. They continue to come, and some, following the pastor, even changed their confession. I was a Catholic, but, unfortunately, I noticed more and more that our church had moved away from the foundations. This disappointed me, and I even wanted to become a Muslim, I went to the mosque, but the imam said that I was not ready and did not accept me. Then I found out about the hermit monk, miraculously tracked him down, not knowing his address or anything. So more than twenty years ago Father Gabriel became my confessor. Soon after that, I was diagnosed with skin cancer, melanoma, I was very scared. The wife was pregnant with her second child, and we had already made the decision that the child should not be born at such an inopportune moment. But Father Gabriel helped me a lot then to overcome the fear of death and instilled in us the courage and determination to save this child. A boy was born, now he is an adult, and I myself am completely healed. When my confessor became Orthodox, I also decided to convert to Orthodoxy. Elder Gabriel now, on the contrary, has much more pilgrims and spiritual children. The Orthodox have quickly trodden a path to the mountain skete, and sometimes there are even too many of them. I did not expect such an influx of people. This skete is even difficult to find, it is impossible to get here by chance, but whomever God sends, he finds. And now, in my 75 years, I work much more than 10-15 years ago. But everything is the will of God! Once two hundred Ukrainians came to me! One hundred people in the morning and one hundred in the evening. For them it was a wonderful experience, but for me it was terrible, I then got very sick. Believers who live in prosperous European countries - Switzerland and Italy - say that people like Father Gabriel are especially lacking here. People who remind of true values ​​- and not so much with words as with their lives. Switzerland, in general, is such a country, a spiritual desert, there is little spirituality here. The country is prosperous, and, accordingly, all goals and dispensations are human, it is, such, very material. And the soul must be fed. It is impossible to nourish the soul either with shops, or with rags, or with money. The soul feeds on special food, spiritual. And there is very, very little of it. And Father Gabriel, this is the spiritual food that… Why do we all aspire to go there. Because our soul is starving. And when she gets to him, she eats. Europe lives a completely different life - comfort - and this feat of Father Gabriel shines over all this life, which is tied to the earth, to the comforts of life ... He always sought austerities and lived, indeed, like an angel in the flesh; and it's very valuable. And it seems to me that this is not surprising, this is normal, that is, this is natural. Because the more the world lives the way it lives now and runs towards what it is now running to, the more such, if I may say so, Fathers Gabriel will become, because the more such elders who live in seclusion, live in the mountains, who pray. The same thing that I heard from other people, that these elders, they pray for the whole world, for the whole earth. And so the more the world will run, what it is now running for, the more people will be forced, or let's say, it will be so necessary that they pray like this in solitude. Churches in Europe are empty and closed. And the Orthodox parish of the city of Lugano, on the contrary, recently opened a new church - in the former German church. One of our parishioners saw an advertisement in the newspaper that an evangelical church was for sale. We immediately went to see it, it was closed, we walked around it. Our! They called Father Gabriel: Father, there is such an offer - the church is for sale. Bless! He blessed. And with this blessing, our rector, Father Svyatoslav, and we all united in an association so that we could buy this church. And in a year we collected all the money and bought it out. She is ours now. In December 2014, Schema-Archimandrite Gabriel Bunge once again left his mountain monastery for a long time - for several days. In Moscow, he presented his books to readers, which were first published in Russian by the publishing house of the Sretensky Monastery. They are dedicated to the fight against passions and are called "Gluttony, delicacy, gluttony", "Melancholy, sadness, depression" and "Anger, malice, irritation." In them Father Gabriel explains the works of Evagrius of Pontus, a theologian of the fourth century, a disciple of St. Gregory the Theologian. I have translated and commented on these works to make them accessible to the people who live today in the modern world. After all, we are separated by 1700 years and, of course, much is incomprehensible. These books are instructions for the spiritual life. They cannot be read like some kind of novel, at one time - they are built like a textbook. For more than half a century of monasticism, Father Gabriel acquired a useful skill: even breaking solitude and plunging into the bustle of the big world, he, as it were, remains inside his cell - wherever he is. Around me it always seems to be such an invisible cell, and I carry it with me everywhere. So it doesn't really matter to me where I am. But I am happy when I am here, because there is silence and nothing distracts from prayer. It was here, in the silence and primordial nature of the Swiss Alps, that Archimandrite Gabriel Bunge was able to approach the ideal that he aspired to from his youth and walked his entire monastic life - continuous and undivided communion with God. The goal of monastic life is to keep your mind in constant prayer, all the ancient fathers said so. This does not mean that you keep repeating some formula - long or short - no, but your mind acquires a state of prayer. And you are constantly in the face of God, like angels and archangels. It happens little by little, and you don't seem to notice it. But suddenly, suddenly you realize that you can never, not for a minute forget God, your mind is constantly before Him, no matter what you do. And this is exactly what I was looking for here, in my mountain monastery.

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Economists by the grace of God. Nicholas Bunge

A great theoretician, he showed himself to be an unsurpassed practitioner, created a stable financial system and became the first herald of the need for social policy in official Russia.

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Nicholas Bunge

Today our country is faced with financial and economic problems similar to those in the second half of the century before last. That experience is of undeniable interest.

Of particular value is the practical activities of the Ministry of Finance and the theoretical developments of the economist who headed it. Nicholas Khristianovich Bunge(1823-1895). He led the department from 1882 to 1887.

Bunge's ancestors were of Swedish origin, diligence, love of knowledge, discipline, abstinence in everyday life were cultivated in the family. After graduating in 1845 from the Kyiv University of St. Volodymyr Nikolai Bunge was sent to the department of laws of state administration at the Nizhyn Lyceum of Prince Bezborodko (which had the status of a higher educational institution).

Already two years later, at the age of 24 (!) a recent graduate, having defended his dissertation "Research of the beginnings of Peter the Great's commercial legislation", becomes a master of state law. And in 1850, Bunge was awarded the degree of Doctor of Political Science for his dissertation "The Theory of Credit". As a follow-up to these works, he prepared and published The Course in Statistics (1865) and The Foundations of Political Economy (1870). Analyzing foreign practice in detail, Bunge strongly recommended limiting the circulation of banknotes in favor of metal and non-cash payments. He came to the conclusion that paper, "often multi-zero" money, provokes inflation and thereby devalues ​​circulation. These questions are detailed in Bunge's books and articles. He also translates and supplements with his comments the works of foreign authors.

Blacksmith shop. End of the 19th century.

It is no coincidence that Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky noted that Bunge "was a very strong theoretician and came to the post of minister as a conscientious scientist who, among other things, was well acquainted with the economic and financial policies of the West." Bunge was elected rector of Kyiv University three times. The first time - in 1859 on the recommendation of the famous Pirogov, surgeon and hero of Sevastopol. The nomination of such a young professor as rector was without precedent in the history of the university. But it was explained by the changes that took place in public life. Alexander II, the Liberator, became emperor. And, having barely begun the duties of the rector, Bunge was summoned to St. Petersburg to participate in the work of the Editorial Commissions established to prepare a bill on the abolition of serfdom. He became a member of the Financial Commission, which was entrusted with the creation of a model of redemption operations.

Bunge worked in Kyiv for three decades. He taught numerous courses, in his publications he tried to reveal the best practices of those foreign countries that overtook Russia in socio-economic development. At the same time, he took an independent position in science. Based largely on the ideas of Adam Smith, Bunge at the same time believed that prices are determined by supply and demand. He believed that the driving force behind social development was the desire of people to satisfy needs through "useful activity", which consists not only in the production of consumer goods, but also in scientific, cultural, and educational activities. “The economic structure of human societies ... develops along with the success of education, welfare and morality, along with the expansion of the circle of activity and public power, and individual initiative. A well-ordered society is not the inevitable form of free-form private relations, as Smith's followers thought, but the result of the continuous combined action of the government and the people.

Under Bunga, the Kievan school of economic thought developed. Its representatives were united by the denial of the labor theory of value, rejection of the socialist doctrine, recognition of the need for social reforms, and predominant attention to practical issues of economic policy. The influence of Bunge on the representatives of the school is vividly described by its prominent representative Dmitry Pikhno. “What attracted us young students to this cautious thinker, whose audience was full of listeners and almost every issue produced young economists who worked enthusiastically under his direction? It was another, more intimate, invisible to the prying eye spiritual connection ... This seemingly cold sage was completely imbued with unattainable moral idealism, behind his ironic smile, which so often embarrassed and which we were so afraid of, tender, loving, sympathetic and infinitely kind heart.

In one of his first (1883) detailed reports to Emperor Alexander III, Bunge noted: “A careful study of the weaknesses of our political system indicates the need to ensure the correct growth of industry with sufficient protection for it: to strengthen credit institutions on principles proven by experience, while contributing to cheaper credit; to increase the profitability of railway enterprises in the interests of the people and the state by establishing proper control over them; to strengthen credit money circulation by a set of gradually implemented measures aimed at achieving this goal. Further - to introduce changes in the tax system, consistent with strict justice and promising an increase in income without burdening tax payers; finally, to restore the surplus of income over expenditure (without which an improvement in finances is unthinkable) by limiting excess credits and observing reasonable thrift in all branches of government.

Peasant bank. Kyiv.

The entry of Bunge in 1880 into the post of Deputy Minister of Finance and soon, from January 1, 1882, the Minister marked a new stage in Russian monetary policy. In the appointment of a scientist to the post in the government, many saw recognition of the high authority of science and the need for special knowledge. But the work had to start in very difficult circumstances. The amount of public debt on January 1, 1881 exceeded six billion rubles. New loans were coming - internal and external. The main reasons were the financial consequences of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 and the colossal government spending on the peasant and subsequent reforms. To prevent a systemic crisis, Bunge initiated the issuance of a gold six percent rent of 1883 on income. This improved the financial situation. Maneuvering, making compromises, Bunge was steadfast in protecting the revenues of the treasury. The angel of meekness and kindness turned into a Hercules of iron will, and not only to the chairman of ministers, but to the sovereign himself said “impossible” in response to a request for money.

The emperor approved this program of the state's long-term financial policy, and in subsequent years it was almost completely implemented (except for the excess clause - due to the large costs of repaying state loans).

One of the first financial measures carried out by Bunge was the reduction of redemption payments for the peasants. It was carried out in the amount of 1 ruble from each shower allotment in the Great Russian borders and 16 kopecks per ruble in other areas. The total amount of the reduction was 12 million rubles a year. The partial exemption of the peasants (except for the sovereign) from the poll tax in 1886 is also a merit of Bunge. This decision contributed to the growth of agricultural productivity. Due to the stabilization of peasant incomes, the demand for equipment began to grow.

Bunge was a supporter of state protectionism and a rigid tax system. During his leadership of the Russian Ministry of Finance, taxes on sugar, alcohol, and tobacco were increased. Stamp duty and duties were increased on about 35% of the range of Russian consumer imports. In addition, in 1881 a ten percent surcharge was established on the entire import tariff. This was followed by an increase in import duties on rolling iron, steel, technical machines, and some types of sea and river vessels. At the same time, a tax was introduced on gold mining and processing of precious metals; additional and layout fees from commercial and industrial enterprises (laws of July 5, 1884 and January 5, 1885). The rates of most other taxes were raised. These measures made it possible to reduce the state budget deficit by almost 90% by the end of the 1880s.

However, Bunge argued that “ordinary customs duties constitute a tax and should be considered mainly as a tax. They should depend as little as possible on trade agreements (that is, not be an aid to protectionism. - A.Ch.), they should be correlated with the general system of taxes, with their influence on production, trade and consumption. Encouragement of industry can and should take place, but a protective tariff and benefits common to all persons encourage anyone indiscriminately and are therefore not always desirable. Such benefits often testify to the imprudence in the state economy. A liberal customs tariff helps to increase consumption, but low customs duties with high taxes in the country are undesirable.” The mentioned problems, oddly enough, have not lost their relevance even after 130 years.

Banking services to the peasantry are also largely the merit of Bunge. He believed that the main problems of this social group were related to the insufficient size of land plots and the inability to obtain a long-term loan to expand the land. To address these issues, the Peasants' Bank was created. He issued loans for the purchase of privately owned, primarily noble, lands. In 1883-1915, over a million peasant households used the bank's services. They acquired more than 15.9 million acres of land (this is more than the territory of modern Austria, Switzerland and Slovenia combined). The total amount of loans issued exceeded 1.35 billion rubles.

In addition, Bunge initiated the active development of the all-Russian railway network and especially interregional highways, which, in his opinion, "with the spaces, national and economic characteristics inherent in the Russian state, are of the utmost importance." In 1881-1889, about 133.6 million rubles were spent on the construction of communication lines. 3461 miles of railways have been laid. Steel arteries connected the Volga region, the Middle Urals, the Chernozem region, the North Caucasus, Bessarabia and some regions of Central Asia.

Baku oil fields. End of the 19th century

Among the reforms implemented by Bunge is the law of June 1, 1882, which for the first time in Russia regulates factory labor, including working hours, overtime payment parameters, social guarantees for workers and their families. In 1886, rules for the hiring and supervision of enterprises were issued.

As the Russian statesman, scientist and entrepreneur Vladimir Kovalevsky recalled, “Bunge was the first Minister of Finance, proceeding from a firm and clear consciousness that narrow “financialism” - an exclusive concern for public finances in the narrow sense - should be replaced by “economism” - a broad economic policy aimed at the development of the people's labor and the productive forces of the country, and that even a satisfactory state of the state cannot be achieved with poverty, lack of rights and darkness of the mass of the population.

In life, Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge was, according to eyewitnesses, a very modest person. Departing for Gatchina, he went to the station in a simple cab. Of his income (20 thousand rubles a year) he spent only a part, sending the rest to the cash desks of charitable institutions for the poor and student youth. And he did it anonymously, the fact was revealed only after his resignation.

By the way, the germs of the ideas of social policy are contained in the works of Bunge from the pre-ministerial, Kyiv period. So, in the work "Police Law", the scientist emphasized the role of workers in the profits of joint-stock companies, which he called "partnerships of the new time." He (the worker. - A.Ch.) “is told: we give you, as a participant, as a shareholder, the rights of a capitalist and owner; you can have a voice in the common cause, and if you have knowledge and talent, then we provide you with the duties of head and leader, even if you do not have capital. For modern Russia, these recommendations are super relevant.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Leonid Abalkin, who drew attention to the fundamental foundations of Bunge's economic views, was annoyed that a century later they are still underestimated. It was also about the creation of loan offices, which Bunge considered a means of improving the material well-being of workers. It could be raised both by “productive partnerships” and by societies created for the education of workers, the construction of apartments, the issuance of pensions and benefits, credit and consumer cooperatives. In this regard, the task of the state "is to establish legal norms in order to ensure the emergence and operation of new economic unions with the rights of legal entities."

At the end of his life, Bunge, who had previously lectured to the heirs to the throne, made a political testament addressed to Nicholas II ("Notes from the grave", 1893-1894). In it, relying on his own research, international economic experience and the results of ongoing reforms, the scientist promoted moderate - phased, systemic, based on Russian specifics - reformism. He also offered a greater level of social independence, advocated the integrated development of the national outskirts while maintaining their originality. Bunge actually proposed the "drift" of the Russian Empire towards an "enlightened constitutional monarchy", as Dmitry Merezhkovsky outlined the goal.

In a word, the activities of Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge are a set of interrelated measures to strengthen the state financial and economic system, as well as Russia's foreign trade positions, to carry out urgent reforms that strengthen the state.

Brief biographical information about N.Kh. Bunge. Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge (1823-1895) was one of the outstanding Russian reformers in the field of economy, finance and social policy. He graduated from the Faculty of Law of Kyiv University, taught at the Nezhin Lyceum. After defending his master's thesis in 1847 on the topic "Investigation of the principles of the commercial legislation of Peter the Great", in 1850 he went to work at Kiev University, where in 1852 he defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic "Theory of Credit". The range of his scientific interests was very diverse: he lectured on political economy, statistics, police law and other sciences. From 1859 to 1880 he was the rector of Kyiv University. During these years, he was involved in the preparation of the peasant reform of 1861, in the development of a new university charter. As one of the prominent economists, he was invited to teach political economy to the heir to the throne, Tsarevich Nicholas.

Bunge acquired considerable experience in practical work, working since 1865 as the manager of the Kyiv branch of the State Bank. In 1880, he was invited to work in St. Petersburg as a Deputy Minister of Finance, and from 1881 to 1886 he served as Minister. After his resignation, from January 1887 until his death in 1895, N.Kh. Bunge was the chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers. Features of the Bunge reformer:

• He was characterized not by "narrow financierism", but by a broad, comprehensive approach to economic and financial problems, which he closely linked with the social policy of the state.
• He considered the goal of financial and economic policy not so much to fill the state budget as to increase the welfare of the lower classes, because the prosperity of the state depended on this to a decisive extent. To this end, he carried out a number of cardinal measures to alleviate the tax burden of the peasantry.
• He always balanced his reform plans with the real situation, public opinion, he knew how to wait, retreat, and compromise. Planned reforms prepared carefully, without haste.

Program of economic and financial policy. N.Kh. Bunge started out in unfavorable conditions. First of all, the heavy financial consequences of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 affected. - a huge budget deficit, the depreciation of the ruble. The state debt on January 1, 1881 amounted to 6 billion rubles. - the amount for that time is astronomical. From 1881 to 1883, Russia experienced an economic crisis, from 1883 to 1887 - depression. 1880s were also characterized by local crop failures; the situation in the countryside was aggravated by the reduction of land allotments due to the rapid growth of the rural population, the increase in the number of landless farms, and the heavy tax burden.

On behalf of Alexander II, who treated Bunge with great respect, the latter in 1880, being a friend of the Minister of Finance, prepared policy note on the tasks of economic and financial policy for the coming years. It included the following main points:

• 1. Reducing the cost of the state apparatus.
• 2. Termination of the issue of paper money, the gradual reduction of their number to the pre-war level.
• 3. Organized resettlement of land-poor and landless peasants to undeveloped state lands.
• 4. Streamlining taxes: the abolition of the poll tax, salt tax and passport tax; reduction in redemption payments. To compensate for the losses, it was planned to increase the state land tax levied on exempt estates, increase the tax on urban real estate, establish taxes on freelancers (lawyers, doctors, architects, artists, etc.), on commercial and industrial enterprises and money capital. Bunge considered these changes as preparations for the introduction income tax.
• 5. Issuing laws to promote industry and commerce.
• 6. Streamlining the financial side of things in railway construction in order to stop the waste of public funds.

This program has been accepted. And when in 1881 the Minister of Finance A.A. Abaza, along with other liberal ministers, resigned, in his place with the approval of Alexander 111 was appointed N.Kh. Bunge.

tax reforms. Bunge gave priority to the tax policy. The finance minister's greatest concern was redemption payments. Their exorbitant burden for the peasants was revealed immediately after the start of the reform. Already in the first five years - 1862-1866. - arrears amounted to 7.9 million rubles. 1 The then Minister of Finance M.Kh. Reitern organized an investigation into the reasons for the arrears, and it turned out that the redemption payments significantly exceeded the profitability of the peasant farms. In 1880, arrears amounted to 20.5 million rubles, in 1881 - 23.4 million.

In April 1881, the State Council decides to transfer all former landlord peasants to "compulsory redemption", to add up 14 million rubles in arrears in redemption payments. and on the reduction of redemption payments by 9 million rubles. per year (later the annual reduction amounted to 12 million rubles). In connection with the coronation of Alexander 111 in 1883 another 13.8 million rubles were written off. arrears on these payments, in 1884 - 2.3 million rubles.

Another "headache" of the Minister of Finance was pillow tax. In March 1882, Bunge submitted to the State Council a note “On the Replacement of the Poll Tax with Other Taxes,” in which he substantiated the impossibility of further delaying the abolition of the tax. Under the head tax, arrears constantly accumulated, which were written off from time to time. So, in 1880, 7 million rubles were written off; in 1881, arrears amounted to 10.7 million rubles. The State Council approved the phased abolition of the poll tax proposed by Bunge. Since 1883, the collection of taxes from the categories of the population most burdened with taxes has ceased. On January 1, 1887, the poll tax was discontinued from all other payers.

For 1882-1887. the receipt of the poll tax decreased from 54.8 million rubles. up to 1.3 million 1 .

To compensate for the losses, Bunge introduced a number of new taxes and increased the old ones. In particular, the land tax introduced in 1875 was increased by 52.5%; increased by 46% real estate tax in cities; the system of trade taxation has been reformed, some privileges have been given to small merchants and artisans; in 1885, a 3% tax was introduced on the net profit of joint-stock companies; in the same year, a 5% tax on income from monetary capital was established; in 1887, a 5% tax was introduced on government-guaranteed income from shares in private railways; a duty was introduced on inherited property, which caused acute discontent among the nobility.

In 1885, in connection with changes in the tax system and its complication, Bunge established a special institute of tax inspectors at the provincial state chambers. They were designed to identify taxable income from real estate and other objects.

Bunge's tax reforms were praised by the liberal public. For example, the well-known liberal publicist S.N. Yuzhakov believed that Bunge's actions eased the situation of the people and saved them from final ruin. Modern historian V.L. Stepanov points out that Bunge's tax reforms "marked the beginning of the modernization of the Russian taxation system and thus contributed to the process of industrialization of the country" .

Transformations in banking. Bunge continued to develop the system of state lending to the national economy, since state loans have long enjoyed greater confidence in Russia than private ones. Lending expanded through National Bank, which stably kept the discount rate at 6% and only in 1886 reduced it to 5%. In 1881 - 1884, despite the industrial crisis, the issuance of loans increased from 180 million rubles. up to 204 million

Under the leadership of Bunge in the first half of the 1880s. Russia has a system government mortgage loan. During these years, landlords continued to mortgage low-income estates in joint-stock land banks, but they did not buy them out in a timely manner, which led to the sale of mortgaged lands. For example, from 1873 to

In 1882, 23.4 million acres were sold. Bunge had the idea to organize a cheap loan for the peasants so that they would become the main buyers of the landlords' land. The Ministry of Finance has prepared an education project Peasant Bank, which was approved by the emperor on May 18, 1882. The main provisions of the law on the Peasants' Bank were as follows: 1) loans are allocated to all interested peasants, regardless of their property status, at 6% per annum; 2) the loan amount is 75% of the cost of the acquired land; 3) loan repayment terms are set from 24 to 34 years; 4) the bank is an independent credit institution and is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance.

During 1883-1885. in Russia, 25 branches of the Peasants' Bank were opened; the amount of loans during this time increased from 864 thousand to 14 million rubles, the amount of land purchased - from 18.2 thousand to 318 thousand acres 1 . Since 1886, the sale of land has been reduced due to the creation of the Noble Bank. In total, during the first 13 years of the existence of the Peasant Bank, the peasants bought with its assistance

• 2411.7 thousand acres of land.
• June 3, 1885 Alexander 111 signed a decree on consciousness of the Noble Land Bank; thus, the formation of the mortgage credit system was completed. This bank also operated under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance and issued loans secured by landed property in the amount of 60% of the value of estates for a period of 36 to 48 years at an annual payment of 5%. Thus, the conditions of the Noble Bank were extremely favorable. However, as subsequent practice showed, they were unable to stop the process of reducing landownership.

Immediately there was a great demand for loans. In 1886, in 25 branches of the Noble Bank, the landowners received 68.8 million rubles, in 1887 - 71.1 million rubles. However, borrowers did not always use loans for their intended purpose, they often “eat up” or launched into stock exchange speculation, interest arrears began to grow. Nevertheless, in 1889 the loan interest was lowered to 4.5. Landowners who could not or did not want to organize a profitable economy sold their lands through the Noble Bank. The buyers were nobles (up to 50%), peasants (up to 20%), merchants and petty bourgeois (up to 10%) and representatives of other classes.

Along with the development of public credit, Bunge also paid attention to private credit. He believed that the accumulation of financial resources in banks and savings banks would reduce the country's dependence on foreign capital. In 1883, the bans on founding were lifted commercial banks. Although this did not lead to an increase in the number of banks, deposits in them increased significantly. For example, before the end of 1892, only 6 new banks emerged, but deposits during this time increased from 214 to 301 million rubles. 1 The State Bank constantly supported commercial banks with its financial resources.

Bunge actively contributed to the development of a network in Russia savings banks. In May 1881, the percentage on deposits was increased from 3 to 4, which contributed to the inflow of new deposits to the cash desks. In 1884, the Ministry of Finance granted the right to create savings banks at the provincial and district treasuries, and their branches - in all cities and large towns. If in 1880 there were only 76 savings banks in the country, then in 1886 there were 554 cash offices, 306 thousand depositors and 44 million rubles. deposits.

Thus, the credit system of Russia was raised to a new level, which was under the control of the state and strictly regulated by the relevant legislation. This created certain guarantees for commercial banks, including deposits of citizens.

Other transformations of Bunge in the financial sector. Continuing the course of M.Kh. Reitern, Bunge consistently pursued a policy protective tariffs. In 1882, import customs duties were increased on raw materials and manufactured products and, to a small extent, on finished products. In 1884 duties on cast iron, coal, and peat were increased; in 1885 - for fish, wine, tea, vegetable oil, silk, agricultural machinery, iron and steel; a general increase in tariffs from 10 to 15%. If in 1881 the duty on all the borders of Russia was 16.5% of the value of imported goods, then in 1886 it was 27.8%.

Under Bunga, he began to force export of bread which was sold to Germany, England, Holland, France, Italy, Belgium. In 1881-1885. grain exports increased from 208 million to 344 million poods.

For strengthening of the ruble Bunge from 1881 stopped the issue of money and proceeded to withdraw unsecured money from circulation. The minting of a silver coin was again allowed, although Bunge understood that Russia needed to switch to gold monometallism; however, this required a lot of preparatory work and an increase in the gold reserve.

Labor law. N.Kh. Bunge was one of the few statesmen in Russia who understood the need to develop laws for work question. He believed that the legal regulation of relations between entrepreneurs and workers should contribute to: 1) elimination of the causes of conflicts at enterprises, the decline of the strike movement; 2) reducing the prerequisites for socialist propaganda among the workers; 3) improving working conditions at industrial enterprises and increasing the productivity of workers. The growth of the labor movement in the 1870s and early 1880s also encouraged the development of appropriate legislation.

The first law was developed to limit the working day for children and adolescents and the creation of a factory inspectorate to monitor the implementation of the law. It provided for the prohibition of the work of children under 12 years old, night work for children 12-14 years old, limiting the working day of adolescents to 10 hours, and compulsory school attendance by children. Under pressure from entrepreneurs, the enactment of the law was delayed for a year (until May 1, 1884). In 1885, a law was passed prohibiting night work for women and adolescents under 17 years of age in the textile industry.

In 1881-1886, the Minister of Finance of Russia was Nikolai Bunge, a bright representative of liberal public and state figures of Russia, an economist, a teacher. He came from the nobility, graduated from the law faculty of Kyiv University. Since 1850 he was a professor of political economy and statistics there, and later - rector.

Author of many scientific works, expert of the Editorial Committees for the preparation of the reform of 1861 and the resolution of the peasant question. Bunge acquired financial experience and a reputation as a talented administrator in the 60s, successfully managing, as already mentioned, the Kyiv office of the State Bank.

The program of Nikolai Bunge favorably differed in its social orientation, because he saw a deep connection between improving the financial situation of the country and improving the well-being of the people, and included the development of factory legislation, the creation of workers' associations, and the involvement of workers in the profits of enterprises. His political ideal was an autocratic monarchy based on the rule of law, publicity and the development of local public initiative.