The requirements for a joint-stock company in terms of its identification by name and location are set out in Article 4 of the Law. Mainly reproduced here

According to paragraph 1 of article 4, the company has its own company name,

which should contain an indication of its organizational and legal form and type

(closed or open). The company has the right to have full and abbreviated names

in Russian, foreign languages ​​and languages ​​of the peoples of the Russian Federation.

A company whose trade name is registered in the established

legal acts of the Russian Federation in order, has the exclusive right

for its use.

This means that the corporate name of the company must necessarily contain

the phrase "joint stock company", for example: Open joint stock company

"Norilsk Nickel". With regard to the language of the trade name of the company,

then we should not forget that, according to paragraph 6 of Article 2 of the Law, the company

must have a round seal containing its full trade name

in Russian and an indication of its location. Usage question

along with Russian and another language is decided by the society itself.

The company independently chooses its corporate name, however

however, it is limited by certain rules. Yes, joint-stock company

may not use a business name already owned by another legal entity

to a person who therefore has the right to its exclusive use.

According to paragraph 4 of Article 54 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, a person who illegally uses someone else's

registered trade name, at the request of the owner of the right

on a company name is obliged to stop using it and reimburse

the losses caused.

Such losses may be caused by undermining the authority of the owner of the company

names as unfair actions of its competitor, loss of customers,

reduction in connection with this income, etc. Appropriate claims in such cases

considered by arbitration courts.

Article 7 of the Law "On Banks and Banking Activity" contains a requirement

that the corporate name of banks must contain the word

"bank". At the same time, legal entities that do not have a license to carry out

banking operations, are not entitled to use the word "bank" in their corporate

name. The current legal regulations provide for other

restrictions on the choice of corporate names by legal entities. For example,

names Russia, Russian Federation and words formed on their basis

and phrases in the names of organizations and other structures"9 provided

that such designations may only be used with the consent of the Government

RF and in the manner prescribed by it.

According to paragraph 2 of Article 4 of the Law, the location of the company is determined

place of its state registration, but on condition that, in accordance with

with federal laws, the charter of the company does not provide otherwise. Definition

the location of the society is of fundamental importance in deciding many

legal issues related to its activities, in particular in the execution

mutual obligations of the company with its business partners, if the place of performance

obligations are not defined by law, other legal acts or agreements

(Article 316 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), when establishing the place of jurisdiction of disputes in which

society, etc.

Paragraph 3 of Article 4 obliges the company to have a postal address at which

communicates with him, and notify the state registration authorities

legal entities about its change. The postal address of the company must be fixed

in its founding documents. As regards failure to comply with the obligation to report

on the change of address to the body of registration of legal entities, then, in particular, the company

will not be entitled to plead non-receipt of mail if it

was sent to the old address and did not arrive at the new one.

V.N. Komissarov

(1) Equivalence in denotation identification

The identification of the same denotation, theoretically, is always feasible in translation. Any denotation is an object of an objectively existing reality. The world around us is fundamentally cognizable, and any cognized elements can be called signs of any language. The absence in any language of names for certain phenomena of the surrounding world does not mean the impossibility of pointing to these phenomena with the help of language. Identification of any object or phenomenon can be carried out using a combination of several signs, or by creating a new sign containing an indication of the corresponding denotation. The ability of "backward" languages ​​to enrich and expand their vocabulary as soon as the need arises to name new phenomena is well known.

However, when reproducing the reference to the denotation in translation, some deviations from equivalence are still possible.

a) Equivalence relations can be established between different ways of identifying a denotation. A denotation can be indicated by an individual designation (proper name), designation of the class of objects to which it belongs (common noun) or by referring it to a designation given elsewhere in the text (pronouns). As a rule, when translating, an indication of the denotation is given in the same way as in the original, for example:

“Martin stood at the door.” “Martin was at the door.”

However, in connection with the rules for constructing an utterance in the TL, the establishment of equivalence in translation may require a change in the way the denotation is identified. Here are some examples from the translation of the novel by S. Lewis "Arrowsmith" (translated by N. Volpin):

“To a passing nurse, the two youngsters would have seemed absorbed in hospital business. Martin stood by the door, she by her scrubbing pail.”

“To the older sister, if she passed by, it would seem that young people are absorbed in hospital work. Martin stood at the door, his interlocutor at the bucket of water.

“ His voice was lively…”

“Not so awful, but it’s just as romantic as being a hired girl – that’s what we call 'em in Dakota.”

“It’s not so scary, and there is exactly the same amount of romance in this as in the work of a hired hand - that’s what they call in Dakota maids».

b) An indication of the denotation in the original and in the translation can be carried out by naming concepts of different volumes. Naming the phenomenon of reality, the Source can include it in different sets, covering more or less number of units. So, one and the same object can be called a “chair”, “furniture”, “thing”, “thing”, etc. Each language code has its own rules for using the names of diverse sets to indicate certain denotations, as well as a special set of words with a very broad meaning, capable of naming almost any type denotation: thing, piece, creature, object, etc. For example, in English the word thing can be used to refer to both animate and inanimate objects, while in Russian the words listed above are used only to denote denotations of a strictly defined type. A "being" can only be "alive". “A stone is a “piece”, an “object”, but not a “thing”, and a tree is only an “object”. Therefore, equivalence relations in translation will be established between classes of denotations of various sizes.

“Even just too late things have been killed”, he whispered. “All around – in the village – out on the dawns. Sheep – young lambs – a collie dog.” (A.Christie)

"And lately someone's been killing animals, he said quietly. - In the village, in the fields - everywhere. Sheep, lambs, sheepdog.

The discrepancy between the rules for using words of the same level in FL and TL often forces us to use concepts of a different scope in translation even if the TL contains the corresponding word. Consider a few examples from R. Bradbury's book The Martian Chronicles (translated by L. Zhdanov):

“The doors flew open. The windows flew open. The children worked off their wool clothes.”

“The doors were thrown open. The windows opened up. The kids took off their sweaters.

In Russian, they take off not “woolen (warm) clothes”, but specific items: a suit, sweatshirt, etc.

“The heat pulse among the cottages and bushes and children.”

"Heat washed houses, bushes, children."

The original does not say houses, but cottages, and in Russian you can only use a more general word, since the specific divisions of the Russian “house” turn out to be too specific (cf.: “cottage”, “cottage”, “hut”, etc.) .

“The snow dissolved and showed last summer’s ancient green lawns.”

“The snow has evaporated, and last year’s withered grass appeared on the lawns.”

In Russian, there is a complex adjective "last year", but there is no more specific "last year".

c) Cases have already been described above when the TL does not contain a sign indicating the corresponding denotation. At the same time, equivalence relations are established between indicating the denotation in the original and identifying the denotation in the translation by creating a new sign (“striptease”), using a sign indicating a close denotation (witch hunter - “obscurantist”), or using a combination of signs (Asia-firster – “a supporter of an active policy in Asia”).

(2) Equivalence in describing the denotation.

When reproducing the description of the denotation, equivalence, as a rule, is far from equivalence. To describe the same denotations, different languages ​​often choose their unequal properties or aspects. Therefore, such descriptions turn out to be different, and as a result, each language, as it were, creates its own “picture of the world”. If in English the fly “stands” on the ceiling (a fly stands on the ceiling), then in the Russian translation the fixed position of the fly will be described in a different way: “The fly is sitting on the ceiling.” The English head and the Russian “head” undoubtedly indicate in their direct meanings the same denotation, but for the Englishman, the description of this denotation contains an indication, absent in Russian, that teeth, eyes and tongue are placed in the head, which makes it is possible to use in English such statements as:

“You are not expected to say anything here and you can’t keep too quiet a tongue in your head.” (Ch. Dickens)

“I could hear his teeth rattle in his head.” (R. L. Stevenson)

“I've got an eye in my head! I could bring down a running rabbit at fifty paces without a blink.” (A. Cronin)

As mentioned above, the description and identification of the denotate in a sign are closely related, and often identification is impossible without a simultaneous description. Thus, it turns out that the indication of the same denotation is inevitably accompanied by the use of the corresponding signs of FL and TL with information of different content. When naming the process "swimming" in English with the help of the verbs to swim - to sail, it is necessary to indicate that the floating object moves independently on the water, and does not just go with the flow. In the Russian translation of “The boat is floating on the lake”, this feature of the description of the denotation is not conveyed and the translation can be interpreted as “the boat is floating (drifting) in the lake”. When translating the verb “to swim” from Russian into English, it will inevitably be necessary to indicate in the translation a sign that is absent in the content of the Russian sign.

As is known, on the basis of these facts, a theory arose about the fundamental difference in the perception of the surrounding world by people who speak different languages. According to this theory, "linguistic pictures of the world" are absolutely incompatible, hence the fundamental impossibility of translation.

When comparing the signs of different languages, the difference in the description of the same denotations seems undeniable. However, this difference cannot be an obstacle to the transfer of the content of the mark in translation. First of all, it can be assumed that in many cases the features of the description of the sign are not recognized by the speakers. It is unlikely that when we say that “a fly is sitting on the ceiling”, we are aware of any other information about the denotation in the meaning of “sits”, except for indicating the presence of an object at a given point, which is completely translated into English by the verbs stands or is.

The most important refutation of the theory of incompatibility of "linguistic pictures of the world" lies here in the fundamental cognizability of the method of describing the denotation in the sign of the original and the possibility of reproducing the necessary information in the translation text. Sometimes a sign missing in the translation sign is introduced into the message by the meaning of other signs (context). Thus, in the Russian translations of “He swims with the breaststroke style” and “The log floats half submerged in water”, there is no need for special means to convey the difference in the meanings of the English verbs to swim and to float. Additional features that distinguish the description of this phenomenon in the original necessarily follow from the meanings of the words "style" and "log", although these features are not conveyed in the sign "floats", corresponding to the words swims and floats of the original. In other cases, missing information is conveyed by using a special character to complete the description. The Russian names for the colors "blue" and "blue" correspond to one English sign blue. Often the distinction between "blue" and "blue" turns out to be irrelevant or taken out of context, and in the English translation the word blue is used regardless of which of the two characters is in the Russian original: "blue sky" - blue sky, "blue sea" - blue sea. However, it is always possible, if necessary, to specify the required shade of color: light blue or dark (navy) blue.

Thus, despite the differences in the content of the signs of the two languages, in the ways of describing the same denotations, there are sufficient opportunities to achieve equivalence, either by neutralizing the difference, or by using context and additional signs. In this case, undoubtedly, there is some loss or change of information during transmission. There is a certain semantic difference between the content, an explicit sign of the language, and the same content, only implicitly implied, although clear from the context. Similarly, the content conveyed by the combination of two independent signs is, strictly speaking, not identical to the content represented by a single sign. Navy blue is not just “blue”, but also two signs, each of which has its own meaning, and, in principle, it can be distinguished in an act of communication (for example, you can beat the word navy, etc.) and can potentially play an independent role in the message, etc. The combination "small hours" has a single figurative meaning ("early morning"), not reducible to the meanings of its constituent words. But in the following example, the author restores the independent meaning of the word small:

“He supposed they did work some time or other; in the small hours, perhaps precious little hours!” (J. Galsworthy)

- “Someday, apparently, they work; maybe early in the morning? Except it's too early."

However, all these undoubted semantic differences are of little importance for the process of communication. As a rule, they are irrelevant for both the Source and the Receptor, and their neutralization (loss) during translation does not play any significant role. However, it should be noted that the establishment of translation equivalence in relation to the description of the denotation may be accompanied by some loss of information.

(3) Equivalence in the transfer of categorization.

The content of the lexical category is made up of general concepts that express real relationships that are common to all people. Such categories as the concepts of size, beginning of action, motivation for action, direction of movement are undoubtedly universal, since they reflect real facts well known to all people. Therefore, information constituting a certain lexical category can be conveyed by means of any language. Thus, the categorical meaning "doer", transmitted in English by the suffix -er, is exactly reproduced in Russian words by the corresponding suffixes: teacher - "teacher", smelter - "caster", etc.

Some deviations from complete equivalence arise only when the ways of conveying a given content are different in FL and TL. So, the meaning of initiation, as we have already seen, is usually conveyed in English by the verb to begin, and in Russian with the help of the verbal prefixes “za-”, “po-”, etc. (cf. in Russian: “He began to laugh and "He laughed"). Similarly, the meaning of causation, expressed in English by the causative verb to make within the framework of the tripartite construction “He made her laugh”, is conveyed in Russian using the corresponding verb: “He made her laugh” or “He made her laugh” (cf. “He made her laugh” (cf. “He made her laugh”). laugh at her). As can be seen from the examples given, there are certain semantic differences in the content of the lexical category, expressed in various ways. However, these differences are small enough to be neglected.

The necessary degree of equivalence is also achieved in the case when in translation such a categorical meaning turns out to be derivable from the message, although not expressed by special linguistic means.

“They had their photo taken. They took a picture (apparently, someone took a picture of them).

He had his hair cut. - He cut his hair (obviously, he was cut).

In such cases, there is a difference between the English and Russian languages ​​in the ways of conveying causation, which no longer depends on the source. In the English sentences above, causation must be expressed using a three-term construction, since there are no synonymous ways to describe this situation. This obligation exists apart from the intention of the Source and may be communicatively irrelevant. That is why in translation it is possible to use a different way of expressing causation without violating equivalence relations. Of course, when the categorical meaning is especially relevant to the content of the message, the greatest degree of equivalence is achieved by using similar means of expression:

“The American Newsweek would have its readers believe that the Negro workers in the Belgian Congo miners were living well.”

“The American magazine Newsweek would like to make its readers believe that the Negroes who worked in the mines of the Belgian Congo lived well (cf.: “... I would like to convince my readers ...”).

B. Equivalence of lexico-grammatical categories.

For many languages, it seems possible to single out the main categories - "parts of speech": words-objects, words-events, words-determinants. Therefore, the establishment of equivalence at the level of the Lexico-grammatical category is not particularly difficult. Sometimes the categorical meaning of a part of speech plays a significant role in the content of a word. You can say that someone killed a dog, but you can't call it "killing a dog." It is one thing to say that a person “stole” something, and another thing to call him a “thief”. The word-object (noun) expresses a permanent and therefore more important feature than the word-event (verb).

It is possible to detect cases of communicative relevance and differences between the categorical meaning of the word-subject and the word-determinant (adjective, adverb, numeral). “Beautiful woman” is not necessarily “beautiful”, “betrayal” is stronger than “treacherous act”. Of great importance is the preservation of the categorical meaning in translation due to the need to convey the brevity and syntactic pattern of the presentation. The replacement of a part of speech often entails the need for various additions that make the translation cumbersome and wordy. The title of the famous book by W. Foster "Misleaders of Labor" contains a noun, the formation of the verb to mislead - "to mislead", "to lead on the wrong path." It deals with the right-wing leaders of the US working class who betray its interests. An accurate rendering of the content of the word misleaders is possible if the noun is replaced with the appropriate verb in translation, for example: "Those who mislead the working class" or "Those who betray the interests of the working class." However, such a replacement destroys the expressiveness of the title, making it verbose and inexpressive. Any translator will try to preserve the "substantiality" of the main word in translating this heading, even at the expense of a lesser degree of equivalence in relation to other components of its content.

However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, equivalence at the level of the categorical meaning of a part of speech is communicatively irrelevant. Therefore, it is often possible to achieve greater equivalence at other levels by replacing parts of speech in translation. The need for such a replacement may also arise due to the unequal distribution of signs of different languages ​​between the indicated classes. In all such cases, the change in the lexico-grammatical category is not essential for the equivalence of the signs of the original and the translation. Here are some examples from the translation of R. Bradbury's book The Martian Chronicles.

“And then a long wave of warmth crossed the small town. A flooding sea ​​of ​​hot air; it seemed as if someone had left a bakery door open.”

“And suddenly a mighty wave of heat swept through the town; hot air shaft overwhelmed him, as if the door of a bakery had been accidentally left open.”

“… a soft ancient voice”

“…little distant martian bone town”

“... an old Martian townaway »

“The rocket stood in the cold winter morning making summer with every breath of its mighty exhausts.”

"AT colder on a winter morning, the rocket created summer with every exhalation of its powerful nozzles.

[ In sections (4) and (5) of this chapter, the equivalence in the reproduction of the stylistic and emotional functions of the sign is considered. ]

(6) Equivalence when conveying an indication of the ambiguity of a sign.

First of all, it should be noted that the need to reproduce this element of the original content in translation occurs relatively rarely. Usually the word is used in the original only in one of its meanings. After the Receptor has chosen from the meanings represented by the given word the one reproduced by the Source in this case, the presence of other meanings in the word becomes irrelevant. In the sentence “The Board decided to expel him” - “The Board decided to exclude him”, the degree of equivalence of the words Board and “Council” is not affected by the existence of other meanings for these words that are not equivalent to each other.

The task of reproducing the ambiguity of the original arises only when this ambiguity is used by the Source to convey some additional information.

“He says he'll teach you to take the boards and make a raft of them; but seeing that you know how to do this pretty well already, the offer… seems a superfluous one on the point…” (J.K. Jerome)

"He screams that will show you how to take boards without asking and make a raft out of them, but since you already know how to do it so well, this proposal seems superfluous.

The words in the text belong to the owner of the boards, threatening to teach a lesson to the person who took these boards without asking. The verbs to teach and "show" are used both literally and figuratively. Equivalence in translation is ensured due to the existence of similar meanings for both English and Russian words. Under this condition, the indication of the ambiguity of the sign is reproduced with sufficient completeness:

“But their united sagacity could make nothing of it, and they went to bed – metaphorically – in the dark.” (Ch. Dickens)

“But even their combined insight could not help them figure it out, and they went to bed, - figuratively speaking, - in darkness».

The indication that the word dark is used here in a figurative sense (metaphorically) can be reproduced in translation if the corresponding Russian word has both direct and figurative meaning.

“If our cannon balls were all as hot as your head, and we had enough of them, we should conquer the earth, no doubt.” (B. Shaw)

"If our cannonballs were all the same hot like your head, but if we had enough of them, we would undoubtedly conquer the whole world. (Translated by O. Kholmskaya)

The existence of the figurative meaning of the Russian word "hot" allows us to convey both meanings of the English hot, implemented in combinations of hot balls and hot heads.

A much smaller degree of equivalence is achieved in those cases where the corresponding sign in the TL does not have the necessary ambiguity. In this case, one has to either refuse to reproduce this component, or reproduce it in the content of a different sign, i.e. at the cost of less accurate rendering of other components of the original content. In both cases, the equivalence can only be relative. It is typical for translations of works of art to achieve, perhaps, a greater equivalence to the last of the methods mentioned.

“He … said he had come for me, and informed me that he was a page. “Go ‘long, I said, ‘you ain’t more than a paragraph.” (M. Twain)

The Russian word "page" has no meaning (or homonym) associated with the title of any part of the book. Therefore, the only way to convey the play on words of the original is to use a different sign in the translation, which could be attributed both to the page boy and to part of the book. Here is how the translator N. Chukovsky solved this problem:

“He said that he was sent for me and that he was the head of the pages. - What a head you are, you are one line! I told him.

The loss of information when using this technique can be quite significant.

“O ignorant young creatures! How little do you know the effect of rack-punch! What is the rack in the punch at night to the rack in the head of a morning?” (W. Thackeray)

“O inexperienced young creatures! How little you know about the effects of arak punch! What do evening parties have in common? drinks and morning torture?»

The distant consonance between the Russian words "drinks" and "torture" to a very large extent conveys an indication of the connection between the two homonyms rack in the original.

(7) Equivalence in the transfer of the associative-figurative characteristics of the sign.

When reproducing this component of the content of a sign in translation, three different degrees of translation equivalence can be noted.

a) Corresponding words in FL and TL may have the same associative-figurative characteristics. So, in English and Russian, in the meaning of the word snow (“snow”), a sign of whiteness is distinguished, stone (“stone”) is distinguished by “coldness”, and day (“day”) is something “clear”. In both English and Russian, a person turns pale, “like a sheet” (as a sheet), fights “like a lion” (like a lion), calls something unattainable “green grapes” (sour grapes).

In such cases, the translation achieves the highest degree of equivalence in the transfer of this component of the meaning.

“She was dressed in white, with bare shoulders as white as snow…” (W. Thackeray)

“She was all in white with bare shoulders like snow…”

“And pride so moved within her that even her heart felt cold as stone.” (J/ Galsworthy)

"And pride was so stirred up in Dinny that even her heart turned cold as a stone."

“Oh, it’s all getting just bright as day, now.” (M. Twain)

"Well, it's all becoming as clear as day now."

b) A word in the TL that describes a different denotation has a similar figurative characteristic. It is often found that in FL and TL one and the same feature is a figurative component of the content of different words. So, in English and Russian there are words used to express extreme thinness, great strength or great stupidity, but these words describe completely different denotations. Compare: thin as a rake - “thin as a sliver”, strong as a horse - “strong as a bull”, stupid as a goose - “stupid as a cork”, etc. In such cases, the reproduction of the figurative component of the meaning in translation is achieved, as a rule, by replacing the image:

“I never see such an old ostrich for wanting to gobble everything…” (M. Twain)

"I have never seen such a greedy sharks- everything is ready to take away ... "

c) The sign that constitutes the figurative component of the content of the sign in the FL is absent in the TL. It often happens that in the TL there is no image at all on the basis on which it was created in the original. In such cases, an equivalent reproduction of this part of the meaning of the sign is possible only within the framework of the entire statement, i.e. by combining a number of other characters.

“Want, colder than Charity, shivering at the street corners.” (Ch. Dickens)

"Need, frozen to the marrow of the bones, trembled at the crossroads of the streets."

Often, the reproduction of this component of the meaning is impossible and the image is lost in translation:

"Cat". With that simple word Jean closed the scene.” (J. Galsworthy)

In English, cat is often used to characterize an angry or grumpy woman. The Russian "cat" has no such component of meaning. In translation, one has to abandon the image.

"- Zlyuchka! Jin retorted, and that simple word ended the scene.

As in the case of the ambiguity of a sign, the problem of conveying the figurative characteristics of a word arises only if this characteristic is reproduced in the original text. Such a reproduction takes place only when the corresponding sign is used as a metaphor or figurative comparison, which occurs relatively infrequently. As a rule, words in which such components of meaning are found are used without reproducing a figurative characteristic (cf.: the usual use of the words "sliver", "bath", "ice", "snow", "day", etc.). In such cases, there is no need to transfer this characteristic in translation, and it does not have any effect on the degree of translation equivalence.

(8) Equivalence in conveying the meaning of a derivative or compound word of the original.

As a rule, the “word-building” component of the meaning of a word turns out to be communicatively irrelevant in most cases. Therefore, usually the equivalence between the words of the original and the translation can be established regardless of their morphemic composition.

“In it would be, perhaps, a priceless old chestnut wood wardrobe and a four-poster bed of an excellent period…” (J. Galsworthy)

“It seemed to contain a priceless antique walnut wardrobe, a four-poster bed also of a very, very respectable age ...”

Equivalence relations are equally established between the words of the same morphemic structure (bed - "bed", priceless - "priceless"), and between structurally different units (old - "old", wardrobe - "wardrobe", four-poster - "with a canopy ", chestnut wood -" walnut ").

However, the morphemic structure of a word can play a semantic role in the original and form part of the content that needs to be reproduced in the translation. Equivalent reproduction of such an element of meaning will be possible only if the structure of the corresponding words FL and TL coincide.

“The Senator smiled. He looked surprisingly young to Erik, who had always assumed that the nation's elders were really old.” (W. Wilson)

The Senator smiled. He looked very young, much to the surprise of Eric, who always believed that the elders of his country were actually old people.

Here, the achievement of equivalence is ensured due to the fact that the English elder and the Russian “elder” have equivalent root morphemes in their structure: old - “star”.

In the same way, equivalence is achieved when translating new formations, the meaning of which is derived from their constituent morphemes:

“Feeling, as she said ‘very towny’, she prepared for the ordeal of disclosure by waterproofing herself and going for a tramp.” (J. Galsworthy)

"Feeling, as she said, 'too enclosed', she decided to put on a cloak and talk a little before trying a decisive explanation."

Since cases of coincidence of the morphemic composition of the corresponding words in FL and TL are relatively rare, equivalence of this kind is usually not ensured in translation.

“His colleagues describe him as “both a gentle man and a gentleman.”.”(Daily Worker)

A play on words in an English sentence based on the meanings of the morphemes that make up the word gentleman cannot be translated when translated, for example:

"His colleagues speak of him as a gentle and noble person."

“…he could not help knowing the depth of his father-in-law’s affection and concern, and the length of his head.” (J. Galsworthy)

The combination the length of his head has a meaning solely due to the awareness of the meaning of individual morphemes that make up the adjective long-headed - “smart, insightful”. Since the Russian adjective has a completely different structure, the pun will be lost in translation.

“He couldn’t help but know how deeply and anxiously his father-in-law loves and how smart he is.”

When a play on words, based on the meaning of its morphemes, constitutes the main content of an utterance, in order to achieve equivalence in translation, it is reproduced by playing on the morphemic composition of other units in the TL. This is due to losses in the reproduction of other components of meaning, so that equivalence relations are established only in relation to the most important element of content.

“By-and-by, he said: “No sweethearts, I b’lieve?” “Sweetmeats did you say, Mr. Barkis?” (Ch. Dickens)

In this passage, the carrier Barkis asks little Davy if the maid Pegoti has a lover, but the boy perceives the word sweetheart as sweetmeat - “candy”. The boy's entire answer makes sense only because of the coincidence of morphemes in the English words sweetheart and sweetmeat. This commonality can be conveyed in translation only by changing the content of the translated units, since the structure of the Russian words "beloved" and "candy" has nothing in common. In this case, it may happen that not root, but affixal morphemes coincide in the translation, for example:

- Doesn't she have a friend?

- Pie, Mr. Barkis?

Another way to convey the "word-building" component of the meaning of the original word is to reproduce the meanings of the constituent morphemes as separate words in the translation. This makes it possible to convey information that is not in direct accordance with the Russian word. So, in the novel by J. Galsworthy "The White Monkey" Michael Mont talks to a man whom he wants to get a job at his publishing house.

“Do you know anything about books?” – “Yes, sir: I’m a good bookkeeper.” - Holy Moses! Our job is getting rid of them. My firm are publishers.”

The usual correspondence to the word bookkeeper does not contain a morpheme with the meaning "book", and therefore the use of such a correspondence in translation will make Michael's answer meaningless. The greatest degree of equivalence can be achieved by translating each part of the English word separately.

- Do you know anything about books?

- Yes, sir. I can keep account books.

- Oh, my God! Yes, we should not keep books, but get rid of them. After all, we have a publishing house.

As can be seen from the above examples, the transfer of this component of the sign value is often associated with certain losses.

(9) Equivalence and compatibility of the word.

When reproducing the content of the original word in the translation, there is no need to convey the distributive characteristic of this word, since it is relevant only for constructing an utterance in a foreign language. Nevertheless, the features of word compatibility have a great influence on the degree of closeness of the translation to the original. It is often impossible to use the closest matches, due to the difference in their distributive characteristics. And since the signs of any statement in the TL can be combined only in accordance with their distributive characteristics, this circumstance imposes serious restrictions on the choice of equivalent units in translation. The English adjective hopeful is usually translated into Russian using the participles "hopeful" or "hopeful". But if in the original someone says in a hopeful voice, then it will no longer be possible to use the closest match, since “hopeful” does not combine with the noun “voice” in Russian. We will have to be content with the equivalence achieved when describing the meaning of hopeful with the help of a group of Russian words: "a voice in which hope sounded."

Speaking about the leaders of some organization, the speaker calls them in English sincere and successful leaders. Both adjectives have fairly close correspondences in Russian: "sincere" and "successful". However, although it is possible to “lead successfully” in Russian, it is impossible to be a “successful leader”. In translation, one has to either use a less exact match that can be combined with the word “leader” (for example, “capable leaders”), or put up with a verbose description (“those who have achieved great success in their activities”). Let's go back to the example from The Martian Chronicles by R. Bradbury.

“The heat pulsed among the cottages and bushes and children.”

Pulsed is “beating, pulsing”, but “heat, heat” cannot “beat”, and even “among houses, bushes and children”. “Pulsates” in Russian “heart, vein”, etc., in extreme cases, “life”, and not “among”, but “somewhere” or “in something”. Therefore, in the translation we find a completely different sign:

"Heat washed houses, bushes, children.

Even less complete equivalence relations are established in those cases when in the original the wide compatibility of the word is used as a special device of the so-called "zeugma". English authors often use this technique to create a certain humorous effect, for example:

“And now must come swift action, for we have here some four thousand words and not a tear shed and never a pistol, joke, safe, nor bottle cracked.” (O.Henry)

The English verb to crack is combined with "pistol" and with "joke", with "safe" and with "bottle". The absence of a verb with such a combination in the Russian language in itself limits the possibility of an equivalent transfer of such a technique. In addition, in Russian the use of zeugma is not at all a literary norm and is extremely rare. Phrases such as: “Three students were walking, one was going to the cinema, the other was in a gray suit, and the third was in a good mood” are perceived as anecdotal examples.

In this regard, and also taking into account the insignificant semantic (more precisely, expressive) role of this device in the English language, zeugma, as a rule, is not transmitted into Russian:

“Michael… suggested to the camera that it would miss the train. It at once took a final photograph of Michael in front of the hut, two cups of tea at the Manor, and its departure.” (J. Galsworthy)

“Michael… hinted that the photographer might miss the train. Then he immediately took the last picture: stripped off Michael in front of the house drank two cups of tea and went back home."

Thus, the distributive characteristic of a word, not in itself information that should be reproduced in translation, plays a significant role in establishing equivalence at the level of linguistic signs, since the choice of a sign in translation is largely determined by the ratio of similar characteristics of words in FL and TL.

(10) Equivalence in the transfer of the antonymic characteristics of the word.

The problem of reproduction in translation of the antonymic characteristic of the original word arises only when a word with such a characteristic is used in an antonymic context, i.e. together with its antonym and in opposition to it. Naturally, the highest degree of equivalence is also achieved here if the corresponding word in the translation has an antonymic characteristic:

“…insisted that the workers should look upon all the farmers small as well as big, as their enemies.” (W. Foster)

“... insisted that the workers count all farmers - and small, and major- their enemies.

“That was the question that tortured him, by night and by day, asleep and wake up.” (M. Twain)

This question tormented him at night and afternoon, in a dream and in reality».

“Who am I to approve or to disapprove?” (M. Wilson)

"Who am I to approve or condemn?»

In the absence of an antonymic characteristic of the corresponding word in the TL, it is sometimes possible to reproduce this meaning component using a different antonymic pair.

“Americans… may be divided into two classes – Americans and Americans. In other words, some are nice and some are nasty.” (J. Galsworthy)

“Americans…should be divided into two categories. There are Americans and Americans. In other words - cute and unsympathetic».

“And I came primed with much information and misinformation gleaned from the writings and sayings of friends and foes of the Soviet Union.” (A.Johnstone)

"And I've been stuffed enough truthful and false information gleaned from written and oral statements of friends and enemies of the Soviet Union.

Of course, the replacement of one antonymic group by another in translation is not always possible. In this case, equivalence is based on the contextual opposition of the corresponding concepts.

“…Dinny felt a sort of admiration at the painful integrity with which he was grasping the shadow and letting the substance go.” (J. Galsworthy)

The opposition of the English antonymic pair shadow - substance is conveyed in translation by the collision of the meanings of words that are not antonyms.

“... the pained naivete with which the father chased the mirage, losing sight of the essential, could not but arouse a certain sympathy in the girl.”

When an antonymic characteristic is used as the basis for a play on words, loss of information in translation is often unavoidable.

“Will you take some potage, Miss ah – Miss Blunt?” said Mr. Crawley. (W.M. Thackeray)

The play on words is based on the antonymy of the English adjectives sharp - blunt. In the text, the heroine of the novel, Becky Sharp, is called "Miss Dull" instead of "Miss Sharp". However, in the Russian translation, her surname - "Sharp" does not have an antonymic characteristic, as a result of which this element of meaning will be lost. One can only somewhat compensate for the lack of equivalence by playing around with the surname already in the Russian version, for example, calling it “Miss Karp”.

Of particular note is the use of the antonymic characteristic of a word to ensure translation equivalence in the absence of a direct correspondence or the impossibility of applying it.

Especially often this type of equivalence is noted when translating words with negative prefixes.

“Most of the Latin American governments have been unable to do much to this end…” (W. Foster)

"Most Latin American governments could do very little in this regard."

“Besides, as we all know from our own experience, it is never unpleasant to talk about oneself…” (S. Maugham)

“Besides, as we all know from our own experience, it’s always nice to talk about yourself…”

These are the main types of equivalent relations that can be noted at the level of linguistic signs. It should be emphasized that it was about the potential relationship between the individual components of the content of signs in the text of the original and the translation. When describing them, we ignored both the influence of other content levels and the influence of the conditions for the use of the sign in a particular act of communication. As will be shown later, these factors often change the nature of the equivalence between the individual characters of the original and the translation quite significantly.

 Compare translation and original. Name the type of equivalence.

1. Fragile. - Caution glass.

2. The house was sold for eighty thousand dollars. The house was sold for eighty thousand dollars.

3. She slammed the door at his face. She slammed the door in his face.

4. The cat that walked by himself. - A cat that walks by itself.

5. This is a stone throw. - It's within easy reach from here.

6. The bus seats 30. - The bus has 30 seats.

7. Butler: donnish, dignified and dull. – Butler: academic, decent and boring.

8. How old is Richard? - I don "t know. - ... Why aren" t there any more people from Oxford? - Oh, I don't know. They are all abroad or working, or can't afford the train fare, I suppose. - How old is Richard? - I dont know. Why has no one else come from Oxford? - How can I tell you? Probably, they are all abroad now or at work, and some do not have money for travel.

10. Won "t you sit down? - Please sit down.

11. Dear Sir (Dear Mr.) Schroeder. - Dear Mr. Schroeder!

12. The work having been done, everybody felt a great relief. “When the job was done, everyone felt a huge sense of relief.

13. It was late in the day. - Evening was approaching.

14. Are you serious? - Are you joking?

15. I live in Moscow. - I live in Moscow.

16. You are the only woman I have ever loved. “Before you, I didn’t love anyone.

17. Not walked with his eyes down. He walked with his eyes downcast.

18. (Mrs. Eysenford Hill) My daughter Clara. – (Lisa) How do you do? – (Clara) How do you do? – (Mrs Eisenford Hill) My daughter Clara. – (Eliza) Very nice. – (Clara) Very nice.

19. Not a member of the Spartacus club team. – He plays for the Spartak team.

20. They are queuing for tickets. They are standing in line for tickets.

21. The sun disappeared behind the cloud. - The sun was hidden behind a cloud.

22. The delegation took a flight from Moscow. - The delegation flew out of Moscow.

23. The delegation has returned to London. - The delegation flew home.

24. London saw a cold winter last year. The winter in London was cold last year.

25. He was never tired of old songs. He never got tired of the old songs.

26. I don "t see that I need to convince you. - I see no need to prove it to you.

27. Was not standing with his arms crossed and his bare head bent. He stood with his arms folded across his chest and his uncovered head bowed.

28. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members. – The organization is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its members.

29. It seems, however, that they are in danger of missing the point. “It seems, however, that they are in danger of missing the point.

30. Protecting our environment cannot be achieved simply by some magic new technology. “The environment around us cannot be saved with the help of some new technology that can work wonders.

‚ Read and translate the following text. Analyze the types of equivalence between the original and your translation.

VOICES THAT UNITE EPOCHS

(1) It is a popular habit to make fun of anonymous interpreters who hurriedly explain to us foreign films: they pinch their noses with clothes pegs lest bandits recognize them, they distort the meaning of every second word, and yet voice-over interpreting has become a regular business.

(2) Voice-over interpretation was born with the advent of video tape recorders. (3) We all remember these group sit-ins in front of the only VCR in the neighborhood. (4) These “snuffling interpreters” heralded new Western cinema in Russia. (5) It was they who showed Russians all the degenerate films of the 80s. (6) This voice-over was almost home-made, which explains the “snuffling effect”.

(7) L. Volodarsky (one of the famous “pirate” interpreters of those times, now working with NTV-Plus company) describes this process. (8) The interpreter watched a film three or four times and then recorded the interpretation, virtually on the spot. (9) Sometimes he couldn't even understand what some Boston Negro was saying. (10) The audience was thrilled by the interpreter desperately groping for ideas rather than by the main character. (11) The time of those brutal experiments on our ears was quickly over, and nowadays even pirate copies are sold with a standard lip-sync, which is actually not welcomed by many cinema fans.

(12) The 1990's brought about a real revolution in voicing foreign films. (13) First, they started buying ten times as many films, or rather a thousand times. (14) Second, everyone has been trying to reduce production costs by all means and make a voice-over cheaper than their rivals. (15) Thus, at present the most widespread method is a standard actor voice-over. (16)A studio receives a VHS tape with a script from its client. (17) The script and tape are given to an interpreter who does his best to match the length of Russian phrases to the original. (18) Then the Russian text is turned over to the editor who chooses the actors (usually there are two, a man and a woman). (19) And the process begins.

Topic 2Translation - dictionary - context

It is generally accepted that a bilingual dictionary is mainly created for the translator. Of course, other users can also use such dictionaries in their information work, for example, when reading a foreign text, when annotating or summarizing texts, when editing translations, etc.

But if we keep in mind, first of all, the translation name of the dictionary, then such a dictionary can be called a “translation” one. And, indeed, a bilingual dictionary is always a certain result of lexicographic and translational-comparative work. Translation dictionaries may be bilingual (as a rule) or may consist of a number of languages ​​and be multilingual. Naturally, bilingual dictionaries contain much more information than multilingual ones.

Language mediation (translations) requires a variety of dictionaries and reference books. Without this, it is very difficult to achieve fast and qualified translations.

INSTRUCTIONS, instructions, cf. 1. only units Action under ch. indicate in 1 and 2 values. indicate. Road indication. Pointing out shortcomings. 2. Instruction, advice, instruction, remark explaining something, indicating how to act. As instructed from ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

indication- recommendation A special instruction for converting characters from an outline font to a bitmap format, used when displaying them on a display screen or a printing device. When converting, a situation may arise when, due to low resolution ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

NOTE- INSTRUCTION, I, cf. 1. See indicate. 2. Instruction, explanation, indicating how to act. Get, give. Valuable at. (often ironic). Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

indication- an administrative official document containing prescribed actions for a specific executor to resolve operational issues of an informational and methodological nature, as well as on issues related to the organization of the execution of orders, ... ... Official terminology

indication- (instruction) a document issued by the head of the structural unit and business unit within his competence and authority to perform the functional tasks assigned to the unit ... Economic and Mathematical Dictionary

indication- execute an instruction implementation execute instructions implementation give instructions action give instructions action receive an instruction action, the recipient received the instruction action, the subject follow the instructions object, dependency, ... ... Verbal compatibility of non-objective names

indication- I. INSTRUCTION INSTRUCTION1, instructing, prescription, prescription, indication INSTRUCTION, directive, instruction, prescription, installation, circular, coll. pointer DIRECTIONAL, instructive, circular and… … Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech

indication- noun, s., use. comp. often Morphology: (no) what? instructions for what? instructions, (see) what? indication of what? indicating what? about the indication; pl. what? instructions, (no) what? instructions for what? instructions, (see) what? instructions for what? instructions about what? about… … Dictionary of Dmitriev

indication- on what and about what. 1. what (advice, remark, prescription). An indication was received of the need to change the work schedule. 2. about what (information, message about what l.). The instructions do not indicate the sequence of the experiment ... Control Dictionary

indication- I cf. 1. the process of action according to Ch. indicate I 1., indicate I 2. The result of such an action; indication I 2.. II cf. 1. the process of action according to Ch. indicate II 3., indicate II 2. The result of such an action; instruction, instruction, advice. ott. Service… … Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

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The imperative mood is used to give directions, warnings and advice.

Be quiet!
Quiet!

Listen to me carefully!
Listen to me carefully!

In some situations, direct orders and instructions may sound rude, in such cases, words can be used to soften them. let's or please.

Let's go now.
Let's go.

Please listen to what I'm saying.
Please listen to what I'm saying.

Using a Modal Verb to Change a Direction into a Request

Modal verbs can be used to change the tone of an utterance. For example, the sentence "You should help her." is more polite than "Help her!"

could you make me some tea?
Could you make tea for me?

Can you come here please?
Can you please come over here?

Will will you shut the door please?
Close the door, please.

Would you wait here until the doctor is ready for you?
Please wait here until the doctor is free.

Using an introductory phrase to make the instruction more polite

In order to give an indication or order, you can completely dispense with the imperative mood, using an introductory phrase instead. Below are some such phrases, ranked from more polite to less polite.

Would you mind (possibly)… ( + ing-form )
Would you mind (possibly) moving your car? It's parked right in front of mine.
Could you move your car? She's standing right in front of me.

I was hoping you could… ( + infinitive without particle to )
I was hoping you could spare me a few minutes this morning.
I was hoping you could give me some time now.

Do you think you could… ( + infinitive without particle to )
Do you think you could do this photocopying for me?
Could you make this copy for me?

I "d like you to ...
I "d like you to file this correspondence for me.
I would like you to send me this mail.

I want you to…
I want you to finish this by tomorrow.
I want you to do it by tomorrow.

Use of words denoting order

To make the instructions clearer, words denoting order and precedence can be used.

Firstly, make sure the appliance is disconnected.
First make sure the device is turned off.

Secondly, open the back with a screwdriver.
Then open the back with a screwdriver.

Then, carefully pull out the two black cables…
After that, carefully pull out the two black cables...