So, the state of Russia after the Great Troubles was similar to the state of Europe after the crisis of the 14th century: vast expanses of desolate lands, devastated half-extinct cities, a state that needed to be restored again - but at the same time an abundance of land, forests, natural resources that were inherited by the survivors. Like American farmers, the peasants could re-develop their country, could plow as much as they wanted, and neither the landowners nor the weak state dared to oppress them for fear of a new uprising.

According to neo-Malthusian theory, a period of eco-social crisis should have been followed by a period of recovery. Pavlenko N. I., Kobrin V. B., Fedorov V. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for universities. M., 2002 P. 394

Gradually, peasants began to return to their native places, found new villages and clear the forest for arable land. The Moscow state gradually “replenished” and “came into dignity,” and during the “many time of peace and quiet,” as the source put it, “their stomachs became much fuller.” In the Zamoskovny region, the recovery was very rapid: the population that had fled to the North or to the Volga region returned to the outskirts of the capital, and already in the 1640s the population level that existed before the Time of Troubles was restored. However, when compared with the first half of the 16th century, the population did not reach its previous level. In the Novgorod region, the population in 1646 was four times less than in 1500. Cities were slowly restored: in the middle of the 17th century, the population of urban suburbs remained 2.5 times less than a century ago. In general, as noted above, the population in 1646 is estimated at 4.5-5 million. In the 1550s, according to A.I. Kopanev, the population was 9-10 million. Pavlenko N.I., Kobrin V. B., Fedorov V. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for universities. M., 2002 P. 427

In 1646-1678, the population increased from 4.5-5 to 8.6 million. In the Novgorod region during this period, the population more than doubled. A huge role in the process of economic recovery was played by the construction of the 800-kilometer “Belgorod Line”, which was supposed to protect the southern regions from Tatar raids and provide the possibility of agricultural development of vast territories. The construction of the fortified line lasted 12 years (1635-1646), 23 fortified cities, several dozen forts, five large earthen ramparts, each 25-30 km long, were built on the “line”. In 1648-1654, the Simbirsk Line was created, which continued the fortified line to the bank of the Volga.

In 1642-1648, in the counties located along the Belgorod border, most of the peasants were assigned to the sovereign and enrolled in the newly created dragoon regiments. The peasants were exempt from taxes, they lived in their villages, plowed the land, and underwent military training once a week. The treasury provided the dragoons with weapons, and they had to carry out guard duty at the “devil.” The shortage of soldiers forced everyone to enlist in the regiments, even fugitives from the central regions - so many fugitives headed here. The Belgorod region was an abundant region: the yield of rye in the south was 2-3 times higher than in the central regions, and the reserves of bread in the farms of service people averaged about 500 poods. In 1639-42, the authorities offered to pay 7-10 money per day for work in the harvest, which in terms of grain is 14-20 kg. This was a generous payment, twice as much as they paid in the Moscow region - however, the wealthy peasants of the south did not want to work for this payment either.

If it were not for the constant wars and Tatar raids, many would envy the life of the settlers of the South.

The Belgorod line became a reliable obstacle to Tatar raids. Although the Tatars repeatedly devastated the Belgorod region, they never managed to break through the line. From the middle of the 17th century, strong colonization of the southern regions began; a stream of immigrants from the central regions rushed here. From the time of construction of the line until the end of the 17th century, plowing in the southern counties increased 7 times; The population increased at about the same rate. In the 1670s, landowner colonization of the South began: landowners began to transfer their peasants on a massive scale to the “wild field” lands that had been demarcated by them; already in 1678, three quarters of the boyars had possessions in the South. “In Tula and Oryol and other places adjacent to that region,” said the report of the Discharge Order in 1681, “many of the sovereign’s close people... landowners and patrimonial owners built many villages and hamlets in wild fields... and thus in The Moscow state has a lot of bread and food supplies and the price for buying everything is cheap...” Pavlenko N. I., Kobrin V. B., Fedorov V. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for universities. M., 2002 P. 508

These were processes of enormous significance, because the Russian peasantry, pushed into the northern forests by the Tatars, tried for centuries to reach the black soil steppes. After the victories of Ivan the Terrible, Rus' advanced beyond the Oka into the upper reaches of the Don - but during the Time of Troubles, the Tatars pushed the settlers back into the northern forests. Now Russia has finally managed to gain a foothold in the southern steppes; this meant that the power of the Russian state would grow due to the development of new fertile lands. The population crowded in the North now had the opportunity to move to the south, and the threat of new overpopulation was postponed for centuries. From the point of view of demographic structural theory, the process of colonization meant the expansion of the ecological niche - an increase in the means of subsistence, the consequence of which should have been a decrease in prices and an increase in real wages - phenomena that were actually noted at the end of the 17th century.

In 1678, 1.8 million people were already living in the Black Earth Center, while in the old Non-Black Earth Center - 3.5 million. In the Belgorod region, there were 260 thousand boyar children who did not have serfs - “single-yarders”, who supplied 40 thousand soldiers to the army , dragoon, reitar. Service people had strong farms: on average there were 3 horses and 4 cows per yard. The palace peasants also lived well: in the Tambov district, most households had 2-3 horses, 2-3 cows and provided themselves with plenty of bread. Munchaev Sh. M., Ustinov V. V. History of Russia. M., 2000 P. 193

The entire territory of the country was divided into two parts, the old, “settled” regions, and the new, “settled” regions. According to Ya. E. Vodarsky, during the second half of the 17th century, the area of ​​arable land in the “settled” regions increased from 8 to 13 million dessiatinas, and in the “settled” regions - from 4 to 16 million. Thus, being inferior in population, the new The “inhabited” areas already exceeded the old “inhabited” areas in size. The south became a supplier of grain for the central regions; at the end of the 70s, these supplies reached 1 million poods, and the government more than once noted with satisfaction the increase in “grain replenishment”.

Neo-Malthusian theory argues that the recovery period is characterized by relatively slow urban growth. Indeed, the presence of free land did not create an incentive for peasants to engage in crafts and move to cities, so in the 17th century cities grew relatively slowly. Russian cities of this period were more fortresses and administrative centers than trade and craft settlements. The "service people" who lived in the cities - nobles, archers, Cossacks, etc. - outnumbered the "townspeople", traders and artisans. According to Ya. E. Vodarsky, in 1652 the urban population was 247 thousand males, including 139 thousand servicemen and 108 thousand townspeople, in 1678 - 329 thousand people, including 149 thousand servicemen and 134 thousand townspeople. The population of Moscow in the 1640s numbered about 38 thousand male residents, including about 20 thousand servicemen, 10 thousand townspeople and 8 thousand “others”; by 1680, the number of residents increased to 51 thousand, including 20 thousand servicemen, 20 thousand townspeople and 11 thousand “others”. Other cities were much smaller in size than Moscow; in Yaroslavl at the end of the 17th century there were 8 thousand male residents, in Pskov, Kazan and Astrakhan - 5 thousand. Novgorod, once larger than Moscow, was in deep decline, the male population of this city did not exceed 3 thousand. Munchaev Sh M., Ustinov V.V. History of Russia. M., 2000 P. 294

Among the urban population, the rich commercial and industrial elite stood out - guests, trading people of the living room and cloth hundreds. This privileged merchant class traded throughout the country and had capital of thousands of rubles, but it was very small: at the end of the 17th century it numbered only 250-300 families. Actually, the townspeople were mostly small artisans and merchants who traded from benches and trays, and the cost of their goods sometimes did not reach one ruble.

After the devastation of the Time of Troubles, the level of development of crafts and industry remained low. The large craft was represented by several dozen tanneries and distilleries. At the salt mines near Salt Kama at the end of the 17th century there were about 200 salt pans, which employed about 4 thousand workers. Manufactories were a rare occurrence; they usually belonged either to the palace household or to foreigners. Dutch entrepreneurs built several blast furnace factories near Tula and Kashira, mainly casting cannons. In the early 1660s, these enterprises employed only 119 permanent workers, including 56 foreigners. Munchaev Sh. M., Ustinov V. V. History of Russia. M., 2000 P. 321

algeria spanish occupation corsair

The defeat of Abd al-Qadir was a turning point in the conquest of Algeria, allowing France to begin the forced modernization and Europeanization of life in Algerian society. Colonial conquest in economic terms meant, first of all, the seizure of land. In accordance with official decrees of the 1840s, the French administration confiscated the lands of deys, beys, part of the land property of Muslim spiritual institutions, as well as the lands of tribes that “raised arms against France.” During the agrarian reforms of 1843-1844. tribes were asked to document their rights to the lands they occupied. However, most tribes used the land based on customary law and did not have such documents. The French authorities recognized their lands as “ownerless” and expropriated them. Along with the “official” redistribution of property, the colonization fund was replenished by the purchase of private land holdings by Europeans. The redistribution of land especially accelerated after the defeat of Abd al-Qadir, but in 1863 Emperor Napoleon III, who did not like the colonists and feared the catastrophic dispossession of the Algerians, declared the tribes to be collective and irremovable owners of their lands. Nevertheless, the area of ​​the land fund of colonization grew rapidly: in 1850, the colonists owned 115 thousand hectares, in I860 - 365 thousand hectares, and in 1870 - 765 thousand hectares. As a result of conquest and colonization, half of the best lands of Algeria, not counting forests, mines and other economically valuable territories, were placed at the disposal of the French authorities and private individuals.

In parallel with the seizure of land, the French state began intensive economic development of the country. Large concession companies created in Algeria began in the 1860s to develop the country's natural resources (coal, phosphorites, metal ores). To transport them, the first railways and highways were built, and telegraph communications were established. The processing of agricultural products was gradually expanded. In the 50s - 60s of the XIX century. Algeria became the most important market for the metropolis and a source of cheap mineral raw materials and food products (fruits, vegetables, wine). During these years, the orientation of local and European landowners towards selling products in the metropolis contributed to the gradual transformation of Algeria's subsistence economy into a commercial one.

However, despite the significance and scale of the economic reconstruction of Algeria, the main result of the French conquest was still settler colonization. After the landing of the French expeditionary force in Algeria, all kinds of adventurers began to enter the country, seeking to profit from the plunder of the indigenous population. In the 1840s, they were joined by impoverished peasants and townspeople of France, Spain, and Italy, hoping to create a better life in a new place. Germans, Swiss, Greeks, Maltese, and Corsicans also joined this multilingual stream. As a result, the European presence developed at an ever-increasing pace: in 1833 there were 7.8 thousand Europeans in Algeria, in 1840 - 27 thousand, and in 1847 - already 110 thousand people. Moreover, the French themselves made up no more than half of all immigrants. The French colonial authorities strongly encouraged the entry of non-French Europeans in order to swell the ranks of the European minority. In addition, Algeria in the 19th century. was considered a reliable place of exile for convicts and political prisoners, most of whom, after serving their sentences, remained in the country. Finally, the metropolitan government forcibly resettled the unemployed here and gave refuge in Algeria to internally displaced persons who turned to them for help.

European immigrants who settled in the Algerian coastline relatively quickly took root in the local soil. The bulk of them were quite poor, and their immigration was caused not by a thirst for profit, but by economic and political turmoil in their homeland. Unlike other French colonies, Algeria hosted a large, socially diverse and ethnically diverse European population. A mosaic combination of languages, manners and customs of the newcomers

The settlers were soon supplemented by mixed marriages in the French and non-French European environment. As a result, already 20-30 years after the start of colonization, a special social and ethnocultural type of “Algerian-European” began to form. This circumstance played an important role in the further development of Algeria.

The formation of colonial orders in Algeria soon received political and legal form. The regime of the Second Republic (1848-1851) officially declared Algeria part of the national territory of France. The governor now had only military power, and the areas inhabited by Europeans were divided into three special departments. They received civil self-government and the right to send three deputies to the French parliament. However, with the establishment of Napoleon III's power (1851), Paris's attitude towards the Algerian colony changed noticeably. Among the colonists there were many political opponents of the newly-minted ruler of France, and already in 1852 he deprived Algeria of representation in parliament. Then, during the Second Empire, Napoleon II replaced the military governor with the “Minister of Algeria and Colonies,” and in 1863 he even proclaimed Algeria an “Arab Kingdom,” thereby trying to contrast the Arab-Berber traditional elites with the colonists. The new policy of Paris in Algeria was carried out by the “Arab bureaus” created back in 1844 - intermediary institutions between the French military command and the Arab-Berber leaders. In the 50s-60s of the XIX century. the role of the “Arab bureaus” was twofold - on the one hand, they limited the powers of local Arab sheikhs, and on the other hand, they suppressed the desires of European colonists to directly intervene in the management of “native affairs.”

The victory over Abd al-Qadir came at a high cost to the colonial authorities: the conquerors lost in 1830-1847. 40 thousand soldiers and were forced to keep at least x/3 of the French armed forces in Algeria. In addition, the abuses and violence that accompanied the colonization of Algeria constantly aroused anti-French sentiment among the Algerians.

Abd al-Qadir's defeat marked the end of organized resistance, but the inaccessible regions of the Sahara and mountainous Kabylia remained centers of frequent local uprisings. Throughout the 1850s, the French barely conquered Kabylia (1851-1857). The riots in the Saharan oases - Zaadzha (1848-1849), Laguat (1852), Touggourt (1854) - generally subsided by the beginning of the 60s. In the west of the country, the rebel movements of the tribal unions Banu Snassen (1859) and Ulad Sidi Sheikh (1864-1867) posed a considerable danger to the colonial administration. Fearing war with the tribes on two or more fronts, the colonialists suppressed these uprisings with particular cruelty. Algeria became a school of punitive operations for prominent French military leaders - Pelissier, Saint-Arnaud, Bugeaud, Cavaignac, MacMahon. In fact, the entire flower of the French military command went through many years of experience of barbaric intimidation of the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. This. this circumstance later affected the methods they chose to suppress political opponents in the metropolis itself, especially during the defeat of the Paris Commune.

If scattered protests by tribes were relatively easily suppressed by the colonialists in the 1860s, then in 1870 the situation changed seriously. The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the proclamation of the Paris Commune created favorable conditions in Algeria for a new surge of anti-colonial movements. On the one hand, a significant part of the colonial troops was transferred to France - first to conduct military operations against Prussia, and then to suppress the Paris Commune. Relatively few (45 thousand people) and less combat-ready units remained in the colony. On the other hand, the defeat of the French army at Sedan and the capitulation of Napoleon II restored hope for liberation to the Algerians. The capture of Paris by the Prussians was perceived in cities and tribes as a sign of the complete defeat of France and the exhaustion of its forces.

At the same time, the collapse of the Second Empire aroused great enthusiasm among the European population of Algeria (especially among the colonists and exiled Republicans). In 1870--1871 in Algiers, supporters of democratic changes even created self-governing defense committees. For six months they opposed the actions of Paris, demanding greater independence for Algeria from the metropolis. However, when a major uprising of Arab and Berber tribes broke out in Algeria in 1871, Republican leaders quickly abandoned their autonomist aspirations and chose to come under the protection of the French army.

The liberation uprising of the Algerian Berbers in 1871 turned out to be a brief but decisive attempt by some local leaders to take advantage of a rare moment of weakness and disorganization in the administration of the colony. It was headed by Muhammad Mukrani, the ruler of one of the districts of Kabylia (Eastern Algeria), a descendant of an ancient Berber family, and his brother Ahmed Bu Mezrag. With the active support of the Muslim brotherhood of Rahmaniyya, they were able to create a real rebel army of up to 25 thousand soldiers. In March-July 1871, Eastern Algeria became the theater of a violent guerrilla war. Algerian tribes captured communications, destroyed French army posts, besieged garrisons, and destroyed colonists' farms. The position of the French troops in Eastern Algeria turned out to be almost as serious as during the fight against Abd al-Qadir.

Realizing the danger of the uprising, the metropolitan authorities took radical measures. The colonial corps, weakened during the years of the Franco-Prussian War, was strengthened, and its number was increased to 86 thousand people, and an armed militia was created from among the colonists. Systematic actions in the spirit of “mobile column” tactics allowed the French command to defeat the main forces of the rebels by the summer of 1871. In 1872, the general disarmament of the population was carried out, and the most active leaders of the uprising were exiled to New Caledonia. The 1871 uprising was the last major outbreak of anti-French resistance in Algeria, although isolated clashes between tribal militias and the colonial army continued until 1883.

In 1750, there were vast territories in the world that Europeans had not yet visited. At the end of the 18th and throughout the 19th centuries. many European scientists and travelers set off on long journeys to discover new ones and explore different seas and continents (read the article ““). The discoverers (see article ““) were followed by merchants and settlers, and thus colonies began to be created that were subject to the rule of one or another European country and largely depended on it.

From 1768 to 1779, Captain James Cook led three expeditions to the Pacific Ocean. He visited various islands, in particular the island of Tahiti, where his ship was met by war canoes (a narrow, long boat) of the natives, Cook landed in Australia and explored its eastern coast. The unusual animals of Australia amazed and interested the scientists and artists participating in the expedition. Captain Cook also sailed around the islands of New Zealand. Members of the Endeavor ship's crew landed on one of the islands, where they first saw its inhabitants - the Maori.

Exploring Africa

In the 19th century there were many expeditions to explore Africa and create maps of it. Travelers along the way admired many beautiful African landscapes, such as Victoria Falls, but misfortunes also awaited them there. Many became infected with diseases unknown to Europeans and died. During their expedition in search of the sources of the Nile River, two Englishmen, Speck and Grant, spent some time as guests of Muteza, the ruler of the state of Buganda, who received them with great cordiality. Some explorers, like Dr. Livingston, were also Christian missionaries (people who came to these colonies and brought with them the teachings of Christ). They opened hospitals and schools for Africans, and also built churches. One of the first Europeans to explore the Sahara Desert was a Frenchman named Rene Caillet, who was also one of the first to see the ancient African city of Timbuktu with his own eyes. Among explorers of distant lands in the 19th century. there were also women. Shown here is Alexandrina Tinne, a wealthy Dutch woman who made a long journey through North Africa and Sudan.

Other expeditions

The brave English traveler Richard Burton, during his trip to Saudi Arabia, disguised himself as an Arab in order to visit the holy Muslim city of Mecca, where access to Europeans was closed at that time. Many travelers have gone missing in the jungles of South Africa, where they went to search for lost ancient cities and make maps. Later, expeditions to the North and South Poles began to be equipped. In 1909, American Robert Peary was the first to reach the North Pole region, and Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen was the first to reach the South Pole (1911).

Colonial takeovers

Europeans sought to acquire new markets for the products produced in their factories. They also needed raw materials for industry, such as cotton or tea leaves. Often European countries sent troops to the lands where their trade missions were established to quell conflicts between local rulers. In addition, officials were sent there to organize the management of this territory. Thus, these lands turned into colonies of various European states.

More and more Europeans went to the colonies with their families to settle there for a long time or permanently. They acquired vast tracts of land and established plantations where local residents worked on them, growing tea, rubber, cotton and various food crops, as well as raising sheep or cattle. Later, when mineral resources began to be searched and found on the territory of the colonies, factories, factories and railways began to be built there, as a result of which even more people from Europe flocked to the colonies. European governments, concerned about population growth in their countries, strongly encouraged their citizens to move to live in the colonies, where they all had enough land and work.

The beginning of colonization.

The discovery of the New World by Europeans led to the conquest in Spanish, conquista conquest, called the last crusade by the Peruvian explorer Mariategui. After the expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula, those for whom military armor served as the main source of subsistence were left out of work. But suddenly a fabulous prospect opened up across the ocean, and a world unknown in Europe turned out to be homeless. And yesterday’s soldiers, monks, and ruined hidalgos flocked to the New World.

Those who could not come to terms with religious oppression fled from the Inquisition across the Atlantic; poverty drove there those who only hoped for the favor of fortune. After the discovery of America, tens of thousands of immigrants from England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal rushed to the New World. Where convicts were also sent to serve their sentences, children kidnapped from the English slums were also sold here. Participants in the unsuccessful revolutionary battles of the mid-19th century from Germany, Ireland, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Finland also arrived in the United States.

A significant part of the American population were descendants of African slaves. The attention of the conquistadors who went to South America, in the apt expression of the Spanish monk Bartolomé Las Casas, with a cross in hand, but with a thirst for gold in their hearts, was drawn primarily to the densely populated Andean highlands. In addition to the riches of the mythical gold country of Eldorado, they were attracted by the opportunity to take advantage of the achievements of pre-Columbian civilizations.

Hopes and rumors gave rise to more and more new legends about the land of the Amazons, and about unique cities where houses are made of pure silver, and about the source of eternal youth, and, of course, about Eldorado, the land of countless treasures and gilded people. Playing on the contradictions between local rulers, acting by deception, bribery and simply brute force, the conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro, who first came to Peru in 1527, completely captured the Central Andes in just ten years.

They established encomienda guardianship over the rural communities of the mountainous regions, essentially forcing the Indians to work for themselves, and for the extraction of gold, silver and precious stones they used compulsory labor, introduced by the Incas. America of that time was a country of robbers, thieves, murderers, various types of criminals who poured in in a stream from civilized Europe, which did not accept these scum of society, and the indigenous Indian population. England claimed territory in North America as early as 1497, but only a century later had it accumulated enough material and human resources to establish permanent settlements in the New World. During the 16th century. The population of England and Wales almost doubled, so colonization began to be seen as a panacea for overpopulation and a means of ridding the country of hordes of annoying beggars. In 1607, at the mouth of the James River, which flows into the Chesapeake Bay, the British founded the first city in North America, Jamestown.

At the same time, the first battle took place with the Powhatan Indians who inhabited these lands.

A 200-year period of displacement of Native Americans from their ancestral lands began. Since then, the Aborigines became subjects of the British crown. The British, verbally recognizing the right of the Indians to their own lands, sometimes by cunning and sometimes by force, deprived the majority of the indigenous inhabitants of America of their territories. 3. Population migration. The largest international migrations of recent centuries were associated with the settlement of America by Europeans.

Emigrants from Lat. emigro evicted people who voluntarily or forcedly left one country and settled in another, left Europe and settled mainly in the United States. Other settlers chose Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa, now South Africa. Canada, Brazil, and Argentina received many immigrants from Latin immigrans. During the period from 1815 to 1900, about 13 million people emigrated from Great Britain, of which 65 went to the USA, 15 to Canada, 11 to Australia, 5 to South America.

Germany occupied second place; between 1841 and 1900, 4.9 million people emigrated from it, mainly to the USA, a smaller part to Brazil and other American countries. Flows of immigrants from Italy, 3.9 million people, from 1876 to 1900 were mostly sent to Argentina, Brazil, and the USA. During the second half of the 19th century. about 1.5 million people emigrated from the Nordic countries. The colonization of America by the Spaniards and Portuguese continued. International population migrations also occurred from Eastern European countries, but their recording was unsatisfactory.

As we see, throughout the entire period of colonization of America, a huge number of people emigrated there from the Old World, seeking to find better living conditions. And these people formed multinational states. Depending on the initially predominant composition of migrants, the countries settled by them have a different ethnic appearance. The United States and Canada are English-speaking, in the latter the large French-speaking province of Quebec, the former French colony of Mexico, and many other Spanish-speaking Brazil is Portuguese-speaking.

Among those who emigrated to North America, at first, immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland predominated, then the flow of immigrants from Germany and the countries of Northern Europe increased, and later from Eastern Europe, so in Canada there are now many descendants of Ukrainians, Argentina and many other Spanish-speaking Brazil, Portuguese-speaking. From the very beginning, the influx of immigrants forced the old residents of the New World to think about ways to counter the unhindered access of new settlers to American territory.

This was the result of the fact that in 1639 the English colonial authorities prohibited criminals and beggars from moving to the North American colonies. However, this embargo did not have much impact. The first piece of legislation to specifically restrict immigration into the country was passed in 1875. People who had previously committed crimes were prohibited from relocating to the United States. In 1882, a disgraceful law was passed that prohibited ethnic Chinese from moving to the United States. Those Chinese who were already living in the United States at that time were prohibited from applying for American citizenship.

This law was passed due to the influx of Chinese coolie workers, who were considered the cheapest labor force and who were recruited to build the railways. US legislators believed that the presence of the Chinese had a negative impact on the unemployment rate and wages of Native Americans. Only in 1943 this law was repealed. Ironically, ethnic Chinese now constitute one of the largest and most influential communities in the United States. The first immigration law was passed in 1882. It provided for the establishment of control over the quality of immigrants, it was implied that the country needed hardworking specialists, not slackers, and also prohibited the entry of mentally ill and mentally underdeveloped people.

This law also imposed a tax of 50 cents on each arriving immigrant. However, despite the introduction of stricter rules for immigrants' access to the United States and the economic difficulties experienced by the American economy, the influx of immigrants has not decreased much. 4.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Formation of America's population

Naturally, with such a difference in the numbers of peoples and countries, several nations are represented in many states, i.e. exist as.. Most of these countries can be found in Europe, in Latin America, in.. Perhaps this is the main reason I chose this essay topic. The process of formation of the country's population, especially..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

The concept of “colony” (Latin “settlement”) arose in ancient times and was used to designate settlements located away from the original center, or even quite far from it. Historically, the first to implement the practice of colonization on a wide scale were the Phoenicians - for them trade and navigation were almost the main occupation. Later, the Phoenicians passed the baton of colonization to the Greeks, and then to the Romans. To some extent, the Hellenization of the Middle East after Alexander’s campaigns can be considered a process of the same kind, although the nature of colonization at that time was still somewhat different. In the Middle Ages, colonial enclaves were created by trading republics such as Venice or Genoa, as well as trade unions such as the Hansa. So, colonization in the sense that interests us should be considered the creation on foreign territory of closed administrative-autonomous enclaves that copied the metropolis, were closely connected with it and relied on its effective and interested support. It is quite obvious that enclaves of this kind could be created and were actually created only where private entrepreneurial activity was officially considered leading and was actively encouraged by the state interested in its prosperity. It was this type of colony that was the source on which in the 15th-16th centuries. Colonialism emerged as a phenomenon of a somewhat different order, distinguished by different forms and, most importantly, different scales. The connection between this colonialism and emerging European capitalism is quite obvious. As before, in antiquity and the Middle Ages, it was based on fundamental structural differences in the lifestyles of those who colonized and those who were the object of colonization. But just as much as pre- and early capitalist Europe surpassed the ancient one in its power, capabilities and potential (and even more so the trade unions and republics of the early Middle Ages), the new wave of colonization turned out to be more powerful than all the previous ones. It all began, as just mentioned, with the Great Geographical Discoveries, with the revolution in navigation, which made it possible to successfully overcome the oceans. Transit trade with the countries of the East has long created among Europeans a noticeably exaggerated idea of ​​the fabulous riches of the eastern countries, especially India, where spices and rarities came from . Transit trade, as you know, is expensive, and impoverished Europe had practically nothing to pay. This was one of the important incentives that spurred Europeans to find new routes to India - sea routes, the simplest and cheapest. The search for new sea routes in itself was not yet a manifestation of capitalist expansion. After the 16th century Other countries came to the forefront in the already actively developing colonization (this refers not only to colonial trade, but also to the development of foreign lands by settlers), as well as in capitalist development: first Holland, then England and France. It was they who most successfully used the funds received from colonial activity as that very initial basic capital, which ultimately contributed to the acceleration and even radicalization of their capitalist development. th fairly strong feudal monarchies. Colonialism in the broadest sense of the word is that important phenomenon of world-historical significance that has just been mentioned. This is the economic development of empty or sparsely populated lands, the settlement of migrants in overseas territories, who brought with them the organization of society, work and life that was familiar to them and entered into very difficult relationships with the indigenous population, who were, as a rule, at a lower stage of development. But despite all uniqueness of specific circumstances, there are also some general patterns that allow us to reduce the phenomenon of colonialism to several main options. One of them is the gradual development of distant alien, but empty or sparsely populated lands by settler-colonists, who are a more or less compact community and components of the new territory the vast majority of the population. In this case, the aborigines are usually pushed to the outskirts and worse lands, where they gradually die out or are exterminated in skirmishes with the colonists. This is how North America, Australia, and New Zealand were developed and settled. Another option is the migration of new settlers to areas with a significant local population, which is also based on its own significant traditions of civilization and statehood. This option is much more complex and can in turn be divided into various sub-options. In Central and South America there was such a tradition, and it was centuries old, but it turned out to be fragile and locally limited, which to a large extent explains the ease with which its weak shoots were destroyed by the colonizers. Option three is the colonization of areas with unfavorable living conditions for Europeans. In these frequent cases, the local population, regardless of its size, was predominant. Europeans turned out to be only a small inclusion in it, as was the case everywhere in Africa, Indonesia, Oceania and some on the Asian continent (although we will talk about the developed East later). The weakness, or even the almost complete absence of political administration and statehood here helped the colonialists easily and with minimal losses not only to gain a foothold in foreign lands in the form of a system of outposts, ports, trading colonies and quarters, but also to take control of all local trade, and even and practically the entire economy of the surrounding areas and impose on local residents, sometimes entire countries, their will, their principle of free market relations, in which material interest played a decisive role. And finally, option four, the most typical for the East. These are the numerous cases when colonialists found themselves in countries with a developed, centuries-old culture and a rich tradition of statehood. Various circumstances played a big role here: the Europeans’ ideas about the wealth of a particular Eastern country, for example India, and the real strength of the colonized country; the British were able to strengthen themselves and take control of India, in no small part because this was facilitated by the historically established socio-political system of this country with its weak political power. As part of the fourth option, the colonialists could neither create a structure according to the European model (as in the first), nor create a hybrid structure (as in the second), nor simply crush with their power and direct the life of the backward local population entirely along the desired path, as was the case in Africa , on the spice islands, etc. (option three). Here it was only possible to actively develop trade and gain benefits through market exchange.