1) The history of the creation of "The Tale of Bygone Years".

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is one of the oldest chronicle works of Russian literature, created at the beginning of the 12th century by Nestor the Chronicler, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russian land, about the first Russian princes and about the most important historical events. The peculiarity of The Tale of Bygone Years is poetry, the author masterfully mastered the style, the text uses various artistic means to make the story more convincing.

2) Narrative features in The Tale of Bygone Years.

In The Tale of Bygone Years, two types of narration can be distinguished - weather records and chronicle stories. Weather records contain reports of events, while chronicle stories describe them. In the story, the author seeks to portray the event, to give specific details, that is, he tries to help the reader imagine what is happening and causes the reader to empathize. Rus' broke up into many principalities and each had its own chronicles. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of their region and was written only about their princes. "The Tale of Bygone Years" was part of the local chronicles, which continued the tradition of Russian chronicle writing. "The Tale of Temporary Lies" determines the place of the Russian people among the peoples of the world, draws the origin of Slavic writing, the formation of the Russian state. Nestor lists the peoples paying tribute to the Russians, shows that the peoples who oppressed the Slavs have disappeared, and the Slavs remained and decide the fate of their neighbors. "The Tale of Bygone Years", written in the heyday of Kievan Rus, became the main work on history.

3) Artistic features of The Tale of Bygone Years. How does Nes Horus the chronicler narrate historical events?

Nestor narrates about historical events poetically. The origin of Rus' Nestor draws against the backdrop of the development of the entire world history. The chronicler unfolds a wide panorama of historical events. A whole gallery of historical figures passes through the pages of the Nestor Chronicle - princes, boyars, merchants, posadniks, church servants. He talks about military campaigns, about the opening of schools, about the organization of monasteries. Nestor constantly touches the life of the people, their moods. On the pages of the annals, we will read about the uprisings, the murders of princes. But the author describes all this calmly and tries to be objective. Murder, betrayal and deceit Nestor condemns; honesty, courage, courage, fidelity, nobility he extols. It is Nestor who strengthens and improves the version of the origin of the Russian princely dynasty. Its main goal was to show the Russian land among other powers, to prove that the Russian people are not without family and tribe, but have their own history, which they have the right to be proud of.

From afar, Nestor begins his story, with the biblical flood itself, after which the earth was distributed among the sons of Noah. This is how Nestor begins his story:

“So let’s start this story.

After the flood, the three sons of Noah divided the earth - Shem, Ham, Japheth. And Shem got the east: Persia, Bactria, even to India in longitude, and in breadth to Rinokorur, that is, from east to south, and Syria, and Media to the Euphrates River, Babylon, Korduna, Assyrians, Mesopotamia, Arabia the Oldest, Ely-maize, Indy, Arabia Strong, Colia, Commagene, all of Phoenicia.

Ham got the south: Egypt, Ethiopia, neighboring India ...

Japheth got the northern and western countries: Media, Albania, Armenia Small and Great, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Hapatia, Colchis ...

Simultaneously, Ham and Japheth divided the land by casting lots, and decided not to enter into the share of a brother to anyone, and each lived in his own part. And there was one people. And when people multiplied on earth, they planned to create a pillar to the sky - it was in the days of Neggan and Peleg. And they gathered in the place of the field of Shinar to build a pillar to heaven, and near it the city of Babylon; and they built that pillar for 40 years, and did not finish it. And the Lord God came down to see the city and the pillar, and the Lord said: “Behold, one generation and one people.” And God confused the nations, and divided them into 70 and 2 nations, and scattered them over all the earth. After the confusion of the peoples, God destroyed the pillar with a great wind; and its remains are located between Assyria and Babylon, and are 5433 cubits high and wide, and these remains have been preserved for many years ... "

Then the author tells about the Slavic tribes, their customs and mores, about the capture of Constantinople by Oleg, about the foundation of Kiev by the three brothers Kiy, Shchek, Khoriv, about Svyatoslav's campaign against Byzantium and other events, both real and legendary. He includes in his "Tale ..." teachings, records of oral stories, documents, contracts, parables and lives. The leading theme of most chronicles is the idea of the unity of Rus'.

The earliest monument of the Russian chronicle is the work "The Tale of Bygone Years". It describes historical events that took place in the period before 1117. At the same time, many experts doubt the authenticity of the document, citing various arguments.

But the Tale ... is undoubtedly a landmark phenomenon both in Russian literature and in the history of the state, allowing you to trace the path of Kievan Rus from the beginning of its formation.

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The history of the creation of the work

Historians and literary critics agree that the author of this work is the monk Nestor. He lived and worked at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. Although his name appeared as the author in later editions of the chronicle, he is considered the author.

At the same time, experts, calling her herself ancient chronicle, still believe that The Tale of Bygone Years is a literary transcription of more ancient works.

The first edition of the code was written by Nestor in 1113, subsequently there were two more arrangements: in 1116 her rewritten by the monk Sylvester, and in 1118 another unknown author.

Currently the first edition is considered lost, the most ancient version that has come down to us is a copy of the monk Lawrence, made in the XIV century. It was she who was compiled on the basis of the second edition of the chronicle.

Also have Ipatiev copy, written on the basis of the third edition.

He paid the greatest attention to the structure and sources of the chronicle in his studies Academician A.A. Shakhmatov. He substantiated the existence and history of the creation of each of the three versions of the chronicle. He also proved that the work itself is only transcription of older sources.

Main content

This chronicle is major work, which describes the key events that took place from the moment the first came to the period when the work itself was created. Below we consider in detail what this chronicle tells about.

This not a complete work, its structure consists of the following elements:

historical notes;
articles describing events for one particular year;
the lives of the saints;
teachings from various princes;
some historical documents.

Attention! The structure of the chronicle is complicated by the fact that in later years additional insertions were made into it in a rather free mode. They break the logic of the overall narrative.

In general, the whole work uses two types of storytelling: these are actually chronicles and weather notes. In the work, the monk seeks to tell about the event itself; in the annual records, he reports on this or that event. Then the author, on the basis of heart notes, writes a chronicle, filling it with colors and details.

Conventionally, the entire chronicle is divided into three large blocks:

The formation of Russian statehood from the moment when the first Slavs settled. They are considered to be the descendants of Japheth, and the story begins in biblical times. The same block describes the moment when the Varangians were called to Rus', as well as the period when the process of the baptism of Rus' was established.
The second and largest block consists of fairly detailed descriptions activities of the princes of Kievan Rus. It also describes the lives of some saints, the history of Russian heroes and the conquests of Rus';
The third block describes the events of numerous wars and campaigns. Here are the obituaries of the princes.

Prophetic Oleg, who, according to the legend of the Tale of Bygone Years, was destined for death from his horse.

The work is enough heterogeneous in structure and presentation, but 16 chapters can be distinguished in the annals. Among the most interesting chapters from a historical point of view, three can be noted: about the Khazars, about Olga's revenge, about the activities of Prince Vladimir. Consider a summary of the work by chapter.

The Slavs encountered the Khazars after they settled and founded Kyiv. Then the people called themselves glades, and three brothers became the founders of Kyiv - Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv. After the Khazars came to the meadows for tribute, they conferred for a long time. In the end, they decided that tribute to the Khazars from each hut will be represented by the sword.

Khazar warriors will return to their tribe with tribute and will boast, but their elders will see such a tribute as a bad sign. Khazars were in circulation sabers A weapon that has a sharp edge on one side only. And the glade applied with swords, a double-edged weapon. And seeing such a weapon, the elders predicted to the prince that tributaries with double-edged weapons would eventually become collect tribute from the Khazars. This is what happened afterwards.

Princess Olga, the wife of Prince Igor, is probably the only woman about whom much is told in the annals. Her story begins with an equally entertaining story about her husband, who, due to greed and excessive collection of tribute, was killed by the Drevlyans. Olga's revenge was terrible. The princess, left alone with her son, became a very profitable match for remarriage. And the Drevlyans themselves, deciding reign in Kyiv, sent matchmakers to her.

First, Olga prepared a trap for matchmakers, and then, having gathered a huge army, went to war against the Drevlyans, to avenge her husband.

Being a very smart and cunning woman, she was not only able to avoid an unwanted marriage, but was also able to completely protect yourself from the revenge of the Drevlyans.

To do this, the princess completely burned the capital of the Drevlyans - Iskorosten, and either killed the Drevlyans themselves or took them and sold them into slavery.

Olga's revenge for her husband's death was truly terrible.

Prince Vladimir became best known for the fact that baptized Rus'. He came to faith not quite voluntarily, for a long time choosing which faith to be in and which god to pray to. And even having chosen, he put all sorts of conditions. But after being baptized, he began to actively preach Christianity in Rus', destroying pagan idols and persecuting those who did not accept the new faith.

The baptism of Rus' is described in great detail. Also, Prince Vladimir is mentioned a lot in connection with his military action against the Pechenegs.

As an example, we can cite the following excerpts from the work:

This is how Prince Vladimir says that it is necessary to destroy the pagan gods: “If it sticks somewhere, push it with sticks until it carries it through the rapids.”
And this is how Olga spoke, realizing her plan of revenge on the Drevlyans: “Now you have neither honey nor furs.”

About the baptism of Rus'

Since the chronicle was written by a monk, its content has a lot of references to the Bible and imbued with the spirit of Christianity.

The very moment when Prince Vladimir was baptized is the main one in the annals. In addition, the prince, before being baptized, is described as a person who did not restrain himself in desires, who committed unrighteous actions from the point of view of Christianity.

The moment is also described as it overtakes God's punishment for breaking a vow He was blind and received his sight only after he was baptized.

In the "Tale of Bygone Years", in the chapters that talk about the baptism of Rus', foundations of the Orthodox faith, in particular, it substantiates who or what can be the object of worship.

The chronicle lays the groundwork for the process of the baptism of Rus', saying that only the righteous, who are considered Christians, can go to heaven.

The chronicle also describes the beginning of the spread of the Christian faith in Rus': what exactly was done, what churches were built, how worship was performed, how the structure of the church was organized.

What does the Tale of Bygone Years teach?

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is landmark work for literature and history of Russia. From a literary point of view, this unique historical monument Slavic writing in the chronicle genre, the date of writing of which is considered to be 1113.

The main theme of the chronicle is description of the history of the emergence and development of Rus'. Its author wanted to popularize the idea of the power of the Russian state in that period. Whatever event was described by the monk, he considered each from the point of view of the interests of the entire state, and also evaluated the actions of the characters.

Chronicle as a literary monument important for its role in the teaching of that time. Separate parts of the work served as material for reading for children that time. Until specialized children's literature appeared, children mostly passed through the science of reading by reading chronicles.

The role of this work is also important for historians. There is a certain criticism of the correctness of the presentation and evaluation of some historical events. Many researchers believe that the author of the work was very biased. But all these assessments are made from the point of view of modern man, which can also be biased in judging the chronicler's work.

Attention! Such a presentation made it possible to make the work a source for the creation of many later chronicles, in particular, chronicles of cities.

The Tale of Bygone Years. Prince Oleg. Nestor - chronicler

Tale of Bygone Years - Igor Danilevsky

Conclusion

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is one and first known historical evidence how the Russian statehood developed and established. The role of the work is also important from the point of view of assessing the events that took place in ancient times. What the chronicle teaches, in general, is clear.

The Tale of Bygone Years is a collection, and therefore we will not find here ideas that cover all annual articles without exception. And yet, there are several points that the compilers of the "Tale" refer to again and again. A number of information included in the chronicle has a pronounced anti-Byzantine orientation. The idea of independence from Byzantium, after the conversion of Rus' to Christianity, which probably expressed some claims not only to church leadership, but also to secular vassalage, according to researchers, was one of the central ones in the code of Nikon the Great. It was precisely at the peak of Byzantium that stories about campaigns against Tsargrad by Igor, Svyatoslav and especially Oleg, who defiantly hung his shield on the gates of the Byzantine capital, could get into the Russian chronicle.

Describing any contacts of Russian princes with the Byzantines, the chronicler is most concerned about how not to drop the authority of the Slavic rulers. In any situation, he invariably depicts them not as modest petitioners, but as equal partners, often surpassing the intelligence and ingenuity of the stiff Byzantine basileus. For example, according to the chronicle story, Princess Olga, who went to Tsargrad, allegedly declared there to the ruling Constantine Porphyrogenitus "if you want to baptize me ...", thereby turning the matter around as if she had not come to ask for baptism, but it was the emperor who very strongly sought him. In his further narration, the chronicler will not forget to mention the cross name of the Slavic princess - Elena, “like the ancient queen, mother of the Great Constantine”, and the fact that it was Olga, who barely had time to be baptized, reminded the Byzantine ruler who wished to marry her with a living wife about the Christian custom, according to for whom marriage between godparents is not possible. The author did not forget to place in his narrative a kind of recognition by the emperor of Olga's moral superiority, as well as a recollection of how, having arrived in Kiev, the resolute princess sent slurping Byzantine messengers, asking them to remind the emperor of how disrespectfully they treated the Kiev embassy in Constantinople.

Anti-Byzantine sentiments were reflected in a peculiar way in those articles of the annals, which tell about the adoption of Christianity by Vladimir. It seems that the author is doing everything possible to belittle the role of Byzantium in this event. According to the chronicle, before accepting the faith from the Greeks, the Kiev prince listens to the messenger of several religions, then sends a special embassy to Europe. The chronicler diligently emphasizes the special honors that were given to the Russians in Constantinople.

To top it all off, the chronicle recounts the so-called "Korsun legend". In this episode, the tone of the dialogue conducted by the chronicle Vladimir with the Byzantine brother-emperors is especially indicative, since it is not about baptism at all, but about a wedding. Having captured Chersonesus, the largest Greek colony in the Northern Black Sea region, the steppe pagan, who would not have been taken seriously in the Byzantine capital earlier, does not ask for anything. On the contrary, he threatens the rulers of the empire with a new campaign against Constantinople and demands their sister, the purple princess Anna, as his wife. In these negotiations, with a significant flavor of blackmail, baptism turns out to be a kind of concession, to which Vladimir agrees, going towards the Byzantine rulers. The legend ends with one more detail, designed to elevate Vladimir above the Greeks: as a “vein” - a bride price laid down according to Slavic customs - the cunning Kievan prince gives the Byzantines the city of Korsun captured from them, having thus managed to observe the customs and not go bankrupt.

And finally, most likely, it was precisely at the peak of Byzantium that the legend of the walk of the Apostle Andrew got into the Tale of Bygone Years. It seems that the search for a worthy heavenly patron for Rus' seriously occupied the compilers of the first Russian chronicles, at least they included in their narrative a legend about Slavic writings, Moravian in origin, where Paul was named the teacher of Rus'. However, this was not enough for later editors, and in the text of the chronicle there is a story about Andrew, the apostle from the twelve and, most importantly, the heavenly patron of Byzantium. And it doesn’t matter that this story from a historical point of view looks more than doubtful: it’s completely incomprehensible why the apostle, who, according to his biography, never went further than the Scythians, would go deep into the wilds of the Dnieper forests, absolutely deserted in the middle of the 1st century AD. And the very description of the legendary path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” is given in the annals to the eyes of a person who is somewhere in the center of the Central Russian plain, in the “Okovsky Forest”. But the churches of the two powers could henceforth consider themselves equal in status.

Another constant concern of the compilers of The Tale of Bygone Years was the description, evaluation of deeds and justification of the legitimacy of the power of the ruling Rurik dynasty. This is explained not only by the fact that the chronicle was created in monasteries closely associated with the Grand Duke's throne (Kyevo-Pechersk and Vydubitsky), and, apparently, had the status of a state official document - it was simply that the very idea of Slavic statehood was associated with princely power in the XII century. . Let me remind you that in the title of the Tale, the question of the origin of Rus' and the emergence of princely power in it are put side by side.

The degree of reliability of the information provided by the chroniclers of the 12th century about the first Russian princes can be assessed in different ways. Most likely, narrating about the events of two hundred and three hundred years ago and relying to a large extent on the material of oral legends, the ancient historiographers do not recreate the material appearance of historical persons, but capture princely portraits as they have developed in the popular consciousness. Another thing is certain: despite the fact that the chronicle was compiled and edited mainly by monastics, the descriptions of Kievan rulers often come to the fore not Christian, but precisely princely virtues - military prowess, the ability to strengthen the power of the country by subjugating the surrounding peoples, the ability to honorably go out from difficult diplomatic situations. The compilers of the chronicle endow these qualities equally to both the ancient pagan princes and the Christian rulers who succeeded them.

The Tale of Bygone Years occupies a special place in the history of Russian public consciousness and the history of Russian literature. This is not only the oldest of the chronicles that have come down to us, telling about the emergence of the Russian state and the first centuries of its history, but at the same time the most important monument of historiography, which reflected the ideas of ancient Russian scribes of the early 12th century. about the place of the Russians among other Slavic peoples, ideas about the emergence of Rus' as a state and the origin of the ruling dynasty, in which, as they would say today, the main directions of foreign and domestic policy are illuminated with extraordinary clarity. The Tale of Bygone Years testifies to the highly developed national self-consciousness at that time: the Russian land conceives itself as a powerful state with its own independent policy, ready, if necessary, to enter into single combat even with the powerful Byzantine Empire, closely connected by political interests and kinship relations of rulers not only with neighboring countries - Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, but also with Germany, and even with France, Denmark, Sweden. Rus' conceives itself as an Orthodox state, already from the first years of its Christian history, sanctified by special divine grace: it is rightfully proud of its patron saints - princes Boris and Gleb, its shrines - monasteries and temples, its spiritual mentors - theologians and preachers, the most famous of which , of course, was in the XI century. Metropolitan Hilarion. The guarantee of the integrity and military power of Rus' should have been the dominion in it of a single princely dynasty - the Rurikovichs. Therefore, reminders that all princes are blood brothers are a constant motif of The Tale of Bygone Years, because in practice Rus' is shaken by internecine strife and brother raises his hand to brother more than once. Another topic is persistently discussed by the chronicler: the Polovtsian danger. The Polovtsian khans - sometimes allies and matchmakers of the Russian princes, most often still acted as leaders of devastating raids, they besieged and burned cities, exterminated the inhabitants, led away lines of prisoners. The Tale of Bygone Years introduces its readers to the very thick of these political, military, and ideological problems that were relevant for that time.

THE LEGEND ABOUT THE APOSTLE ANDREY

When the glade lived on their own on these mountains, there was a path from the Varangians to the Greeks and from the Greeks along the Dnieper, and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper it dragged to Lovot, and along Lovot you can enter Ilmen, a great lake; Volkhov flows out of the same lake and flows into the Great Lake Nevo, and the mouth of that lake flows into the Varangian Sea. And by that sea you can even reach Rome, and from Rome you can come along the same sea to Constantinople, and from Constantinople you can come to the Pontus Sea, into which the Dnieper River flows. The Dnieper flows out of the Okovsky forest and flows south, and the Dvina flows from the same forest and goes north, and flows into the Varangian Sea. From the same forest, the Volga flows to the east and flows through seventy mouths into the Khvalis Sea. Therefore, from Rus' you can sail along the Volga to the Bolgars and Khvalisy, and go east to the lot of Sim, and along the Dvina to the Varangians, and from the Varangians to Rome, from Rome to the Khamov tribe. And the Dnieper flows into the Pontic Sea by three mouths; this sea is called Russian, - St. Andrew, Peter's brother, taught him along the shores.

As they say, when Andrei taught in Sinop and arrived in Korsun, he learned that the mouth of the Dnieper was not far from Korsun, and he wanted to go to Rome, and sailed to the mouth of the Dnieper, and from there he went up the Dnieper. And it so happened that he came and stood under the mountains on the shore. And in the morning, getting up, he said to the disciples who were with him: “Do you see these mountains? So the grace of God will shine on these mountains, there will be a great city, and God will build many churches. And having ascended these mountains, he blessed them and put up a cross, and prayed to God, and descended from this mountain, where Kyiv would later be, and went up the Dnieper. And he came to the Slavs, where Novgorod now stands, and saw the people living there - what is their custom and how they wash and whip, and marveled at them. And he went to the Varangians, and came to Rome, and told about how many he taught and whom he saw, and told them: “I saw a miracle in the Slavic land when I came here. I saw wooden bathhouses, and they would heat them up strongly, and they would undress and be naked, and douse themselves with soap, and take brooms, and start whipping, and they would finish themselves off so much that they would barely get out, barely alive, and douse themselves with icy water, and only in this way would they come to life. And they do this constantly, not tormented by anyone, but they torment themselves, and then they do not wash themselves, but<...>torment." Those, hearing, were amazed; Andrew, having been in Rome, came to Sinop.

"TALE OF TIME YEARS" AND ITS EDITIONS

In 1110-1113, the first edition (version) of the Tale of Bygone Years was completed - a lengthy chronicle that absorbed numerous information on the history of Rus': about the Russian wars with the Byzantine Empire, about the call to Rus' for the reign of the Scandinavians Rurik, Truvor and Sineus, about the history of the Kievan- Caves monastery, about princely crimes. The probable author of this chronicle is the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. This edition has not survived in its original form.

The first edition of the Tale of Bygone Years reflected the political interests of the then Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. In 1113, Svyatopolk died, and Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh ascended the throne of Kiev. In 1116, the monk Sylvester (in the Promonomach spirit) and in 1117-1118. unknown scribe from the entourage of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh), the text of the Tale of Bygone Years was revised. This is how the second and third editions of the Tale of Bygone Years arose; the oldest list of the second edition has come down to us as part of the Laurentian, and the earliest list of the third - as part of the Ipatiev Chronicle.

EDITING THE "TALE OF TIME YEARS"

Having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir Monomakh retained his "fatherland" - the principality of Pereyaslavl, as well as Suzdal and Rostov. He recognized the power of Vladimir and Veliky Novgorod, obeying his orders and accepting princes from him. In 1118, Vladimir demanded to himself "all the boyars of Novgorod" to bring them to the oath. He sent some of them back to Novgorod, and “leave others with you.” Under Vladimir, the former military power of the ancient Russian state, weakened by the previous feudal strife, was restored. The Polovtsy suffered a crushing blow, and they did not dare to attack the Russian land ...

One of the measures during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv in 1113 was the correction of Nestor's "Tale of Bygone Years" in order to more correctly cover the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, hated by the Kyiv working people. Monomakh entrusted this matter to the abbot of the Vydubetsky monastery, Sylvester. The Vydubetsky Monastery was founded by the father of Vladimir Monomakh, Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich, and, naturally, he took the side of this prince, and after his death - the side of his son. Sylvester conscientiously fulfilled the task entrusted to him. He rewrote The Tale of Bygone Years and supplemented it with several inserts about Svyatopolk's negative actions. So, Sylvester introduced into the "Tale of Bygone Years" under the year 1097 the story of the priest Vasily about the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavich. Then, in a new way, he outlined the history of the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians in 1103. Although this campaign was led by Svyatopolk, as the senior prince of Kiev, Sylvester's pen Svyatopolk was relegated to the background, and Vladimir Monomakh, who really participated in this campaign, but did not lead it, was put in the first place.

The fact that this version could not belong to Nestor, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, is clear from a comparison with it of a story about the same campaign that is available in the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, which probably follows the tradition from Nestor himself. In the story “Paterika”, Vladimir Monomakh is not even mentioned, and the victory over the Polovtsy is attributed to one Svyatopolk, who received a blessing before the campaign from the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery.

While editing Nestor's The Tale of Bygone Years, Sylvester did not continue it for a single year, but issued an indication of the authorship of the Kiev-Pechersk monk. Under the same year 1110, Sylvester made the following addition: “Hegumen Sylvester of St. Michael wrote these books, chronicler, hoping from God to receive mercy under Prince Volodimer, who ruled him Kiev, and at that time I was abbess at St. Michael, in the summer of 6624 (1116) indicta 9. And if you read these books, then be in prayers. Since Sylvester's edition received official recognition, it formed the basis of all further Russian chronicle writing and has come down to us in many later chronicle lists. Nestor's text of The Tale of Bygone Years, which remained the property of only the Kiev-Pechersk tradition, has not reached us, although some traces of differences between this text and the Sylvester edition have been preserved, as already mentioned, in separate stories of the later Kiev-Pechersk Patericon. In this "Paterik" there is also an indication of Nestor, who wrote the Russian "chronicler".

In 1118, the Sylvestrian edition of The Tale of Bygone Years was continued, apparently in connection with the inclusion of the well-known Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh written in that year. According to the convincing assumption of M. Priselkov, the addition was made by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Mstislav, who was then in Novgorod. Of great interest among these additions are two stories about the northern countries, heard by the author in 1114, when he was present at the laying of a stone wall in Ladoga. The Ladoga posadnik Pavel told him about the northern countries beyond Yugra and Samoyed. Another story about these countries, heard by the author from the Novgorodian Gyuryata Rogovich, is placed under the year 1096, indicating that he was heard "for the past 4 years." Since both stories are closely related in content, the words “previously 4 years” should be attributed to the time of writing this insert in 1118, when the author heard the first story as well .. Since the original manuscript of Mstislav has not come down to us, but only her later lists, then the only explanation for the resulting confusion may be a random rearrangement of the original sheets from which these lists were then made. Such an assumption is all the more admissible because in the available lists under the year 1096 there is also the "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh", written no earlier than 1117.

Genre originality of "The Tale of Bygone Years"

Unlike folklore, which is not characterized by a mixture of different genres within the framework of one work, The Tale of Bygone Years was set of primary genre formations. The ensemble of the chronicle included legends and traditions, legends and military stories, teachings and parables, signs and wonders.

The simplest and oldest form of chronicle narration was the weather record, which recorded single facts of history. Its main features are documentary accuracy, extreme conciseness, lack of emotional coloring and author's commentary. The message was introduced into the chronicle narrative using traditional formulas: " In summer6596 . Sacred was the church of St. Michael of Vsevolozh Monastery... Same summer go Svyatopolk from Novgorod to Turov to reign. It's summer Died Nikon, hegumen of the Caves. In the same summer taking the Bulgarians Murom".

Ns claimed to be "literary", pursuing an informative goal, and a chronicle story, which, unlike the weather record, had the character of an extended documentary message: "In the summer of 6534. Yaroslav bought a lot of howling and came to Kiev, and make peace with his brother Mstislav near Gorodets. And the Russian land was also divided along the Dnieper: Yaroslav added to this country, and Mstislav to him. Written in the fresh wake of the event, the chronicle message retained the lively intonations of the oral story and reflected the author's assessment of what happened.

The chronicle tales in The Tale of Bygone Years are a literary adaptation of an oral source, to which the chronicler turned if there was no more reliable material at hand. They restore the pre-literate period of Russian history on the basis of folk legends, toponymic legends or heroic epic retinues. These stories of the chronicle are characterized by a plot and an attempt by the author to create the illusion of authenticity by enclosing the legendary basis in a "historical frame".

For example, in the chronicle tale about the death of Oleg from his horse, dates, both real and symbolic, serve as a means of documenting the narrative. The chronicler, including the story of Oleg's death in the article of iodine 912, reports that he "stayed in summer" in the war with the Greeks, and "the life of all his reign was 33". The history of the conclusion of a peace treaty between the Greek land and Russia, extracts from the "Chronicle" of Georgy Amartol about cases when the predictions of sorcerers came true - the entire historical context was intended to testify to the reliability of the description of the death of the great commander from a snake bite (according to other chronicle versions, he died, " going beyond the sea", and was buried in Ladoga). In the legend, the author's assessment of what is depicted is manifested, no matter how dispassionate the narration may seem. The attitude of the chronicler to the triumphant commander, whose shield flaunted on the gates of the conquered Constantinople, is ambivalent. On the one hand, he captured the people's attitude towards Oleg through the nickname "Prophetic", reflected the "great cry" about his death and the memory of the burial place of the prince on Mount Shchekovitsa, which survived the centuries. On the other hand, respect for Oleg’s military victories fades in the mind of the chronicler before the unbelief of a man who imagines himself to be invincible enemies and fate itself, who laughed at the prediction of the Magi and reproached them: I'm alive." The horse, according to the ancient beliefs of the Slavs, is a sacred animal, a helper and friend of man, a talisman. Stepping on the skull of his beloved horse with his foot, Oleg doomed himself to an "evil" death, death is a punishment. The reader is warned about the inevitability of a tragic denouement by the opening lines of the story. The chronicler connects the action with the arrival of autumn, which sets the theme of death, and with the period when Oleg lives, "having peace to all countries", i.e. when a hundred talent commander is unclaimed.

Proximity to hagiographic literature discover the stories of the "Tale of Bygone Years" about two Varangian martyrs, about the founding of the Kisvo-Pechersky monastery and its ascetics, about the transfer of the relics of Saints Boris and Gleb, about the repose of Theodosius of the Caves. Glorifying the spiritual feat of the first Saints of the Caves, who “like shone in the Russian land to this day,” the chronicler cannot hide the shady sides of monastic life. From the annalistic "word" about Matthew the Perspicacious, it is known that some of the brethren during the church service "having committed any guilt, leaving the church, and going to the cell and saving, and not returning to the church until the funeral service." Others, like Mikhail Tolbekovich, fled the monastery, unable to endure the harsh monastic life. The ancient Russian writer explained these cases of deviation from the norms of Christian piety by the eternal intrigues of the devil, who then takes on the appearance of a "Polyakh" (Pole, Catholic) and, invisibly to everyone except the saint, walks around the church, scattering "moldings" - flowers that make the monks sleep during worship, then appears in the monastery in the form of a demon sitting on a pig in order to "rapture" those who yearn to return to the "world".

with the genre grave words of praise linked in the annals are obituary articles that contain verbal portraits of deceased historical figures. Such is the chronicle characterization of the Tmutarakan prince Rostislav, who was poisoned during a feast by a Byzantine warrior: "Because Rostislav is a good husband to the army, but of old age and a red face, merciful to the poor." The chronicle article of iodine 1089 contains a panegyric to Metropolitan John, who was "cunning to books and learned, merciful to the poor and widows, caressing everyone, rich and poor, humble in mind and meek, and silent, speaking with holy books, comforting the sad , and this was not before in Rus', neither will it be like that. Creating a portrait of the hero, the chronicler observed the principle of the priority of spiritual beauty over external beauty, focusing on the moral qualities of a person.

The landscape sketches found in The Tale of Bygone Years are symbolic. Unusual natural phenomena are interpreted by the chronicler as signs- warnings from above about future disasters or glory. The ancient writer explained the fire in Novgorod not by the internecine struggle of the princes, but by the fact that before that "Ids Volkhovo went back 5 days. This is a bad sign: on the 4th summer, the whole city will burn." The sign of 1113, when "there was little left of the sun, like a month down by its horns," also foreshadowed trouble - the death of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and the uprising in Kyiv.

In the depths of The Tale of Bygone Years, a military tale begins to take shape. Elements of this genre formation are already present in the story of Yaroslav's revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicler describes the gathering of troops and the march, preparations for the battle of the opponents separated by the Dnieper, the climax - the "evil slash" - and the flight of Svyatopolk. Stylistic formulas typical of a military story permeate the chronicle story about the battle of Yaroslav with Mstislav in 1024: “Mstislav, in the evening, serve the squad, and put the north [northerners] in front of the Varangian, and he himself with his squad on krill.<...>And Mstislav said to his retinue: "Let's go to him." And Mstislav and Yaroslav went against ... And the battle was strong, as if shining brightly and shining weapons, and the thunderstorm was great and the battle was strong and terrible.

The mosaic structure of the chronicle led to the fact that messages of very different content were placed in it under one year. For example, in an chronicle article of 1103, it was told about the princely congress in Dolobsk, about the invasion of locusts, about the foundation of the city of Yuryev by Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, about the battle of the Russian army with the Mordovians. What turns such a "mosaic" of historical information into a coherent and harmonious literary whole?

First of all, this unity of thematic range: before us are separate milestones in the history of Rus'. In addition, the presentation of the material regulates weather principle: the strict attachment of each fact to a certain year connects the links into a single chain. It should be noted that the compiler of the "Tale" used the medieval system of chronology, in which the "creation of the world" was the starting point (to transfer to the modern system, where the calculation is from the Nativity of Christ, it is necessary to subtract 5508 from the chronicle date). The desire of the chronicler to "put the numbers in a row", i.e. the material selected by him to be presented in a strict temporal sequence, according to scientists, is associated with such characteristic features of the social life of the Middle Ages as "decency" and "orderliness". The ancients saw beauty and harmony in the observance of order, while the violation of the usual rhythm in the life of nature, society, and literature was perceived by them as a manifestation of the ugly and immoral. The chronological connection of events in the annals was supported by the genealogical one - the idea of the succession of the power of the Rurikovichs. The chronicler is always attentive to what kind of "father and grandfather" glory the ruler of Rus' inherits, whether he is a descendant of Oleg Gorislavich or belongs to the family of Vladimir Monomakh.

The weather principle of the presentation of events had certain costs. Combining heterogeneous news to one year, the chronicler was forced to break the unity of the narrative series in the story of an event that lasted several years: under one year there was a story about the preparations of the Russian army for a campaign, under another a description of the decisive battle was given, under the third was placed the text of the peace treaty. Fragmentation in the presentation of historical events hindered the development of Russian fiction, an entertaining and action-packed story. The structure of The Tale of Bygone Years is characterized by a confrontation between two trends: the desire for isolation, independence of each chronicle story, on the one hand, and the ability to “open” the narrative, stringing new works on a historical theme on a single chronological rod, on the other.

The Tale of Bygone Years is a collection in the broadest sense of the word; a monument that combines works of different times, different authors, having different sources and political orientation, differing in genre and style. It cements the monumental, but harmonious building of the chronicle, despite the heterogeneity of the events described in it, commonality of historical subjects products-terms and chronological principle of material organization in the vault. The main ideas of the chronicle are the idea of the independence of Rus', the assertion of the superiority of the Christian faith over paganism, the inseparability of Russian history from the general historical process, a call for unity of action, for the catholicity of the spirit of the Russian people.

The meaning of "The Tale of Bygone Years" in the history of Russian chronicle writing

The following generations of Russian chroniclers began the presentation of Russian history with The Tale of Bygone Years. Already in the XII century. the geography of chronicle writing is expanding, differences are emerging between specific chronicle collections. For example, scholars consider the anti-princely orientation as distinctive features of the Novgorod chronicle, since after the political upheaval of 1136 Novgorod turned into a boyar republic, as well as the rarity and stinginess of all-Russian messages. Unlike the Vladimir-Suzdal chroniclers, the Novgorodians avoided church rhetoric; the style of their weather articles is concise and businesslike. If they depicted a natural disaster, they provided data on the strength of the hurricane or flood and the damage caused by them. The Vladimir Chronicle, on the other hand, sought to substantiate the claims of its principality to ecclesiastical and political hegemony, and therefore was attentive to events of both local and national scale, while the South Russian chroniclers were absorbed in describing the turbulent history of their destinies. The main form of the South Russian chronicles of the XII century. was a weather record; the plot of the story is preserved only by some stories about boyar and princely crimes (about the murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky, 1175) and military stories (about the campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians, 1185).

"The Tale of Bygone Years" had a decisive influence on the formation of regional and all-Russian chronicle codes, which included it in their composition. The oldest copies of the Tale are found in the Lavrentiev (XIV century), Ipatiev and Radzivilovskaya (XV century) chronicles. "The Tale of Bygone Years" served as a source of poetic plots and images for many writers of the New Age: it is enough to recall the historical tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov and Ya. B. Knyazhnin, "Duma" by K. F. Ryleev. The chronicle tales, which A. S. Pushkin appreciated for the poetry of touching innocence, inspired him to create the historical ballad "The Song of the Prophetic Oleg", the image of Pimen in the tragedy "Boris Godunov".