The textbook was developed in accordance with the requirements of state educational standards for higher professional education. In the textbook, the author examines the most important issues in all sections of the course on the history of the Ancient East, draws students' attention to controversial issues, and sets out various points of view on them. The textbook is intended for students of all specialties studying the discipline “World History” at the Humanitarian-Economic and Information Technology Institute.

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The given introductory fragment of the book Lectures on the history of the Ancient East (O. U. Devletov, 2015) provided by our book partner - the company liters.

Lecture 1. Prehistory of the Ancient East

Basic concepts of the lecture:

✓ Neolithic revolution.

✓ Proto-state formations.

✓ Despotism.

✓ The phenomenon of power-property.

✓ Hierarchical structure of society.

✓ Command and administrative system.

Question 1. Background of the region

Let us turn to the beginnings of human history and the prehistory of the Ancient East.

The genus “Man” (Homo) emerged from the animal kingdom over two million years ago. The Middle East-Mediterranean lands, a narrow isthmus connecting Africa with Eurasia, for many hundreds of millennia were the natural bridge-crossroads along which the ancient populations of hominids (prehumans), archanthropes and paleoanthropes moved, meeting and mixing with each other. Not all of them were able to continue their development in subsequent generations. Scientists note the presence of dead-end branches in the evolutionary process. For example, Sinanthropus. His remains were found in China.

The mixing of populations and the associated crossbreeding sharply accelerated the process of transformation of hominids, playing a significant role in the preparation of those favorable mutations that ultimately led to the emergence of Homo sapiens in this particular region of the world.

And although experts disagree on the question of whether the Middle Eastern zone of sapientation was the only one, there is good reason to believe that it was here, at the end of the Old Stone Age, the Paleolithic, about forty thousand years ago, that the last representative of the evolutionary process appeared - Homo sapiens sapiens ). Its migration to various regions of the Earth with the displacement of the former hominids who lived there and with crossbreeding with these latter served as the basis for the appearance of numerous racial types in various regions of the globe.

From ancestors who belonged to more ancient human species, Homo sapiens inherited the ability to work and produce the simplest tools for this. But from the end of the Old Stone Age, for a very long time - thirty thousand years of its history - still, like these ancestors of his, he only extracted for himself the gifts of nature with the help of the tools he produced, but did not reproduce its fruits again.

His methods of obtaining food - gathering wild plants, hunting and fishing - were, of course, labor. Moreover, in order to maintain his existence, man even then needed not only production, but also the reproduction of tools of labor; but he did not know how to reproduce the natural products he extracted. In accordance with the material used to make tools, it is customary to divide the history of mankind into three periods: Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages.

The Stone Age is the longest of them. Scientists distinguish: the ancient Stone Age, or Paleolithic; the Middle Stone Age, go Mesolithic, and the New Stone Age, or Neolithic. At this time, people made the main tools and weapons from wood, stone, horn and bone without grinding or drilling, using the beating method.

The life of human groups (communities usually united by kinship) depended to a huge extent on external natural, even climatic conditions, on the abundance or scarcity of prey, and on random luck. Success alternated with periods of famine, and mortality was very high, especially among children and the elderly. There were very few people in the vast expanses of the globe, and their number hardly increased, at times, perhaps, even fell. The main occupations of man were hunting and gathering, using stone axes and scrapers as the main tools.

The Mesolithic brought innovations. Along with hunting and gathering, fishing began to develop, including sea fishing, hunting for marine mammals, and collecting sea mollusks. Man learned to use reduced-sized stone tools - microliths.

However, the main event in the development of human society occurs in the Neolithic era. It is then that the appropriating type of economy is replaced by a producing one. Hunting, gathering, and fishing are being replaced by agriculture and cattle breeding. This most important milestone is called the Neolithic Revolution, as it lays the foundation for the emergence of a new stage in the development of human society - the stage of civilization.

At the very end of the Stone Age, ancient people first became acquainted with copper, but used it primarily to make jewelry. Scientists distinguish the so-called Copper-Stone Age (Chalcolithic, Chalcolithic).

The Bronze Age in human history is characterized by a number of features. The appearance of bronze in ancient times usually went hand in hand with the emergence of urban civilization, that is, with the construction of urban centers with their temples and palaces. In the development of advanced ancient societies, this was a fundamental qualitative milestone, marking the formation of supra-communal (proto-state) political formations. For the emergence of proto-state structures, some essential prerequisites, important conditions were needed, the optimal combination of which was not born everywhere. It is no coincidence that science identifies only a very few so-called primary centers of urban civilization, and they, these primary centers, were usually somehow connected with each other.

Finally, at the turn of the 2nd–1st millennium, people become acquainted with iron, and the Iron Age begins in the history of mankind, which continues to the present day.

How did the transition to civilization take place? What contributed to this process?

10-12 thousand years ago, in ecologically favorable regions, some of the human communities learned to sow bread, which provided them with food all year round, and raise livestock, which allowed them to regularly eat meat, as well as milk and cheese (cottage cheese). Livestock provided them with skins and skins better than hunting prey, and, in addition, also provided wool, which people learned to spin and weave. Soon after this, people were able to exchange cave dwellings, huts made of branches and dugouts for permanent houses made of clay or clay-coated stone, and then of mud brick. Life in communities has become more prosperous, and mortality has decreased somewhat.

The first cereal that people began to harvest in the wild (using wooden or bone sickles with inserted flint teeth) and then sow was barley, which grew in the highlands of Asia Minor, Palestine, Iran and Southern Turkmenistan, as well as in North Africa . Later, other cereals were domesticated. It is difficult to say where this happened first. In any case, in Palestine, Asia Minor and on the western slopes of the Iranian Plateau, grain was sown already between the 10th and 8th millennia BC. e., and in Southern Turkmenistan they began to sow it no later than the 6th millennium BC. e. Around the same era and in the same places, goats, sheep, and donkeys were domesticated. The dog was tamed much earlier by hunters of the ancient Stone Age. Later, cattle and, in some places, pigs were domesticated.

From the VIII–VI millennia BC. e. people learned to make more advanced polished stone tools, wicker baskets, fabrics, and then fire-fired pottery, which made it possible to better prepare and store food. The standard of living of people has increased somewhat. A tribal organization of life of the human collective appears. This happened during the Neolithic era.

The increasing population settled beyond the boundaries of their native village, quickly developing new territories suitable for agriculture - first in the area of ​​​​the fertile river valleys of the Middle East, then in other lands, for example, in Iran and Central Asia, India and China. At the same time, the new subsidiary settlements, as a rule, preserved the general stereotype of existence developed by the early farmers, including the social-family and community-tribal organization, mythology, rituals, production skills and technology, etc. Over time and depending on the circumstances in the new habitats, all this underwent a certain transformation and was enriched with new cultural elements.

In Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine already in the 8th–6th millennia BC. e. During the Neolithic revolution, developed and rich villages arose, sometimes even surrounded by a wall. However, very few settlements reached this level of development: Jericho in Palestine, Catal Huyuk in Asia Minor, etc.

The settlement of Çatalhöyük in what is now Turkey existed between 7500 and 5700. Doctor of Science e. Farmers lived here and were engaged in cattle breeding. Perhaps it was here that smelting of copper from ore was first carried out. There is still much that is unclear about the way of life of this settlement, the study of which continues to this day. An interesting feature are the settlers' houses. They clung to each other like a honeycomb. They had no doors. Residents entered the house using ladders. In good weather they settled on their roofs. Religious practices are largely unclear. Apparently the ancient settlers worshiped the Great Mother Goddess. It seems that the bull played the sacred role. In the buildings, archaeologists discovered ancient drawings, sculptures of gods, and ceramic dishes.

Rice. 1

Rice. 2. Ceramics

Rice. 3. Perhaps this is what the settlement looked like

Rice. 4. Reconstruction of the sanctuary

With the growth of the agricultural population in the foothills, part of it began to move further into the depths of the steppes. As such community groups moved away from areas of more or less secure rain or stream irrigation, grazing became increasingly important in their economy, and the sowing of barley and spelt, as economically less reliable, played an increasingly auxiliary role. However, having not yet domesticated either a horse or a camel, pastoralists could not make the long seasonal migrations necessary to restore grass cover on pastures, and in general they could not yet move too far from the water. And they usually did not completely abandon farming. When, as a result of predatory feeding of sheep on the scarce southern steppe pastures or after a period of catastrophic droughts, grazing in a given area became impossible, herders moved en masse to other places.

So during the VIII–VI millennia BC. e. Afroasiatic tribes (apparently the descendants of the Mesolithic population of Western Asia) settled in North Africa, as well as in the steppe regions of the Middle East (Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, where tribes of the Semitic language family of the Afroasiatic language superfamily survived - or where they moved to).

Starting from the 5th–3rd millennium BC. e. Tribes who spoke dialects of the Indo-European language family settled in different directions. Already by the 2nd millennium BC. e. these tribes, passing on the language to the local population and involving them in further migration, spread from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean.

Such relocations were, of course, not accidental. On the one hand, they were associated with secular climate fluctuations: for example, in the 6th and 2nd millennia BC. e. drought conditions prevailed, and this may have encouraged tribes to leave in search of more favorable living conditions. On the other hand, in the 5th–4th millennia, climatic conditions were favorable, among tribes that lived by cattle breeding and agriculture, mortality fell, and a relative excess of population arose, which began to spread in different directions, but mainly within the climatic zone, which was favorable to the type of economy of these tribes .

The population of the Earth was very sparse at that time, and the movement of tribes led, according to historical linguistics, not so much to the destruction or displacement of the indigenous inhabitants, but to the assimilation of the newcomer population with the indigenous one, so that from an ethnic (but not linguistic) point of view, a wave of further movement could completely differ from the original one.

People who brought in the VI-V millennia BC. e. Afroasiatic (Semitic-Hamitic) languages ​​deep into Africa, and people with whom in the 2nd–1st millennia BC. e. Indo-European languages ​​came to the shores of the Bay of Bengal (modern Bangladesh), did not at all resemble in appearance and were little similar in culture to those that gave the first impetus to the spread of agricultural and pastoral tribes.

Although these relatively mobile pastoral-agricultural tribes were not yet true nomads, one can still speak of the separation of farmers who lived on irrigated lands from the pastoralist semi-farmers of the steppes as the first great division of labor. An exchange was already established between farmers and cattle breeders; however, it was necessary even earlier - after all, already in the Late Stone Age, no group of people could provide themselves with everything they needed without an exchange, the subject of which was, for example, a stone suitable for making tools (silicon, obsidian). Such a stone is relatively rare on earth. With the discovery of the first metals (gold, copper, silver), the exchange of metals for various handicrafts, such as fabrics, also began, and the exchange went from hand to hand over considerable distances.

The emergence of a productive type of economy, agriculture and cattle breeding, will create the preconditions for the emergence of the first cities, writing, stratification of society (stratification), and finally, states.

For proto-state formations to emerge from communities, certain conditions were necessary.

In the agricultural community, which provided the basis for the new political structure, relationships were built on the basis of the most important principles: firstly, the exchange of gifts for prestige (that is, the emphasized respect of the collective towards those who are more capable than others and more often bring them their rich booty or generously shares with everyone what he has). Dependent (patronage-client) connections developed, since recipients of gifts and consumers of products given to everyone found themselves dependent on those who generously gave and gave to others what they possessed.

The second most important principle was the practice of centralized redistribution. Each household usually belonged to a large family-clan group (the patriarch father with his wives, younger brothers and adult sons; the wives and children of brothers and sons; sometimes lonely outsiders who had lost family ties also joined the group). The head of the group had the right to dispose of all its total property on behalf of the collective.

The right of redistribution helped the head of a family-clan group, with the help of generous distributions of the group’s property, increase his prestige, acquire clients and, thanks to this, qualify for elected positions as a community elder or his assistants.

It was these two principles that created the conditions for the emergence of a complex structure of society in the form of an agricultural community with its elected leadership.

However, a number of favorable circumstances were also necessary: ​​a climatic and ecological optimum for agriculture, the necessary demographic saturation of the region, especially the fertile river valley, as well as a high level of production potential, achieved only in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age.

For example, location in the valleys of great rivers, located in a warm and mild climate, with fertile soils and regular or occasional floods that fertilize them. In addition, a certain level of human production activity, which included the rational use of resources, regular exchange with neighbors, cooperation and coordination of labor and, as a consequence of all this, a stable and increasing surplus product.

All these conditions are objectively sufficient for the regular production of such a quantity of products, primarily food, that allows the collective to support the layers necessary for the functioning of the administration apparatus and those exempt from compulsory physical labor for farming (meaning the ruler and his relatives, officials, priests , warriors, artisans, servants and slaves who served their needs).

The emergence of the first proto-state formations was a great step forward in the development of human society. Gradually, the power of the leader, the supreme person, acquired divine significance. The legitimization of the divine right to power is being formed. Power became a lifelong right, and the election of a new leader became a rarer occurrence. The order of inheritance is also established. It was believed that the most suitable were the relatives or assistants of the leader.

The leader acts as a bearer of divine grace, as a powerful intermediary between the world of the living and supernatural forces, including all deceased leaders. All previously existing sorcerers and other clergy are brought into the service of the more complex religious-mythological system that arises in connection with this. This is how the priesthood acquired its special status in early societies.

Over time, the leader's power became hereditary in his family, which played a huge role in stabilizing the entire structure. At the same time, the personality of the leader became sacred, regardless of his individual qualities and abilities, the lack of which had to be compensated for by the experience and knowledge of his assistants. The privileges and prerogatives assigned to the leader’s family were now perceived by the entire collective as a manifestation of the highest divine status of his person and his unconditional right to dispose of all the property of the proto-state.

Proto-state is a political structure based on the norms of genealogical kinship, familiar with social and property inequality, division of labor and exchange of activities, headed by a sacralized ruler with hereditary power. Among the functions of the structure are administrative-economic, military, judicial-mediation and a number of others.

It is within the framework of this transitional type of political structure that its leader, from yesterday’s servant of society, who tried to gain public authority and with its help to work for the benefit of the collective, begins to become above society, strives to subjugate society to himself and become its master.

Question 2. Features of ancient societies of the East

The emergence of a state is a long process. In the societies of the Asian region, it occurred in different chronological periods. However, these societies themselves had common features.

First of all, we must say something about power and property. The hereditary power of the sacralized leader-king in the proto-states of the East quite quickly - unlike ancient Greece - was transformed into despotic power, although not equally pronounced everywhere. The main reason for this was the absence of a developed market-private economy, which played a decisive role in the social mutation that ancient Greece experienced. Despotism as a form of power, and if you look deeper, as the general structure of society, arises where there is no private property. In the East, including Asia, power and property are inseparable and indivisible. This is the phenomenon of power-property.

The emergence of the phenomenon of power-property was an important moment in the establishment of society and the state in the non-European world. In practice, this meant that the former free community lost its exclusive rights to own its lands and products. Now she was forced to share these rights with those who, by virtue of their involvement in power, could lay claim to a share of her property, starting from the regional leader-administrator, the future ruling aristocrat, to whom the paramount leader transferred part of his highest prerogatives, and ending with the community head, more and more turning into an official of the administration apparatus.

In other words, the phenomenon of overlapping ownership rights arose and was consolidated for a long time: the same land (or rather, the right to the product from it) belongs to both the peasant cultivating it, and the community as a whole, on whose behalf the elder who distributes the land acts, and the regional administrator and supreme owner.

The second important feature of ancient societies is hierarchy.

Hierarchy- sequential arrangement of social strata or official ranks from lower to higher, in the order of their subordination.

In a society previously focused mainly on merit and prestige, new criteria for dividing into upper and lower classes have emerged. The top began to be staffed from a number of hereditary aristocrats and officials involved in power, and both of them, closely connected by clan ties, formed a kind of hereditary layer of people involved in the sphere of management and included in the system of social and property privileges. The lower layer consisted of producers, primarily communal peasants. Between the top and bottom there was also a layer of personnel serving the top - slaves, servants, artisans, etc.

As they expanded, early states included large populations with completely different ethnic compositions. The early state usually faced the need to complicate the administration, which resulted in a further increase in the hierarchy of the structure as a whole: everyone above the community, in turn, was built into a complex hierarchical ladder of officials, rights, statuses, and privileges.

The hierarchical management ladder turned out to be three-stage. Three levels emerged - the highest national, average regional and local. At the same time, a noticeable specialization of administrative activity is recorded at the highest level - military leaders, priests, heads of offices or craft services, general administrators, treasurers and keepers of state barns, managers of palace or temple services, the ruler’s home chambers, etc., up to the emergence of some -Where is the control and audit service?

At the regional level, the administration was usually much simpler and most often had double subordination - to the head of the regional unit and to the corresponding services and departments of the center. Here the specialization was much weaker and functions were often combined. Moreover, all this was typical at the local level, where, according to tradition, the lion's share of all administrative concerns about the welfare of the community collective, as well as about the timely payment of rent and tax to the treasury and the organization of public works necessary for the collective and for the state fell on the head of the community.

Rent- part of the surplus product that the peasants produced, appropriated by the landowner.

Speaking about public works, the following should be said. For early states, urbanization was an indispensable condition of existence, which is how they fundamentally differed from proto-states. All monumental city and other structures (dams, canals, roads) were built at the expense of the labor of peasants, who were involved in public works in their free time from agricultural concerns, and in turn. It was as a matter of public duty that peasants participated in the creation of prestigious buildings, being in these days on full state support and even receiving government-owned tools and means of labor for work. It is worth specially emphasizing that this kind of public work was never considered forced labor, but on the contrary, it was always considered by everyone, including the masses of workers, as structures with an important ritual meaning and social significance.

Another feature of the early states of antiquity was the deification of the ruler. The sovereign was proclaimed the son of god or even a living deity, and the entire system of gods, who now had impressive monumental temples in their honor that elevated their status, contributed to strengthening in the minds of the population ideas about the power of divine forces. This ensured the necessary spiritual and ideological comfort.

Finally, a feature indicating the transition to a developed ancient state was the emergence of a commodity market and money. Labor power turns into a commodity, which results in the institution of private slavery (before that, slaves, being most often booty of war, were considered collective property and, on behalf of the collective, were used in temple and palace households, in the service of those in power).

Thus, the early state is a multi-level hierarchical political structure based on clan and extra-clan ties, familiar with the specialization of production and administrative activities. The main functions of such a state are the centralized management of a large territorial-administrative complex with an ethnically diverse population, expanding the boundaries of its territory through military conquests, as well as ensuring the well-being of society and the prestigious consumption of the privileged elite through rent-taxes from producers and tribute from dependent neighbors.

The early state was well acquainted with urbanization and monumental constructions carried out by the population in exchange for public works, and these works were considered as a natural exchange of activities and were legitimized by a generally accepted religious and ideological doctrine. It was at the stage of the early state that the foundations of a new form of socio-economic relations were laid - private property relations associated with the commodity-money economy and the labor market.

For developed ancient states, a characteristic feature will be a command-administrative system, the creation of a most favored nation regime for the ruling elite and complete state control of private property and the market.

In the East, the market and the owner are dependent on the state and serve the needs, first of all, of the ruling stratum. The state here stands firmly above society and, accordingly, above the economy of society, and its ruling layers live off the property of society and perform the functions of the ruling class in this society.

And, what is especially important to emphasize, these functions are traditionally performed by the ruling elite not because they usurped power and imposed their will on artificially weakened owners, but precisely because they govern a society fundamentally different from the European one. The command-administrative structure is based on the principle of power-property. It strictly controls and severely limits the private property element, otherwise disintegration would threaten the normal functioning of the system.

The owners were suppressed and made dependent on the bearer of power, on the arbitrariness of the administration, and the most successful of them often paid for this with confiscation of property, or even with their lives, fortunately it was not difficult to find a formal pretext for this. The history of Asia, as part of the history of the East, indicates that the privately owned economy flourished only in conditions of stability and strong power of the center with all its controlling functions, including strict administrative control over the economy of the entire country.

Thus, in Asia, in the East, private property here, even having appeared and strengthened, was always secondary and was never protected from the arbitrariness of power by any privileges or guarantees, freedoms or rights.

The alternative to the dominance of private property as in Europe was power-property. The functions of the ruling class were performed by the upper ranks of society organized into the apparatus of power.

The state in Asia, in the East, absolutely dominated society. This is precisely the key to understanding the structure of traditional non-European societies, to understanding the essence of the East, both ancient and modern.

So, the distinctive features of ancient societies that arose in Asia and the East were:

✓ the phenomenon of power-property;

✓ eastern despotism as a type of political power;

✓ hierarchical structure of society;

✓ deification of the ruler;

✓ command and administrative system;

✓ absolute predominance of state ownership;

✓ the position of private property and the market subordinate to the state and dependent on it;

✓ absolute priority of the state over society.

In Asia, there are three most important centers where amazing cultures were created, the earliest in time from the 4th millennium to the 1st millennium BC. BC: Mesopotamia, India and China. It was here that proto-state and state formations first emerged and world empires took shape. The history of the Ancient East itself begins with their consideration.

Main conclusions

1. The history of societies of the Ancient East is part of the general history of the East. It was here that the Neolithic revolution first took place, creating the conditions for the formation of proto-state formations and states. In addition, a division arose here between farmers and pastoralists, who entered into exchange relations with each other.

2. The settlement of people took place in different regions of the Ancient East, and through mixing with the local population. Over the course of several millennia, speakers of the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, and then the Indo-Europeans, spread throughout the East.

3. The difference between the East and Europe is the predominant power of the state, the absence of conditions for realizing the full potential of private property and the market, which are strictly controlled by it.

4. The conditions for the emergence of proto-state formations were the presence of favorable environmental factors, the production level of society, and a significant concentration of the population.

5. Proto-state formations were headed by a ruler, whose power gradually became hereditary, and he himself was recognized as the son of God or equated to God. The priesthood was a privileged layer that served the authorities. Society was built on the principles of hierarchy, where the top, which includes the ruler and his entourage, the priesthood and bureaucracy of various ranks, were supported by the bottom - the communal peasants. There was an intermediate layer of servants, artisans, slaves and others.

6. The societies of Asia, as well as the entire East, are characterized by the phenomenon of power-property. This leads to the establishment of state ownership and does not allow the full potential of private property and the market to develop. The power itself acquires the character of despotism.

7. The presence of privileges, the seizure of foreign territories, the payment of tribute and other sources gradually led to the emergence of surpluses, which stimulated the emergence of a commodity market and money. Slave power also became a commodity. This was an indicator of the emergence of government structures. Unlike proto-state formations, it is characterized by the process of urbanization and the organization of public works on a country-wide scale.

Control questions

1. What are the features of the Neolithic era?

2. What were the consequences of the Neolithic revolution?

3. What conditions are necessary for the transition to a new organization of human society in Neolithic conditions?

4. How did the role of the first person change in the ancient community of people?

5. What are the conditions for the emergence of proto-state formations?

6. What is the structure of society in proto-state formations?

7. What distinguished early state formations?

8. What are the features of Asian oriental society?

9. Representatives of which language families settled throughout the expanses of Asia?

10. How are the dominant form of property in Asia and the form of political structure related to each other?

The Ancient East is a bizarre cocktail of different states, peoples and tribes. His lands extended from the northern coast of Africa to the Pacific Ocean. The original culture and impressive history of the Ancient East had a huge impact on the development of all mankind.

General characteristics of the Ancient East

The cradle of the first eastern states were the fertile valleys of the largest rivers, the Euphrates, Tigris and Nile. In these territories, small communities arose Great powers of the Ancient East:

• Babylon;
• Ancient Egypt;
• Assyria;
• Persia.

A similar development took place on the Hindustan Peninsula and in China, where the largest centers also arose in the lowlands of the Yellow, Ganges, and Indus rivers.

Rice. 1. Ganges River.

Ancient ethnic groups created writing, built cities, and formed powerful states with a unique culture, architecture, and art. Centers of statehood were created in Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East. This whole motley and diverse world of large countries and small settlements is the Ancient East.

All these states existed in different time periods. The very first eastern civilizations were formed in the 4th century BC. e., and ceased to exist at the beginning of the 4th century, when the troops of the famous commander Alexander the Great subdued the vast expanses of ancient states.

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The characteristic features of the states of the Ancient East were forever lost with the penetration of Greek culture. Ancient civilizations began to emerge on the conquered lands: the kingdom of Pergamon, Cappadocia, the Pontic kingdom, and Bithynia. In India and China, ancient powers existed until the 5th century, until they were replaced by a feudal system.

Table “States of the Ancient East”

Natural and climatic conditions

Different regions of the Ancient East had their own characteristic natural features, but they were all united by common features:

• subtropical climate with mild winters and very hot, dry summers;
• presence of large river basins;
• varied terrain with alternating fertile valleys, mountain ranges, plateaus and rocky deserts.

Such large rivers as the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Ganges, Indus, Yangtze, and Yellow River played a huge role in the formation of ancient eastern states. Thanks to the presence of fertile, well-moistened soil in their vast basins, successful economic activity became possible.

Cities and government

Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. In the Ancient East, large settlements began to emerge with impressive structures, defensive fortifications and a large number of inhabitants.

Cities are a fundamentally new phenomenon in the early history of civilizations. Religious worship, handicraft production, and trade were concentrated in them.

The first ancient Eastern cities had a competent layout, with a defensive tower and residential areas divided into quarters. Even then they were provided with a water supply and sewerage system. The houses were one-story, two- and even three-story.

Rice. 2. Ancient cities.

With the emergence of cities, state power began to develop. The form of government in the Ancient East was eastern despotism, which was characterized by a monarchy unlimited by any laws.

State administration was carried out through the work of a huge apparatus of officials. Under their leadership, work was carried out in the fields and in craft workshops, quarries and mines were developed, trade and construction were carried out.

Within the framework of eastern despotism, the ruler - van, pharaoh, king - was considered not only the only person endowed with absolute power, but was also recognized as a divine vicegerent, a superman. The deification of the personality of the ruler was the most important feature of despotism in the Ancient East.

Culture of the Ancient East

The Ancient East is the birthplace of writing. Its earliest variety was hieroglyphic writing, which originated in Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia. After some time, an alphabetic writing system was formed in Phenicia, adopted by the ancient Romans and Greeks.

Rice. 3. Writing of the Ancient East.

The Ancient East also became the cradle of world religions - Buddhism and Christianity, which incredibly quickly conquered the entire planet. This was facilitated by the appeal of these religions to representatives of all social groups and their interethnic nature.

The peoples of the Ancient East made a huge contribution to the development of world architecture. Monumental pyramids, majestic temple complexes, ziggurats built in ancient times still amaze with their power and beauty.

In the large ancient eastern states, scientific knowledge was greatly developed, especially in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and agronomy. Many cultivated plants were bred here, without which the modern world cannot imagine its existence: wheat, flax, cotton, grapes, tea and many others.

Doctors could not only treat serious illnesses, but also perform operations. People divided time into years, months and days. Literature, painting, and sculpture were well developed.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic “Ancient East” in the 10th grade history program, we briefly examined the general characteristics of the ancient Eastern states and learned what events had a significant impact on their formation. We found out how cities were built, the political system, culture and art were formed in the Ancient East.

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All parents should approach the choice of names very seriously, regardless of the origin of the names. If you are going to choose some beautiful, oriental name for your son, we advise you to study the following list.

When choosing oriental names for boys, remember that the name influences the character, and even the fate of the child. Therefore, study the meaning of names carefully. If you like several names, then write down all the names on a piece of paper, why say each name out loud. If you don’t like the sound of a name, or it doesn’t go well with your surname and patronymic, then cross out this name. Eventually your list will be reduced to one name that can be used as a name. When choosing oriental names for boys, remember that they should not cause ridicule from others. Also, you should not give your child historical names of anti-heroes, as it will be difficult for the child to live with such a name.

According to Eastern traditions, boys are given names with masculine qualities so that they have a positive effect on the character of a man in adulthood. For example, the name Arslan means lion, strong, courageous. In our language, the name Ruslan, derived from the name Arslan, is often used. The most popular eastern names were such names as: Zakhar, Damir, Nazar, Ratmir, Arthur, Timur, Amir, Marat.

List of oriental names for boys and their meanings:

Starting with the letter A

• Abbas (Gabbas) - is of Arabic origin and translated means “gloomy, stern.”
• Abdel-Aziz (Abdulaziz, Abdul-Aziz) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “slave of the Mighty.” Along with other names formed by adding the particle “abd” to one of the names of Allah, it is one of the noble names among Muslims.
• Abdullah (Abdul, Gabdulla, Abdullah) – translated from Arabic it means “slave of Allah.” According to one of the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.), it is the best name, since it emphasizes that its owner is a slave of the Lord of the worlds.
• Abdul-Kadir (Abdul-Kadir, Abdulkadir, Abdulkadir, Abdukadyr) is an Arabic name, which translated means “slave of the Mighty” or “slave of the One Possessing absolute power.”
• Abdul-Karim (Abdulkarim, Abdukarim) is an Arabic name translated as “slave of the Generous” and meaning that its bearer is a slave of Allah, Who has unlimited generosity.
• Abdul-Malik (Abdulmalik, Abdumalik) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “slave of the Lord or Lord of all things.”
• Abdul-Hamid (Abdulhamid, Abdulhamit) is an Arabic name, which translated means “slave of the Worthy of Praise,” i.e. its bearer is the slave of the Lord of the worlds, Worthy of Praise.
• Abdurauf (Gabdrauf, Abdrauf) is an Arabic name, the literal meaning of which is “the servant of the Condescending One towards His creations.”
• Abdurrahman (Abdurahman, Gabdrakhman, Abdrakhman) is an Arabic name, which in translation means “slave of the Merciful” and emphasizes that its bearer is a slave of the Lord, Possessing unlimited mercy. According to the hadith, it is one of the best names.
• Abdurrahim (Abdurahim, Abdrahim, Gabdrahim) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “servant of the Merciful.” This name emphasizes that a person is a servant of the Lord, and therefore is considered one of the noble names in Islam.
• Abdurashid (Abdrashit, Gabdrashit) is an Arabic name translated as “slave of the Guide to the path of truth.”
• Abdusamad (Abdusamat) is an Arabic name indicating that its bearer is “the slave of the Self-sufficient,” that is, the slave of the Lord, who does not need anything or anyone.
• Abid (Gabit) is an Arabic name that translates as “one who performs ibadat (worship)” or “who worships Allah.”
• Abrar is a Turkic name meaning “pious.”
• Abu is an Arabic name, the translation of which is “father”.
• Abu Bakr (Abubakar) is an Arabic name that means “father of chastity.” The bearer of this name was the closest companion of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) and the first righteous caliph - Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (r.a.).
• Abutalib (Abu Talib) is an Arabic name, translated as “father of the one in search of knowledge” or “father of Talib.” The famous bearer of this name was the uncle of the Prophet (s.g.w.), in whose house young Muhammad received a good upbringing.
• Agzam is an Arabic name meaning “high.”
• Agil (Agil) is an Arabic name translated as “smart.”
• Aglyam (Eglyam, Aglyamzyan, Aglyamdzhan) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “possessor of a large amount of knowledge.”
• Adam is an Arabic name that translates to “man.” The bearer of this name was the first deputy of Allah and the first person on Earth - Prophet Adam (a.s.).
• Adel (Adil, Gadel, Adelsha, Gadelsha) - an Arabic name, translated means “fair”, “making fair decisions”
• Adgam (Adygam, Adham, Adigam) is a Tatar name that means “swarthy, dark.”
• Adip (Adib) is an Arabic name that translates as “well-mannered”, “polite”.
• Adnan is an Arabic name that means “founder”, “founder”.
• Azamat is an Arabic name that translates as “warrior, knight.”
• Azat is a Persian name whose meaning is “free”, “free”.
• Aziz (Azis, Gaziz) – an Arabic name, translated means “dear, mighty.” One of the names of Allah.
• Azim (Azyim, Gazim) is an Arabic name meaning “great”, “possessing greatness”. Included in the list of names of the Almighty.
• Aiz (Ais) is an Arabic name that translates as “calling the Almighty.”
• Aish (Agish) is an Arabic name that means “living.”
• Aibat is an Arabic name, translated means “respectful”, “worthy”, “authoritative”.
• Aivar is a Turkic name translated as “lunar”, “month-like”.
• Aidan (Aydun) is a Turkic name with the meaning of either “strength”, “power”, or “shine from the moon”. Also found among the Irish, translated from ancient Gaelic as “fire.”
• Aidar (Aider) is a Turkic name with the meaning “like the moon”, “a person with the features of a month”.
• Ainur is a Turkic-Tatar name, which translates as “moonlight”, “light emanating from the moon”.
• Airat is a Turkic name of Mongolian origin, meaning “dear”.
• Akmal (Akmal) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “the most perfect,” “ideal,” “devoid of any shortcomings.”
• Akram is an Arabic name, translated meaning “most generous”, “possessing generosity”.
• Alan is a Turkic-Tatar name, which can be translated as “fragrant like flowers in a meadow.”
• Ali (Gali) is an Arabic name meaning “exalted.” It is one of the most common names in Islam, since its bearer was one of the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.), also his cousin and son-in-law - the fourth righteous caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib.
• Aliaskar (Galiaskar) is an Arabic name consisting of two parts - Ali and Askar. Translated as “great warrior.”
• Alim (Galim) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “scientist”, “knowing”.
• Alif (Galif) is an Arabic name with the meaning “helper”, “comrade”. This name was also given to the first-born, since the letter “Alif” is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet.
• Almaz (Almas, Elmas) is a Turkic name derived from the name of a precious stone.
• Altan is a Turkic name that translates as “scarlet dawn”. This name was given to children with scarlet cheeks.
• Altynbek is a Turkic name, the literal meaning of which is “golden prince”. This name was given to representatives of the nobility.
• Albert (Albir) is a name of ancient Germanic origin, which is popular among the Turkic peoples. Its meaning is “noble splendor.”
• Almir (Ilmir, Elmir) is a Tatar name that means “lord”, “leader”.
• Alfir (Ilfir) is an Arabic name translated as “exalted.”
• Alfred (Alfrid) is a name of English origin, popular among the Turkic peoples. Means “mind, wisdom.”
• Alyautdin (Alauddin, Aladdin, Galyautdin) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “the sublimity of faith.”
• Aman is an Arabic name, translated as “strong”, “healthy”. Parents gave this name to their children, hoping that they would grow up strong and healthy.
• Amin (Emin) is an Arabic name meaning “honest”, “faithful”, “reliable”.
• Amir (Emir) is an Arabic name, the semantic meaning of which is “head of the emirate,” “ruler,” “ruler,” “leader.”
• Amirkhan (Emirkhan) is a Turkic name meaning “chief ruler.”
• Ammar (Amar) is an Arabic name that translates as “prosperous.”
• Anas is an Arabic name, translated means “joyful”, “cheerful”.
• Anwar (Anver, Enver) is an Arabic name that can be translated with the word “luminous” or the phrase “emitting a lot of light.”
• Anis is an Arabic name meaning “friendly”, “affable”.
• Ansar (Ensar, Insar) is an Arabic name with the meaning “fellow traveler”, “helper”, “companion”. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.), Muslims who helped the Muhajirs from Mecca who moved to Medina were called Ansars.
• Arafat is an Arabic name that arose in honor of the mountain in Mecca of the same name. This mountain is very significant in the life of Muslims.
• Arif (Garif, Garip) is an Arabic name meaning “possessor of knowledge.” In Sufism - “possessor of secret knowledge.”
• Arslan (Aryslan, Aslan) is a Turkic name, its direct translation is “lion”.
• Arthur is a Celtic name, popular among the Tatar people. Translated as “mighty bear”.
• Assad is an Arabic name meaning "lion".
• Asadullah is an Arabic name that means “lion of Allah.”
• Asaf is an Arabic name that translates as “dreamy.”
• Asgat (Askhad, Askhat) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “the happiest”, “the happiest”.
• Askar (Asker) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “warrior”, “warrior”, fighter.”
• Atik (Gatik) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “free from hellish torment.” This name was also borne by the first righteous caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (ra), who during his lifetime was delighted with the news of entering Paradise.
• Ahad (Ahat) is an Arabic name meaning “single”, “unique”.
• Ahmed (Ahmad, Akhmat, Akhmet) - an Arabic name, translated as “praised”, “praiseworthy”. One of the names of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.)
• Ahsan (Aksan) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “the best.”
• Ayub (Ayyub, Ayup) is an Arabic name with the semantic meaning “repentant.” The bearer of this name was Prophet Ayyub (a.s.).
• Ayaz (Ayas) is a Turkic name meaning “clear”, “cloudless”.

Starting with the letter B

• Bagautdin (Bakhautdin, Bagavutdin) is an Arabic name, which translated means “the radiance of faith,” “the light of faith.”
• Bagdasar is a Turkic name meaning “light of rays.”
• Bagir (Bakhir) is a Tatar name meaning “radiant”, “shining”.
• Badr (Batr) is an Arabic name, translated as “full moon.”
• Bayram (Bairem) is a Turkic name, translated meaning “holiday”.
• Bakir (Bekir) is an Arabic name with the meaning “studyer”, “receiver of knowledge”.
• Bari (Bary) is an Arabic name that translates as “Creator”. It is one of the 99 names of Allah.
• Barrak (Barak) is an Arabic name meaning “blessed.”
• Basyr (Basir) is an Arabic name that translates as “all-seeing”, “seeing absolutely everything”. Included in the list of names of Allah.
• Batyr (Batur) is a Turkic name that means “hero”, “warrior”, “hero”.
• Bahruz (Bahroz) is a Persian name whose meaning is “happy.”
• Bakhtiyar is a Persian name meaning "lucky friend". Gained wide popularity among the Turkic peoples.
• Bashar (Bashshar) is an Arabic name that translates as “man.”
• Bashir is an Arabic name with the semantic meaning of “foreshadowing joy.”
• Bayazit (Bayazid, Bayazet) is a Turkic name, translated meaning “father of the superior.” This name was very popular in the ruling dynasty of the Ottoman Empire.
• Bek is a Turkic name, meaning “prince”, “prince”, “high dignitary”.
• Bikbulat (Bekbolat, Bekbulat, Bikbolat) is a Turkic name that can be translated as “strong steel.”
• Bilal (Bilyal, Belyal) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “alive.” It was worn by one of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) and the first muezzin in the history of Islam - Bilal ibn Rafah.
• Bulat (Bolat) is a Turkic name meaning “steel”.
• Bulut (Bulyut, Byulut) is a Turkic name that translates as “cloud”.
• Burak is a Turkic name, translated meaning “brilliant”.
• Burhan (Burgan) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “honesty”, “reliability”.

Starting with the letter B

• Vagiz (Vagis) is an Arabic name that translates as “mentor”, “teacher”.
• Wazir is an Arabic name, translated meaning “minister”, “vizier”, “nobleman”.
• Vakil (Vakil) is an Arabic name with the meaning “patron”, “lord”. One of the names of the Almighty.
• Wali (Wali) is an Arabic male name, which can be translated as “guardian”, “trustee”. Included in the list of names of God in Islam.
• Waliullah is an Arabic name that means “close to God”, “close to Allah”.
• Walid (Walid) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “child”, “child”, “boy”.
• Waris (Waris) - an Arabic name, literally translated as “successor”, “heir”.
• Vasil (Uasil, Vasil) is an Arabic name, the semantic meaning of which is “coming.”
• Watan (Uatan) is the Arabic word for "homeland".
• Wafi (Wafiy, Wafa) is an Arabic name that means “true to his word,” “reliable,” “keeping his word.”
• Vahit (Wahid, Uahid) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “the only one.” Consists of 99 names of Allah.
• Wahhab (Vagap, Wahab) is an Arabic name that can be translated as “giver.” One of the names of the Almighty.
• Wildan is an Arabic name that means “servant of Paradise.”
• Volkan is the Turkic word for “volcano”.
• Vusal is a Persian name that translates as “meeting”, “date”.

Starting with the letter G

• Gabbas (Abbas, Gappas) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “gloomy”, “stern”.
• Gabdullah (Abdullah) is an Arabic name that translates as “slave of Allah.” According to one of the hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.), it is the best possible name.
• Gabid (Gabit) is an Arabic name meaning “worshipper.”
• Gadel (Gadil) - see the meaning of the name Adele.
• Gadzhi (Haji, Khoji) - an Arabic name meaning “one who makes a pilgrimage.”
• Ghazi (Gezi) is an Arabic name that translates as “conqueror”.
• Gaziz (Aziz) is an Arabic name, which means “mighty”, “dear”. One of the names of Allah.
• Gaisa (Isa) is a Hebrew and Arabic name. An analogue of the name Jesus, the bearer of which was one of the prophets of the Most High.
• Gali - see the meaning of the name Ali.
• Galiaskar (Galiasker) is an Arabic name, which is composed of two roots: “Gali” (great) + “Askar” (warrior).
• Ghalib (Galip) is an Arabic name, its semantic translation is “conquering”, “winning victories”.
• Galim - see the meaning of the name Alim.
• Gamal (Amal, Gamil) is an Arabic name, which translated means “working”, “hardworking”.
• Gamzat (Gamza) is a name derived from the Arabic name Hamza and meaning “agile.”
• Gani (Ganiy) is an Arabic name, translated as “rich”, “owner of untold wealth”. Represents one of the names of Allah.
• Garay (Girey) is a Turkic-Tatar name that comes from the ruling Tatar dynasty Giray. Translated it means “powerful”, “strong”.
• Garif (Arif) is an Arabic name, the translation of which is “owner of knowledge”, “knowing”.
• Garifullah (Arifullah) is an Arabic name that can be translated as “knowing about Allah.”
• Hasan (Ghassan) is a name derived from the name Hasan and meaning “good”.
• Ghafoor is an Arabic name that translates as “forgiving.” This is one of the names of the Almighty.
• Gayaz (Gayaz, Gayas) is an Arabic name that has several similar meanings: “helper”, “comrade”, “saving”.
• Gayar (Gayar) is an Arabic name meaning “courageous”, “brave”, “courageous”.
• Homer (Gumer) is an Arabic name that translates as “human life.”
• Gumar is a name derived from Umar. This was the name of the second righteous caliph Umar ibn Khattab (r.a.).
• Gurban (Gorban) - see the meaning of the name Kurban.
• Huseyn (Husain) - a name derived from Hussein, meaning “beautiful”, “good”.
• Guzman (Gosman) is a variation of the name Usman. Its bearer was the third righteous caliph Uthman ibn Affan.

Starting with the letter D

• Davlet (Davletsha, Devlet) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “state”, “empire”, “power”.
• Dawood (Davyd, Davut) - see the meaning of the name Daud.
• Dalil (Dalil) – an Arabic name, translated as “guide”, “showing the way”, “guide”.
• Damil (Damil) is a Persian name whose literal meaning is “trap”. This name was given to boys in the hope that the child would live long and that his death would be a trap.
• Damir (Demir) is a Turkic name, which translated means “iron”, “steel”. Children were given this name in the hope that they would grow up strong and strong. Some also interpret this name as a shortened version of the phrase “Bring a world revolution!”
• Danil (Danil) is an Arabic name with the meaning “gift of God”, “close person to God”.
• Danis (Danish) is a Persian name that translates as “knowledge.” Parents gave it in the hope that their child would become a very smart and educated person in the future.
• Daniyar (Diniyar) is a Persian name meaning “smart”, “knowledgeable”, “educated”.
• Darius is a Persian masculine name that translates to “sea.” The owner of this name was the famous Persian emperor Darius, who lost the war to Alexander the Great.
• Daud (Davud, Davyd, Daut) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “endearing”, “beloved”. This was the name of one of the messengers of Allah - Prophet Daud (David, a.s.), father of the Prophet Suleiman (Solomon, a.s.).
• Dayan (Dayan) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “who rewards his creations according to their deserts,” “the highest judge.” This name is one of the 99 names of Allah.
• Demir - see the meaning of the name Damir.
• Demirel (Demirel) is a Turkic name, translated as “iron hand”.
• Jabbar (Zhabbar) is an Arabic name that carries the meaning “subjugating one’s will.” One of the names of the Almighty.
• Jabir (Jabir) is an Arabic name translated as “comforting.”
• Jabrail (Jabrail, Jibril) is an Arabic name that means “the power of God.” The owner of this name is the angel Jabrail (Gabriel), who is considered the highest angel. It was the angel Gabriel who was the mediator between the Lord of the worlds and the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) at the moments of sending down the revelations of Allah.
• Javad (Jawat, Javid) is an Arabic name meaning “a person with a broad soul”, “possessing generosity”.
• Jagfar (Jakfar, Yagfar, Jafar) is an Arabic name that translates as “source”, “key”, “spring”, “stream”.
• Jalil (Jalil, Zalil) is an Arabic name with the translation meaning “authoritative”, “respected”, “honored”.
• Jalal (Jalal, Zalal) is an Arabic name, translated as “greatness”, “supremacy”, “supremacy”.
• Jamal (Jamal, Jemal, Jamal) is an Arabic name that carries the meaning of “perfection”, “ideal”.
• Jamaletdin (Jamalutdin, Jamaluddin) is an Arabic name that means “perfection of religion.”
• Dzhambulat (Dzhanbulat, Dzhambolat) is an Arab-Turkic name, translated as “strong soul.”
• Jamil (Jamil, Jamil, Zhamil, Zyamil) is an Arabic name that means “beautiful”, “wonderful”.
• Jannur (Zinnur) is a Turkic name that translates as “shining soul.”
• Jaudat - see the meaning of the name Jaudat.
• Jihangir (Jigangir) is a Persian name, translated meaning “conqueror”, “conqueror of the world”, “master of the world”. This was the name of the youngest son of Sultan Suleiman Kanuni.
• Dilovar (Dilavar, Dilyaver) is a Persian name translated as “courageous”, “fearless”, “courageous”.
• Dinar is an Arabic name that translates as “gold coin”, in this case “precious”. The dinar serves as the official currency of a number of Arab states, such as Algeria, Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, etc.
• Dinislam is an Arabic name formed by combining two words: “Din” (“religion”) and “Islam” (“Islam”, “submission to God”).
• Dinmuhamed (Dinmuhammed) is an Arabic name, which translated means “the religion of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.).”

Starting with the letter Z

• Zhalil (Zhalil) - see the meaning of the name Jalil.
• Zhaudat (Zhaudat, Dzhavdat, Dzhaudat, Dzhevdet, Zaudat) is an Arabic name, which means “superior”, “generous”.

Starting with the letter Z

• Zabir is an Arabic name, translated as “hard”, “strong”, “strong”.
• Zagid (Zagit) is an Arabic name meaning “pious”, “holy”.
• Zagir is an Arabic name that means “shining”, “brilliant”, “bright”.
• Zayd (Zeyd) is an Arabic name, the semantic translation of which is “gift”, “gift”.
• Zaydullah (Zeydullah) is an Arabic name translated as “gift of Allah”, “gift of the Almighty”.
• Zainullah (Zeynullah) is an Arabic name that means “ornament of the Almighty.”
• Zakaria (Zachariah, Zakarya) is a Hebrew name that carries the meaning of “always remembering God.” One of the Lord’s vicegerents on Earth had this name - Prophet Zakaria (a.s.), who was the father of the Prophet Yahya (John, a.s.) and the uncle of Maryam, the mother of the Prophet Isa (Jesus Christ, a.s.).
• Zaki (Zakiy) is an Arabic name meaning “wise”, “capable”, “gifted”.
• Zakir is an Arabic name that translates into the meaning of “praising the Almighty”, “giving praise to Allah”.
• Zalim is an Arabic name that means “cruel”, “despot”, “tyrant”.
• Zamir is an Arabic name, translated as “conscientious”, “honest”.
• Zarif (Zarip) is an Arabic name meaning “attractive”, “refined”.
• Zahid (Zakhit) is an Arabic name that translates as “modest”, “ascetic”.
• Zelimkhan (Zalimkhan) - see the meaning of the name Selimkhan.
• Zinnat is an Arabic name that means “decoration”, “beautiful”, “magnificent”.
• Zinnatulla (Zinatulla) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “adornment of the Almighty.”
• Zinnur is an Arabic name, the semantic interpretation of which is “radiant”, “light”, “illuminating”.
• Ziyad (Ziat) is an Arabic name meaning “growth”, “multiplying”, “increase”.
• Ziyaddin (Ziyatdin) is an Arabic name with the semantic meaning of “multiplying religion”, “spreading religion”.
• Zubair (Zubair) is an Arabic name meaning “strong.”
• Zulfat (Zolfat) is an Arabic name that translates as the adjective “curly.” Usually this was the name given to boys who were born with curly hair.
• Zufar (Zophar) is an Arabic name, which means “victorious”, “victorious”.

Starting with the letter I

• Ibad (Ibat, Gibat) is an Arabic name that translates as “slave.” In this case, it is implied that the bearer of this name is a slave of the Supreme Lord.
• Ibrahim (Ibrahim) is a Hebrew-Arabic name, meaning “father of nations.” This was the name of one of the greatest messengers of Allah - Prophet Ibrahim (a.s.), also known by the biblical name Abraham. It should be noted that Prophet Ibrahim (a.s.) was the forefather of the Jewish and Arab peoples, for which he was called the “father of nations.”
• Idris is an Arabic name, translated meaning “diligent”, “enlightened”. This name was given to one of the first prophets in the history of mankind - Prophet Idris (a.s.).
• Ishmael - see the meaning of the name Ismail
• Ikram is an Arabic name, which means “honor”, ​​“respect”, “authority”.
• Ilgam (Ilham, Ilgam) is an Arabic name with the meaning “inspired”, “inspired”.
• Ilgiz (Ilgis, Ilgiz) is a Persian name, translated as “wanderer”, “traveler”.
• Ilgizar (Ilgizar) is a Persian name whose meaning is “a person who travels.”
• Ildan (Ildan) is a Tatar-Persian name, translated meaning “glorifying his country.”
• Ildar (Ildar, Eldar) - this Tatar-Persian name contains the meaning of “master of his country”, “a person who has a homeland”.
• Ildus (Ildus) is a Tatar-Persian name meaning “one who loves his country.”
• Ilnaz (Ilnaz, Ilnas) is a Tatar-Persian name with the meaning “caressing one’s country.”
• Ilnar (Ilnar, Elnar) is a Tatar-Persian name, which translates as “flame of the people”, “fire of the state”.
• Ilnur (Ilnur, Elnur) is a Tatar-Persian name meaning “the radiance of the people.”
• Ilsaf (Ilsaf) is a Tatar-Persian name with the semantic meaning of “purity of the people.”
• Ilsiyar (Ilsiyar) is a Tatar-Persian name that means “loving his people”, “loving his country”.
• Ilsur (Ilsur) is a Tatar-Persian name, which translates as “hero of his country”, “hero of his people”.
• Ilfar (Ilfar) is a Tatar-Persian name, which translated means “beacon of one’s people.”
• Ilfat (Ilfat) is a Tatar-Persian name meaning “friend of his country”, “friend of his people”.
• Ilshat (Ilshat) is a Tatar-Persian name meaning “joy for one’s country”, “joy for one’s people”.
• Ilyas is a Hebrew-Arabic name, which translated means “the power of God.” One of the prophets of the Most High, Ilyas (Elijah, a.s.), possessed it.
• Ilyus is a Tatar name, translated meaning “grow, my country”, “prosper, my people”.
• Imam is an Arabic name that translates as “standing in front.” In Islam, imams are the name given to believers who preside during collective prayer. In Shiism, an imam is the supreme ruler, the head of spiritual and temporal power.
• Imamali (Imamgali, Emomali) is an Arabic name formed by combining two words: “Imam” (spiritual leader, primate) and the name Ali. This name is very popular among Shiite Muslims, whose cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) - Ali ibn Abu Talib (Imam Ali) is considered the most revered person after the Prophet (s.a.w.) himself.
• Iman is an Arabic name that translates as “faith”, “iman”. They named the boy in the hope that in the future he would become a sincere believer.
• Imanali (Imangali) is an Arabic name meaning “faith of Ali”.
• Imran (Emran, Gimran) is an Arabic name that translates as the word “life”. It is mentioned in the Koran: in particular, the third sura is called “The Family of Imran”.
• Inal is a Turkic name, which has the meaning of “a person of noble origin”, “descendant of a ruler”.
• Ingam (Inham) is an Arabic name that translates as “donation”, “gifting”.
• Insaf is an Arabic name that means “modest”, “well-mannered”, “fair”.
• Intizar (Intisar) is an Arabic name with the meaning “long-awaited child.” Accordingly, they were named long-awaited children.
• Irek (Irek) is a Tatar name, which in translation means “free”, “free”, “independent”.
• Irfan (Girfan, Khirfan) is a Persian name that translates as “enlightened”, “educated”.
• Irkhan (Erkhan, Girhan) is a Persian name meaning “courageous khan.”
• Irshat is an Arabic name, the semantic interpretation of which is “instructing on the true path.”
• Isa - see the meaning of the name Gaisa.
• Iskander (Iskandar) is an ancient Greek name meaning “winner”. This name (Iskander Zulkarnai) was used in the Muslim world to call the great commander Alexander the Great.
• Islam (Islam) is an Arabic name derived from the name of the religion Islam. The word “Islam” itself is translated as “submission to Allah.”
• Ismail (Ishmael, Ismagil, Ismail) is an Arabic name that means “The Almighty hears everything.” One of God’s vicegerents, Prophet Ismail (a.s.), the eldest son of the forefather of the nations, Prophet Ibrahim (a.s.), had this name. It is believed that it was from the Prophet Ismail (a.s.) that the Arab people came and the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) was his descendant.
• Ismat (Ismet) is an Arabic name, translated as “protection”, “support”.
• Israfil (Israfil) is an Arabic name, the translation of which is “warrior”, “fighter”. This is the name of one of the greatest angels of Allah - the angel Israfil (a.s.), whose main function is to announce the onset of the Day of Judgment.
• Ishak (Isaac) is a Hebrew-Arabic name translated as “cheerful”, “joyful”. It was worn by one of the messengers of the Almighty - Prophet Ishak (a.s.), the son of the forefather of the nations, Prophet Ibrahim (a.s.). It is believed that it was from the Prophet Ishaq (a.s.) that the Jewish people came and all subsequent prophets, with the exception of Muhammad (s.g.w.), were his descendants.
• Ikhlas (Ikhlyas) is an Arabic name that translates as “sincere”, “honest”. One of the surahs of the Holy Quran is called “Ikhlas”.
• Ihsan (Ehsan) is an Arabic name meaning “kind”, “merciful”, “helping”.

Starting with the letter K

• Kabir (Kabir) is an Arabic name that translates as “big”, “huge”. Included in the list of names of the Almighty.
• Kavi (Kaviy) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “powerful”, “strong”. This is one of the names of Allah.
• Kadi (Kadi) - see the meaning of the name Kazi.
• Kadim is an Arabic name, which means “ancient”, “old”.
• Qadir (Kedir) is an Arabic name that translates as “possessing power.” It is one of the names of the Lord of the worlds in Islam.
• Kazbek (Kazibek) is an Arab-Turkic name formed by adding two names: Kazi (judge) and Bek (lord, prince).
• Kazi (Kaziy) is an Arabic name, the translation of which means “judge”. As a rule, judges dealing with Sharia cases are called qazis.
• Kazim is an Arabic name that translates as “restrained”, “patient”, “keeping anger within oneself”.
• Kamal (Kamal, Kemal) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is expressed by the words “perfection”, “ideal”, “maturity”.
• Kamil (Kamil) is an Arabic name, which means “perfect”, “ideal”.
• Kamran is a Persian name meaning “strong”, “mighty”, “mighty”.
• Karam is an Arabic name, translated as “generosity”, “magnanimity”.
• Qari (Kariy) is an Arabic name, which translated means “reader who knows the Koran”, “hafiz of the Koran”.
• Karib (Karip) is an Arabic name meaning “close”, “close”.
• Karim (Karym) is an Arabic name that translates as “generous,” “a man with a broad soul.”
• Karimulla (Karymullah) is an Arabic name that means “the generosity of the Almighty,” “the nobility of Allah.”
• Kasym (Kasim, Kasym) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “distributing”, “dividing”, “distributing”.
• Kausar (Kawsar, Kyausar) is an Arabic name that translates as “abundance.” Kausar is the name of a stream in Paradise.
• Kafi (Kafiy) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “efficient”, “capable”.
• Qayum (Qayum) is an Arabic name meaning “life-sustaining”, “eternal”. It is one of the 99 names of the Almighty.
• Kemal - see the meaning of the name Kamal.
• Kiram is an Arabic name that translates as “sincere”, “pure-hearted”.
• Kiyam (Kyyam) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “resurrected”, “risen”.
• Kudrat (Kodrat) is an Arabic name translated as “strength”, “power”.
• Kurban (Korban) is an Arabic name that translates as “sacrifice”, “sacrifice”. In this case, a sacrifice to Allah is implied.
• Kurbanali (Korbanali) is a name made up by adding two Arabic names: Kurban (“sacrifice”) and Ali.
• Kutdus (Kuddus, Kotdus) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be represented by the epithet “free from any shortcomings.” One of the names of the Lord of the Worlds among Muslims.
• Kyyam - see the meaning of the name Kiyam.

Starting with the letter L

• Latif (Latyf, Latyp, Latif) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “understanding”, “treating with understanding”. It is one of the names of the Almighty.
• Lenar (Linar) is a Russian name derived from the phrase “Lenin’s Army”. Similar names became popular during the Soviet years.
• Lenur (Linur) is a Russian name representing an abbreviation of the phrase “Lenin instituted a revolution.” It appeared in Soviet times.
• Lukman (Lokman) is an Arabic name, which translated means “caring”, “showing care”. This was the name of one of the righteous men mentioned in the Koran.
• Lut (Lot) is a Hebrew name, the owner of which was the Prophet Lut (a.s.), sent to the people of the Sadum tribe, also known as Sodom and Gomorrah.
• Lyaziz (Laziz) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “delicious”, “sweet”.

Starting with the letter M

• Mavlid (Maulid, Maulit, Mavlit, Mavlut, Mevlut) is an Arabic name that literally translates as “Birthday”. As a rule, this word refers to the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.).
• Magdi (Magdiy, Mahdi) is an Arabic name meaning “walking the path that the Almighty shows.”
• Magomed (Mohammed) - see the meaning of the name Muhammad.
• Majid (Majit, Majid, Mazhit, Mazit) is an Arabic name that translates as “glorious.” It is one of the names of the Creator.
• Maksud (Maksut) is an Arabic name, which translated means “aspiration”, “goal”, “intention”.
• Malik (Myalik) is an Arabic name meaning “lord”, “ruler”. It is one of the names of the Almighty.
• Mansur (Mansor) - an Arabic name, translated means “winner”, “celebrating victory”.
• Marat is a French name that became common among the Tatars after the October Revolution. This name was borne by one of the leaders of the French Revolution - Jean Paul Marat.
• Mardan is a Persian name that translates as “hero”, “knight”, “hero”.
• Marlene is a Russian name formed by adding the surnames Marx and Lenin.
• Mars is a Latin name. In ancient Roman mythology, Mars is the god of war.
• Marcel (Marcil) is a French name that became widespread among the Tatars after the 1917 revolution in honor of one of the leaders of the labor movement in France, Marcel Cachin.
• Masgud (Masgut, Maskhut) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “happy.”
• Mahdi - see the meaning of the name Magdi
• Mahmud (Mahmut) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is expressed by the words “praised”, “worthy of praise”. It is one of the names of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.).
• Mehmed (Mehmet) is a Turkic name, analogous to the name Mahmud. This name is very popular in modern Turkey.
• Mihran is a Persian name meaning “merciful”, “cordial”.
• Midhat (Mithat, Midhad) is an Arabic name, translated as “glorification”, “praise”.
• Minle (Minne, Mini, Min) is a word that means “with a mole.” Often found as part of complex Tatar names. Previously, children who were born with a mole were given a name with the particle “Minle”, as there was a belief that having a mole was good luck. It also happened that if a mole was discovered after the child was given a name, it was changed to a name with this particle or simply added to the already existing one. For example: Minakhmat (Min + Akhmat), Mingali (Min + Gali), Minnehan (Minne + Khan), Minnehanif (Minne + Hanif).
• Mirza (Murza, Mirze) is a Persian name meaning “high dignitary”, “lord”, “representative of the nobility”.
• Muaz (Mugaz) is an Arabic name, which means “protected”.
• Muammar (Muammar, Mugammar) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “a person destined for a long life.”
• Mubarak (Mobarak, Mubaraksha) is an Arabic name, translated as “sacred.”
• Mubin is an Arabic name, the semantic translation of which is “able to distinguish truth from lies.”
• Mugalim (Mualim, Mugallim) is an Arabic name, which translated means “teacher”, “mentor”.
• Mudaris is an Arabic name meaning “person who teaches lessons”, “teacher”.
• Muzaffar (Muzaffar, Mozaffar) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “victorious warrior.”
• Muqaddas (Moqaddas) – Arabic name, translated as “pure”, “devout”.
• Mullah is an Arabic name meaning “preacher”, “learned in matters of religion.” Often found in complex names, both at the beginning and at the end of the name.
• Mullanur is an Arabic name formed by adding the words “mullah” (preacher) and “nur” (light).
• Munir is an Arabic name, translated meaning “emitting light”, “shining”.
• Murad (Murat) is an Arabic name that translates as “desired.” It is very popular in Turkic states and regions.
• Murza - see the meaning of the name Mirza.
• Murtaza is an Arabic name, translated meaning “chosen”, “beloved”.
• Musa is an Arabic name whose meaning is expressed by the word “child”. This name is also interpreted as “drawn from the sea.” One of the greatest prophets and messengers of Allah was named Musa (a.s.), also known as Moses, who led the people of Israel from Egypt and saved them from the oppression of Pharaoh.
• Muslim is an Arabic name, which translated means “follower of Islam”, “Muslim”.
• Mustafa (Mostafa) - an Arabic name, translated as “chosen”, “best”. This is one of the names of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.).
• Muhammad (Muhammad, Mukhamet, Muhammet) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “praised.” The owner of this name was the best of the people who ever inhabited the planet - Prophet Muhammad (s.g.v.). Today it is one of the most popular names in the world.
• Muharram (Mukharlyam, Muharryam) is an Arabic name that translates as “forbidden.” Muharram is the name of the first month of the Muslim lunar calendar.
• Mukhlis (Mokhlis) is an Arabic name, the semantic meaning of which is “a true, sincere friend.”
• Muhsin is an Arabic name that translates to “a person who helps others.”
• Mukhtar (Mokhtar) is an Arabic name meaning “chosen”, “chosen”.

Starting with the letter N

• Nabi (Nabiy) is an Arabic name meaning “prophet”. Nabi in Islam refers to all the prophets of Allah, including the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.).
• Nowruz (Nauruz) is a Persian name that translates as “first day of the year.” Navruz is the holiday of the spring equinox, celebrated in a number of Muslim countries.
• Nagim (Nahim) is an Arabic name meaning “happiness”, “well-being”.
• Najib (Nazhib, Najip, Nazhip) - see the meaning of the name Nazip.
• Nadir (Nadir) is an Arabic name that means “rare”, “unmatched”, “unique”.
• Nazar is a name of Arabic origin, the meaning of which is “far-sighted”, “looking far ahead”.
• Nazim (Nazim, Nazyym) is an Arabic name translated as “constructor”, “builder”.
• Nazip (Nazib) is an Arabic name meaning “man of noble birth”, “precious”.
• Nazir (Nazir) is an Arabic name that translates as “notifying”, “warning”, “observing”.
• Nazif (Nazyf) is an Arabic name with the meaning “pure”, “immaculate”.
• Nail (Nail) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “gift”, “gift”, “a person worthy of a gift”.
• Nariman is a Persian name, which in translation carries the meaning of “strong in spirit”, “a person with a strong-willed character”.
• Nasreddin (Nasrutdin) - an Arabic name that means “helper of religion”, “help of religion”.
• Nasrullah (Nasrallah) is an Arabic name, translated as “help of Allah.”
• Nasir (Nasser) is an Arabic name meaning “helper”, “comrade”.
• Nafig (Nafik) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “benefit”, “benefit”, “profit”.
• Nafis (Nefis) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be expressed by the words “graceful”, “beautiful”.
• Nizami is an Arabic name that translates as “disciplined”, “educated”.
• Nikhat is an Arabic name, the semantic translation of which is “last child.” This name was given to the boy who, as his parents planned, was to be the last.
• Niyaz (Niyas) is an Arabic name, translated as “need”, “necessity”, “desire”.
• Nur is an Arabic name meaning “light”, “radiance”.
• Nurgali (Nurali) is an Arabic compound name from the word “light” and the name Ali.
• Nurjan (Nurzhan) is a Persian name that literally means “shining soul.”
• Nurislam is an Arabic name, which when translated will sound like “the radiance of Islam.”
• Nurmuhammet (Nurmukhamet, Nurmuhammad) is an Arabic name meaning “light emanating from Muhammad.”
• Nursultan (Nursoltan) is an Arabic name that translates as “shining ruler”, “shining Sultan”.
• Nurullah is an Arabic name that means “light of Allah”, “radiance of the Almighty”.
• Nuh is a Hebrew-Arabic name. Its bearer was Prophet Nuh (a.s.), also known as Noah.

Starting with the letter O

• Olan (Alan) is a Celtic name that translates as “harmony”, “concord”.
• Omer (Omar) is the Turkic analogue of the name Umar (see the meaning of this name).
• Oraz (Uraz) is a Turkic name meaning “happy”, “rich”.
• Orkhan is a Turkic name, the translation of which means “commander”, “military leader”.
• Osman (Gosman) is the Turkic analogue of the name Usman (see its meaning). The owner of this name was the founder of the great Ottoman Empire - Osman I.

Starting with the letter P

• Parviz (Parvaz, Perviz) is a Persian name, which translated from Farsi sounds like “take-off”, “ascent”.
• Pasha is a Perso-Turkic name that is a shortened version of the name Padishah, meaning "sovereign". In the Ottoman Empire, only the officials closest to the Sultan had the title “Pasha”.

Starting with the letter R

• Ravil (Ravil) – an Arabic name, translated means “spring sun”. This name is also interpreted as “wandering”, “traveler”.
• Raghib - see the meaning of the name Rakip.
• Rajab (Rejep, Razyap) is an Arabic name that was given to boys born in the seventh month of the Muslim lunar calendar - the month of Rajab.
• Radik is a name of Greek origin that gained popularity among the Tatars in the last century. Translated as “ray of sunshine”.
• Radif is an Arabic name, translated meaning “satellite”, “nearby”. It is also interpreted as “going behind everyone else.” This name was given to boys who were planned to be the last child in the family.
• Razzaq (Razaq) is an Arabic name meaning “bestower of benefits.” It is one of the 99 names of Allah.
• Razil (Razil) is an Arabic name that translates as “chosen”, “consonant”.
• Rail (Rail) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “founder”, “founder”.
• Rais (Reis) is an Arabic name with the meaning “chairman”, “head”, “leader”.
• Raif is an Arabic name translated as “showing pity for others,” “merciful,” “compassionate.”
• Rayhan (Reyhan) is an Arabic name, which means “bliss”, “pleasure”.
• Rakib (Rakip) is an Arabic name meaning “watchman,” “guard,” “guardian.”
• Ramadan (Ramadan, Ramzan, Rabadan) is a popular Arabic name usually given to boys born during the Muslim holy month of obligatory fasting, Ramadan.
• Ramzil (Ramzi, Remzi) is an Arabic name meaning “having a sign”, “symbol”.
• Ramis (Ramiz) is an Arabic name, translated it means “a sign symbolizing something good.”
• Ramil (Ramil) is an Arabic name translated as “wonderful”, “magical”.
• Rasil (Razil) is an Arabic name that means “representative”.
• Rasim (Rasym, Resim) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “creator of pictures”, “artist”.
• Rasit (Razit) is a Persian name, translated meaning “one who has reached maturity”, “adult”.
• Rasul (Rasul) is an Arabic name that translates as “messenger”, “sent”. Messengers in Islam are the prophets to whom the Holy Scriptures were revealed. Prophet Muhammad (s.w.w.) is also the Messenger of Allah, since the Noble Quran was revealed to him.
• Rauf is an Arabic name meaning “lenient”, “kind-hearted”. One of the names of Allah.
• Raushan (Ravshan, Rushan) is a Persian name whose meaning is “radiant”, “shining”.
• Raphael (Raphael) is a Hebrew name that translates as “healed by God.” The Holy Scripture of the Jews - the Taurat (Torah) - mentions the angel Raphael.
• Rafik is an Arabic name that means “friend”, “comrade”, “buddy”.
• Rafis is an Arabic name, translated meaning “outstanding”, “famous”.
• Rafkat (Rafkat, Rafhat) is an Arabic name meaning “majesty.”
• Rahim is an Arabic name that means “merciful.” Included in the list of 99 names of the Almighty Creator.
• Rahman is an Arabic name that translates to “merciful.” It is one of the most frequently used names of the Almighty.
• Rahmatullah is an Arabic name meaning “mercy of the Almighty.”
• Rashad (Rashat, Rushad) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be conveyed by the words “truth”, “right path”.
• Rashid (Rashit) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “moving along the right path.” Used among the names of the Lord of the Worlds in Islam.
• Rayan (Rayan) is an Arabic name that translates as “comprehensively developed.”
• Renat (Rinat) is a name popular among the Tatars and made up by adding the words: “revolution”, “science” and “labor”. Appeared in Tatar families after the 1917 revolution.
• Ref (Reef) is a name formed from the first letters of the phrase “revolutionary front”. This is how some Tatars began to name their children in the post-revolutionary period.
• Refnur (Rifnur) is a name formed by adding the first letters of the phrase “revolutionary front” and the Arabic word “nur” (light). The name appeared among the Tatars during the Soviet years.
• Riza (Reza) is an Arabic name that translates as “agreeable”, “pleased”, “satisfied”.
• Rizvan (Rezvan) is an Arabic name meaning “spiritual joy.” This name is borne by the angel guarding the Gates of Paradise.
• Rome is a name formed by adding the first letters of the phrase “revolution and peace.” It appeared among the Tatars after the October Revolution.
• Rifat (Refat, Rifgat) is an Arabic name that carries the meaning of “ascending upward.”
• Rifqat (Refqat) is an Arabic name meaning “blessed.”
• Rishat (Rishad) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “moving straight.”
• Robert is an English name with the meaning of “grand glory.” The Tatars appeared in the middle of the last century.
• Rudolf (Rudolf) is a German name meaning "glorious wolf." This name began to appear in Tatar families after the revolution.
• Ruzal (Ruzal) is a Persian name, more often translated as “happy.”
• Ruslan is a Slavic name, popular among the Tatars. Derived from the Turkic name Arslan (Lion).
• Rustam (Rustem) is a Persian name meaning “big man.” In ancient Persian literature - a hero, a hero.
• Rufat is a name modified from the Arabic Rifat. It means “occupying a high position.”
• Rushan - see the meaning of the name Raushan.

Starting with the letter C

• Saad (Sagad) is an Arabic name that means “luck”. This was the name of one of the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) - Saad ibn Abu Waqqas (r.a.).
• Sabah is an Arabic name, translated meaning “morning”, “dawn”.
• Sabir is an Arabic name that translates as “patient”, “having patience”.
• Sabirjan (Sabirzhan, Sabirzyan) is an Arab-Persian name meaning “patient soul.”
• Sabit is an Arabic name meaning “honest,” “master of his word.”
• Sabur is an Arabic name that can be translated by the epithet “possessing unlimited patience.” It is one of the 99 names of the Almighty.
• Sagadat (Saadat) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “prosperity”, “bliss”.
• Sagit (Sagid) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “happy”, “prosperous”.
• Sadiq (Sadiq) is an Arabic name that carries the meaning “sincere friend.”
• Said (Sait, Sayet) is an Arabic name that translates as “representative of the nobility,” “lord,” “respected.” Said is a title given to the leaders of Shiite communities.
• Saidash is a Tatar name formed by adding the Tatar suffix “-ash” to the name Said.
• Saidulla (Saidula, Seidulla) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “noble servant of the Almighty.”
• Sayf (Safe) – an Arabic name, translated as “sword”, “blade”.
• Sayfetdin (Sayfutdin, Sayfuddin, Seyfetdin) is an Arabic name, which means “sword of religion.”
• Saifullah (Saifullah, Seifullah) is an Arabic name, the literal interpretation of which is “the sword of the Almighty.”
• Saikhan (Seikhan, Saigan) is a Mongolian name meaning “handsome ruler”, “good khan”.
• Salawat is an Arabic name that carries the meaning of “praise”, “blessing”.
• Salamat is an Arabic name given by parents who wished their child to become “a person in good health.”
• Salah (Salah) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “piety”, “benevolence”, “virtue”.
• Salahuddin (Salahetdin, Salahutdin, Saladdin) is an Arabic name, the literal translation of which is “the good of religion.” He is also interpreted as “master of religion” or “religious leader.” The famous owner of this name was one of the greatest commanders and rulers in world history - Yusuf ibn Ayyub Salah ad-Din (Saladin).
• Salim - see the meaning of the name Selim.
• Salih is an Arabic name, translated meaning “virtuous”, “fair”. This name was borne by one of the prophets of Allah - Salih (a.s.).
• Salman (Salman) is an Arabic name that translates as “healthy”, “without illnesses”.
• Salam (Salam) is an Arabic name meaning “peace”, “tranquility”, “harmony”.
• Samat (Samad) is an Arabic name that means “self-sufficient.” It is one of the names of the Creator in Islam.
• Samigulla (Samiullah) is an Arabic name that translates as “he who hears the Lord of the worlds.”
• Samir is an Arabic name translated as “interlocutor.”
• Sardar (Serdar, Serder) is a Persian name meaning “military leader”, “commander-in-chief”.
• Sarmat is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be expressed by the adjectives “eternal”, “infinite”, “immortal”.
• Sattar (Satdar) is an Arabic name that translates as “forgiving.”
• Saud is an Arabic name meaning “lucky”. The Sauds are the ruling dynasty in Saudi Arabia.
• Safa is an Arabic name, the translation of which most accurately expresses the word “sincere.”
• Safar (Sefer) is an Arabic name that means “journey”. The name of the second month according to the Muslim lunar calendar, and therefore boys born in this month were given this name.
• Sahib (Sahip) is an Arabic name whose meaning is “master”, “owner”.
• Selim (Salim, Zelim) - an Arabic name, translated as “in good health.” This name is popular among the Turkic peoples.
• Selimkhan (Salimkhan, Zelimkhan) is an Arab-Turkic name, translated meaning “healthy ruler.”
• Sibgat (Sibagat, Sibhat) is an Arabic name with the meaning “beautiful appearance.”
• Sirin is an Arabic name that translates to “lilac.” One of the greatest Muslim scholars was called Ibn Sirin - he was engaged in the interpretation of dreams.
• Sitdik (Siddiq) is an Arabic name that carries the meaning “devoted”, “faithful”. Siddiq is one of the nicknames of the closest companion of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) and the first righteous caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (r.a.), who was endlessly devoted to the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.).
• Suleiman is a Hebrew-Arabic name, translated meaning “living in prosperity.” The owners of this name were one of the greatest prophets of Allah - Suleiman (a.s.), also known as King Solomon, and the great Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Suleiman the Magnificent.
• Sultan (Soltan, Zoltan) is an Arabic name that translates as “ruler”, “monarch”, “sovereign”. Sultan is the title of rulers in some Muslim states.
• Sufi (Sufi) is an Arabic name, translated means “Sufi”, “noble”, “saint”.

Starting with the letter T

• Tabriz (Tabris, Tabriz) is an Arabic name meaning “heritage”, “greatness”.
• Taghi (Such) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be conveyed by the words “pious”, “God-fearing”.
• Tagir (Tahir) is an Arabic name, translated as “sinless”, “saint”.
• Tajuddin (Tajutdin, Tazetdin) is an Arabic name, which translated means “crown of religion”, “religious leader”.
• Taip (Taib, Tayyip) is an Arabic name with the semantic meaning of “pleasant”, “benevolent”.
• Tahir (Tayir) is an Arabic name that translates as “flying”, “hovering in the air”.
• Taimuraz (Teymuraz) is a Turkic name, translated meaning “iron”.
• Talgat is an Arabic name, translated meaning “appearance”, “appearance”, “attractiveness”.
• Talib (Talip, Taleb) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is “student”, “receiving knowledge”.
• Tamerlan (Timerlan, Temerlan) is a Turkic name that literally translates as “lame leg.” The most famous bearer of this name was one of the greatest commanders in the history of mankind - Timur ibn Taragay (who went down in history as Tamerlane), who later became the founder of the Timurid dynasty. It is known that during one of the battles he received leg wounds, after which he remained lame.
• Tanzil (Tanzil) is an Arabic name that means “sent down.” In Islam, Tanzil is one of the names of the Holy Quran.
• Tarkhan is a Mongol-Turkic name that means “blacksmith”, “craftsman”, “craftsman”.
• Tahir - see the meaning of the name Tagir.
• Timer (Demir) is a Turkic name that translates as “iron”, “steel”. They named the child with the hope that he would be healthy and strong as steel.
• Timerkhan is a Turkic name, which translated means “iron ruler”, “ruling with an iron hand”.
• Timur is a Turkic name meaning “iron”, “steel”. This name was given to boys with the hope that they would be strong and strong as iron.
• Tokhtamysh (Tuktamysh) is a Turkic name, translated meaning “to stop.” Boys were given this name in those families where there was a high infant mortality or birth rate.
• Tukay is a Turkic-Mongolian name formed by adding the Tatar affix “-ai” to the word “tuk” (“fed”), meaning “be full.” There is also an opinion that the name Tukay is a shortened form of the word “tugankay” (“close relative”). This name was popularized by the great Tatar poet Gabdulla Tukay.
• Tufan (Tofan) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “flood”, “flood”. Appeared among the Tatars in the post-revolutionary period.

Starting with the letter U

• Ubaydullah (Ubeydullah) is an Arabic name, the literal translation of which is “slave of Allah.” Acts as an analogue of the name Abdullah.
• Uzbek (Ozbek) is a Turkic name that translates as “soul of the lord.”
• Ulan (Olan) is a Turkic name, translated meaning “horse warrior”, “rider”, “cavalryman”.
• Ulfat is an Arabic name that carries the meaning of “close relationships.”
• Umar (Gumar, Omar, Omer) is an Arabic name that can be translated as “living.” They named children with them, hoping that they would live a long time. This was the name of one of the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) and the second righteous caliph Umar ibn Khattab.
• Uraz (Uras, Oraz) is a Turkic-Tatar name, derived from the word “Uraza” - an obligatory fast in the month of Ramadan.
• Umid (Umit, Umut) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “hope”, “expectation”.
• Ural is a Turkic-Tatar name, derived from the name of the region of the same name.
• Urman (Orman) is a Turkic name, translated means “forest”, “wooded area”.
• Urmanche is a Turkic-Tatar name, translated as “woodcutter”, “a person who cuts down a forest”.
• Usman (Guzman, Osman) is an Arabic name meaning “heroism”, “courage”. The owner of this name was one of the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) and the third righteous caliph Usman ibn Affan.

Starting with the letter F

• Faiz (Fais, Fayz, Feyz) is an Arabic name, which translated means “purposeful”, “winner”.
• Faik (Faiq) is an Arabic name meaning “superior”, “having superiority”.
• Fail (Fagil, Fail) is an Arabic name with the meaning “giving a good sign.”
• Faizrahman (Faizrahman) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “the generosity of the Merciful,” that is, the generosity of Allah, who has unlimited mercy.
• Faizi (Feizi) is an Arabic name translated as “generous”, “magnanimous”.
• Fayzulla (Feyzulla) is an Arabic name, translated as “the generosity of the Almighty.”
• Faisal (Faisal) is an Arabic name that means “the one who makes decisions.”
• Fan is an Arabic name, translated meaning “science”, “knowledge”.
• Fanzil (Fanzil) is an Arabic name that translates as “possessor of knowledge”, “learned person”.
• Fanil (Fanil) is an Arabic name that means “educated.”
• Fanis is a Persian name, the translation of which can be expressed as “lighthouse”, “lamp”.
• Fannur (Fanur) is an Arabic name, the literal translation of which is “the radiance of science.”
• Fanuz (Fanus) – an Arabic name, translated as “lantern”, “lamp”, “candle”.
• Farid (Farit, Faryit, Ferid) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “incomparable”, “unsurpassed”, “unmatched”.
• Farrah is an Arabic name meaning “cheerful”, “happy”.
• Farukh (Faruk) is an Arabic name, which is interpreted as “able to distinguish good from bad.” This nickname belonged to the second righteous caliph Umar ibn Khattab.
• Farhad (Farhat, Ferhat) is a Persian name meaning “invincible.”
• Fatih (Fatikh, Fateh) is an Arabic name, its literal meaning is “opener.” This name is also interpreted as “conqueror”, “commander”. In particular, the great Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II had the nickname Fatih, who captured Constantinople, which later became the capital of the Ottoman Empire, being renamed Istanbul.
• Fattah is an Arabic name meaning “revealer of all secrets.” Included in the list of names of Allah Almighty.
• Fakhretdin (Fakhrutdin, Fakhruddin, Fakhrudin) is an Arabic name that translates as “pride of religion.”
• Fakhri is an Arabic name whose meaning is “famous”, “famous”, “popular”.
• Felix is ​​a Latin name meaning “happy”, “lucky”. It appeared in Tatar families after the revolution.
• Ferdinand (Ferdinant) is a German name, translated meaning “courageous, brave warrior.” It became widespread among the Tatars in the first half of the last century.
• Fidan is an Arabic name with the meaning of “a person capable of sacrificing himself.”
• Fikrat (Fikryat) is an Arabic name that translates as “idea”, “view”, “look”.
• Firgat (Firhat) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “parting”, “separation”.
• Firdaus (Firdavs, Firdus) is an Arab-Persian name that was used to name children in honor of the Gardens of Eden.
• Fuad (Foat, Faat, Fuat) is an Arabic name, translated as “soul”, “heart”.

Starting with the letter X

• Habib is an Arabic name, translated meaning “beloved”, “dear”.
• Habibullah is an Arabic name, the literal translation of which is “the favorite of Allah,” “the favorite of God.” It was given to boys in the hope that they would be under the protection of the Lord throughout their lives.
• Khabir is an Arabic name, the meaning of which is expressed by the words “knowledgeable”, “notifying”, “bringing news”.
• Haji (Haji) is an Arabic name that translates as “performing a pilgrimage”, “performing a hajj”.
• Khadi (Hadiy) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “director to the path of truth.” Is one of the names of the Creator.
• Khazan is a Persian name whose meaning is “autumn child.” This was the name given to boys born in the fall.
• Khazar is a Persian name, translated as “thousand”. This name was given to a child in the hope of a long life. This name also has a second interpretation - “leading a sedentary life.”
• Hazrat is an Arabic name that means “respected”, “honored”. The title "Hazrat" in the Muslim world is also used when addressing religious figures.
• Haydar is an Arabic name that translates to “lion.” By giving such a name to their child, parents hoped that he would grow up strong and strong-willed, like the king of beasts himself.
• Khairullah is an Arabic name meaning “the good of the Almighty,” “a virtue bestowed by the Lord.”
• Khakan is a Turkic name, translated meaning “supreme ruler”.
• Hakim is an Arabic name that carries the meaning of “wise”, “possessing knowledge”.
• Khalid (Khalit) is an Arabic name with the meaning “eternal”, “immortal”. The bearer of this name was one of the greatest warriors in the history of Islam - Khalid ibn Walid.
• Khalik is an Arabic name, translated as “creator”, “reviver”. It can be found in the list of 99 names of the Almighty.
• Khalil (Khalil) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “close friend”, “righteous”.
• Halim is an Arabic name, its literal translation is “restrained.” It is one of the names of the Lord of the Worlds among Muslims.
• Hamad (Hamat) is an Arabic name that translates as “worthy of praise.”
• Hamza (Khamzat, Gamzat) is an Arabic name that means “burning.” This was the name of one of the greatest warriors of the time of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.), who was nicknamed “the lion of Allah.”
• Hamid (Hamit) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be expressed by the words “commendable”, “worthy of absolute praise”. It is one of the names of Allah.
• Hamidullah is an Arabic name that translates as “worthy of praise from the Almighty.”
• Khamis is an Arabic name meaning "fifth". This name was given to a child who was born on the fifth day of the week.
• Khan is a Turkic name meaning “ruler”, “lord”, “leader”.
• Hanif is an Arabic name that means “lover of truth.”
• Haris is an Arabic name, the semantic meaning of which is “protector”, “guardian”.
• Harun is an Arabic name that translates to “willful.” It was possessed by one of the prophets of Allah - Harun (Aaron, a.s.), brother of the Prophet Musa (Moses, a.s.).
• Hassan (Hasan) is an Arabic name that means “good”, “beautiful”. Often this name is given to one of the boys if twins are born, since the owner of this name was one of the two grandsons of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.w.) - Hassan ibn Ali, especially revered by Shiite Muslims.
• Khasbulat (Khazbulat) is an Arab-Turkic name that carries the meaning of “highest quality steel.”
• Khattab is an Arabic name, translated meaning “one who is engaged in cutting down forests”, “woodcutter”.
• Hafiz (Hafez) is an Arabic name that translates as “guardian.” This is one of the names of the Gracious and the Merciful. A person who knows the Holy Quran by heart is also called a hafiz.
• Hashim is an Arabic name meaning "tax collector". Also Hashim is the name of a tribe that came from Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, the great-grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.). Today the royal dynasties of Jordan and Morocco are Hashemite.
• Hikmat (Hikmet) is an Arabic name endowed with a semantic meaning - “wisdom”, “knowledge”, “philosophy”.
• Hisam is an Arabic name that translates as “saber”, “sword”.
• Khoja (Khuja, Khuzya) is a Persian name, translated meaning “master”, “owner”, “owner”. Also interpreted as "mentor".
• Khosrow (Khusraw) is a Persian name carrying the meaning “famous”, “famous”. Name of the rulers of the Persian Empire.
• Khurmat (Khormat) is an Arabic name meaning “respect”, “authority”.
• Hussein (Husain, Husein) is an Arabic name that translates as “good”, “beautiful”. One of the boys is often given this name if twins are born, since one of the two grandsons of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) was named Hussein ibn Ali (the second was called Hassan). Both are especially revered by Shiite Muslims.

Starting with the letter H

• Chingiz (Chengiz) is a Mongolian name, translated meaning “powerful”, “possessing strength”.

Starting with the letter Sh

• Shaban (Shaaban, Shaban, Shahban) is an Arabic name derived from the name of the eighth month according to the Muslim lunar calendar. It was given to children born in this month.
• Shavkat (Shaukat, Shavkyat) is an Arabic name that translates as “supremacy”, “leadership”.
• Shakir is an Arabic name meaning “grateful”, “satisfied with one’s position.”
• Shamil (Shamil) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “universal”, “comprehensive”. This name is very popular in the Caucasus, since its owner was a ruler revered by the Caucasian peoples - Imam Shamil.
• Shams (Shamsi) is an Arabic name that translates as “sun”.
• Shamsutdin (Shamsuddin, Shamsetdin) is an Arabic name, its literal meaning is “the sun of religion.”
• Sharap (Sharaf, Sharafi) is an Arabic name, the meaning of which can be expressed by the words “representative of the nobility”, “person of noble birth”, “respected”.
• Sharafuddin (Sharafuddin, Sharafetdin) is an Arabic name meaning “honor of religion.”
• Sharip (Sharif) is an Arabic name that translates as “worthy of respect”, “famous”.
• Shafi (Shafig) is an Arabic name that carries the meaning of “intercessor”, “defender”.
• Shah is a Persian name, translated meaning “ruler”, “king”, “monarch”, “head”, “sovereign”. Title of the rulers of Persia (Iran) before the Islamic Revolution of 1979.
• Shahzade (Shehzade) is a Persian name, literally translated as “son of the ruler”, “heir to the throne”. In the Ottoman Empire, it was a title that referred to all the descendants of the ruler, not only sons, but also grandsons.
• Shahid (Shagit, Shagid) is an Arabic name meaning “testifying”, “witness”. It is included in the list of 99 names of the Lord. Martyrs who died for the cause of Allah are also called martyrs.
• Shaheen is a Persian name that translates to “white falcon.”
• Shayakh (Shaikh, Sheikh) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “sheikh”, “elder”, “leader”. In the Arab world, sheikh is a title given to prominent theologians.
• Shigabutdin (Shigabuddin, Shigabetdin) is an Arabic name, its literal interpretation is “star of religion.”
• Shukhrat is an Arabic name that means “popularity”, “fame”.

Starting with the letter E

• Edward (Edward) is an English name meaning “guardian of wealth.” This name was popularized among the Tatars in the mid-20th century.
• Elbrus is a Persian name derived from the name of Mount Elbrus, which is located in the Caucasus.
• Elvir (Ilvir) is a Spanish name that means “protector.”
• Eldar (Eldar) - see the meaning of the name Ildar.
• Elmar is a name formed by adding the abbreviations of the surnames of communism theorists Engels, Lenin and Marx. It appeared among the Tatars during Soviet times.
• Elmir (Ilmir) - see the meaning of the name Almir.
• Elfir (Ilfir) - see the meaning of the name Alfir.
• Emil is a Latin name, translated meaning “diligent”, “diligent”.
• Emir is an Arabic name that contains the meaning “head of the emirate,” “ruler,” “overlord,” and “leader.”
• Enver - see the meaning of the name Anvar.
• Engel (Ingil) is a German name, derived from the surname of the German philosopher Friedrich Engels. It gained popularity among the Tatars during the Soviet era.
• Erik is a name of Scandinavian origin meaning “lord-like.” This name appeared in the families of Russian Muslims in the post-revolutionary period.

Starting with the letter U

• Yuldash is a Turkic-Tatar name that carries the meaning “companion”, “fellow traveler”.
• Yunus (Yunus) is a Hebrew-Arabic name, translated meaning “dove.” This name was the name of one of the prophets of the Lord of the Worlds - Yunus (Jonah, peace be upon him).
• Yusuf (Yusup, Yosyf, Yusuf, Yusef) is a Hebrew-Arabic name, translated as “possessing beauty.” This name was given to one of the prophets of Allah - Yusuf (a.s.), also known as Joseph (Osip) and distinguished by his special external beauty.

Starting with the letter I

• Yavar (Yaver) is a Persian name, the meaning of which is “helper”, “comrade”.
• Yakub (Yakub, Yakup) is a Hebrew-Arabic name meaning “one who follows.” The owner of this name was Prophet Yakub (Jacob, a.s.), the father of Prophet Yusuf (a.s.).
• Yangir - see the meaning of the name Jihangir.
• Yasin (Yasin) is an Arabic name in honor of the name of the thirty-sixth sura of the Holy Quran, which is sometimes called the “heart of the Book.”
• Yasir (Yasir) is an Arabic name, translated meaning “small”, “small”.
• Yahya (Yahya, Yahya) is a Hebrew-Arabic name, the meaning of which can be expressed by the epithet “inspiring.” This is how Muslims call the Prophet Yahya (a.s.), known in the Bible as John the Baptist.

The ideals that illuminated my path and gave me courage and courage were kindness, beauty and truth. Without a sense of solidarity with those who share my beliefs, without the pursuit of the ever-elusive objective in art and science, life would seem absolutely empty to me. The first halls in historical museums are always dedicated to the Ancient East, but I was lucky, I was born in Turkmenistan on the territory of the former Parthian state and learned about the east not from museum exhibits.

Ancient Eastern history dates back to approximately 3000 BC. Geographically, the ancient East refers to countries located in South Asia and partly in North Africa. A characteristic feature of the natural conditions of these countries is the alternation of fertile river valleys with vast desert areas and mountain ranges. The valleys of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Ganges and Yellow Rivers are very favorable for agriculture. River floods provide irrigation for fields, and a warm climate provides fertile soil. However, economic life and life in the northern Mesopotamia were structured differently than in the southern one. Southern Mesopotamia, as it was written before, was a fertile country, but the harvest was brought only by the hard work of the population. Construction of a complex network of water structures that regulate floods and provide a supply of water for the dry season. However, the tribes there led a sedentary life and gave rise to ancient historical cultures. The source of information about the origin and history of the states of Egypt and Mesopotamia was the excavations of hills and mounds formed over a number of centuries on the site of destroyed cities, temples and palaces, and for the history of Judah and Israel the only source was the Bible - a collection of mythological works. Rulers of the ancient East. For the history of the Hittite kingdom of Asia Minor, historical science had only material monuments discovered in 1830-1861 during excavations of the city of Hattusham. The main merit in the field of collecting written and material monuments and studying the history of Urartu belongs to the Russian scientist M.V. Nikolsky and B.B. Piotrovsky, they gave science the first history of the kingdom of Urartu. Scientists draw historical data about the ancient period of the countries of India and China only from later works of Indian and Chinese writing. For India, these are religious texts and records of the ancient Indian epic; for China, the works of ancient philosophers

FORMATION OF STATES IN THE SOUTH MEVORICHE. AKKADA AND SCHUMMER

The southern Mesopotamia was formerly called Sennar; the Sumerians lived in its coastal part, some tribes of which penetrated into the northern part and founded the city and kingdom of Mari on the Euphrates. Later, a nomadic pastoral tribe from Arabia came to the north of Sennar and founded the city of Akkad. These tribes brought with them a culture of life different from the Sumerian one. In terms of physical type, the Sumerians differed sharply from the Akkadians. Sumerians are chubby people with slanted eyes, their heads and faces are always shaved. In contrast, the Akkadians are tall, bearded people with long, narrow faces and aquiline noses. This is how two social systems were formed, which later became Summero - the Akkadian kingdom.

SCHUMMER

The Sumerian settlers lived in a tribal system. The basis of agriculture was irrigation canals, ponds, reservoirs, and each clan community provided itself with water supplies. However, it was difficult to determine exactly the required amount of water for irrigation: excess or deficiency was equally bad; the most reasonable thing in these conditions was to direct irrigation from one place. And not to trust it to each community, to dig through canals as they please, temples become such a center of agricultural management. Gradually, temples began to control the life of neighboring cities and villages. Collect taxes and distribute provisions in difficult times. Historians called this management of the temple community. Usually the city arose around a temple dedicated to the local god. And as mentioned earlier, the city was ruled by the priests of the temple. The most famous cities of Summer were: UR, URUK, NIPPUR, KSHY, LAGASH and UMMA. At that time, Summer was not a single state, but represented areas separated from each other by the Euphrates and swamps, which made the cities of Summer unprotected from attacks by warlike neighbors. The center of each region was the strongest and richest city. To protect themselves from the attacks of ill-wishers - neighbors, a city militia was recruited, and the “lugal” led the wars. Gradually, through deception or military action, power in the Sumerian cities passed to military leaders. Using the wealth of the city's temples, the Lugali waged wars with neighboring cities, destroyed dams, killed thousands of people, and shortly before 2300 BC. e. The unrest in Sumerian cities became destructive. But seven centuries of Sumerian history left a rich culture that became a model for the entire territory of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians learned to build houses from clay bricks and cover the roofs of houses with reeds. To catch fish, they used small round boats made of reeds, which were coated with resin on the outside. It was the abundance of clay from which they built houses, sculpted toys and utensils, that suggested the idea of ​​writing on clay tablets. It was difficult to write on viscous clay, and the characters turned out in the form of triangles of different sizes. Later such writing would be called cuneiform. The oldest records were found in temples, church ministers wrote down on them: how much grain and meat was produced and how much was given to workers for food, how much remained at the disposal of the temple. The Sumerians before the Greeks were the best mathematicians and astronomers of antiquity. The Sumerian pyramids were built before the Egyptian temples and have survived to this day. The Sumerian idea of ​​the gods, the beginning of the world, and human destiny was reflected in many religions. Sumerian traditions were adopted by the ancient Jews, and they were later recorded in the Bible. The knowledge accumulated by the ancestors was passed on to young men in numerous temple schools, where they taught wisdom, observing the starry sky, mathematics, and construction. These people were creators and could not fight, so the Summers never managed to create a unified state. Sargon did it, he was an Akkadian. The Akkadians are also tribes from Mesopotamia, on the northern side, they maintained close relations with the Sumerians, caravan routes passed through the lands of Akkadia. Taking advantage of the strife between the Lugals, Sargon strengthened himself in the north of Summer, created a strong army, armed it with long-range bows and captured the south of the country. He did not accept any title from the Sumerians or his country. And he began to call himself the king of Sumer-Akkad. A new capital, Akkad, was built. Sargon established control over all temple households, and in return gave rich gifts to the temples. A powerful Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom arose, which lasted 100 years. After the formation of the kingdom, the Sumerians gradually began to mix with the Akkadians and other steppe peoples. At the same time, Sumerian culture spread widely in Mesopotamia and outlived its people for many centuries.

KINGDOMS OF AKKAD

Since the middle of the third millennium, there has been a steady increase in the productive forces on Shinar. This was especially clearly visible in its northern part, where soil conditions were more favorable for agricultural crops and where gardening began to develop alongside field cultivation. Date palm gardens appeared, which have not only food value, but also industrial value. Date pits burned slowly and produced a lot of heat; they were used in forges instead of coal, and the wood was used for carpentry. So, in the north of Shinar, agriculture became the main occupation; in the south, with its huge pastures in the wetlands, cattle breeding remained the main occupation. In this regard, internal trade began to develop; it was conducted by temples through their sales agents. In the north at this time the Semitic rulers of Akkad strengthened. The city of Akkad was located between the Euphrates and the Tigris in the place where the rivers converge closest to each other. Between the Tigris and Euphrates, in the area of ​​Akkad, there ran a caravan road, connecting in the west with caravan routes to Arabia, and in the east with caravan routes to the mountainous region of Zagros. The central position of Akkad provided great benefits to the ruler of Akkad, who took possession of the regions of Opis and Sippar. The kingdom of Akkad, after its formation by Sargon in 2369, lasted about 180 years. One of the main conditions for the unification of Shinar into one state was the economic situation, which led to the division of production in the north and south and necessitated the establishment of permanent economic connections and exchange between Sumer and Akkad. The Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom collapsed under the onslaught of the Kitian nomads. The new dynasty that united Summer and Akkadia came from the city of Ur. Its rulers recreated the kingdom of Sargon and continued his policies. They took control of the temple farms, established supreme ownership over all the fields of Mesopotamia, but the kings of Ur brought state centralization to its extreme limits and half the country's population turned into slaves. The rulers of Ur often got involved in long wars, leaving their kingdom unprotected and in 2000 BC. e. The Summerian-Akkadian kingdom disappeared from the political map of Mesopotamia, destroyed and plundered by Amorite nomadic tribes.

BABYLONIAN CULTURE

After the defeat of the Summerian-Akkadian kingdom, the territory of Shinar was divided between the Amorites, who strengthened in Akkad and formed the Amorite kingdom with its capital in Isin, and Semitic nomadic tribes in the north. But the kings of Isin were weak; at the end of the third millennium they succumbed to the kings of Babylon. Then Babylon was an insignificant city and only in 1894 BC. it became the largest state in Mesopotamia. The existence of the ancient Babylonian kingdom for 300 years is a wonderful era in the development of Mesopotamia. At this time, the nationality and Babylonian culture emerged; it absorbed all the cultural achievements of Akkad and Sumer. The ancient Babylonian kingdom did not know internal strife. Rulers of the ancient East. The unity and strength of the ball was achieved due to the fact that the Babylonian kings relied on their Amorite tribal communities, also by that time Mesopotamia had become a single state that maintained friendship with its neighbors, and the Code of Hammurabi was created as the only set of rules and laws of 282 articles for residents kingdoms. A special occupation of the population of the ancient Babylonian kingdom was agriculture. Large-scale cattle breeding, as before, was developed only in the south in wetlands. Wheat, barley and sesame were sown from field crops, and date palms from garden crops. The king was the supreme owner of all lands. Of these, 1 - 2% were private property, 80 -90% were community property, the rest of the land was at the direct disposal of the king. Tenants paid 2/3 of the harvest. Craft was no longer just a service factor; in cities, artisans had their own shops where they accepted and fulfilled orders. Trade in the ancient Babylonian kingdom received significant development. Large trade was carried out by kings and temples. They traded: grain, livestock, silver, copper. They brought back slaves, a bale. There was a shortage of labor. By 1800 BC. Babylon turned into a blooming garden. One of the wise kings of Babylon was Hammurad, since his reign this kingdom was the cultural and scientific center of Western Asia. Many achievements of the ancient Babylonians have entered modern life: we divide the year into 12 months, the hour into minutes, and the circle into 360 degrees. Kings and conquerors changed, and the Babylonians collected libraries and trained young scribes. In 689 BC. Babylon. By order of the Assyrian king it was destroyed. But the city was rebuilt and acquired new significance. Instead of narrow streets, streets were now paved, 5 km long, dividing the city into regular quarters. A seven-step temple was built, similar to a pyramid 91 km high. And the main entrance to the city was decorated with gates dedicated to the goddess Ishtar; the city itself was guarded by two defensive walls, each 6-7 m thick. The “Hanging Gardens” were considered one of the seven wonders of the world; they were planted on cascade terraces and created the effect of hanging trees. In general, Babylon, according to scientists, was the most powerful kingdom in Mesopotamia. But in 539 BC. surrendered to the Iranian king Cyrus without resistance. The culture of Babylon had a huge influence on the culture of Syria, Phenicia and Palestine, and further east to Iran. The high development of the culture of Babylon is evidenced by excavations at the site of the cities of Ur and Lagama, the material evidence found there suggests that the peasants lived in adobe huts, and the land was cultivated with a primitive plow harnessed to a pair of oxen. To irrigate fields and gardens, special water scoops were used, which still exist today. They resemble our well crane. The main means of communication in the southern Mesopotamia were the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and canals specially built for transport, which were connecting routes between the rivers. Transportation of goods was carried out on large rowing ships, reminiscent of modern barges. There was also a change in writing, now instead of a combination of horizontal and vertical wedges, ideographic signs were written, here the signs denoted not words and concepts, but the sounds of speech, but the wedge-shaped letter never turned into the alphabet, and looking ahead I will say that only in the sixth century BC AD The Persians who conquered Mesopotamia were able to create an alphabet. The religious views of ancient Babylonian society influenced literature, science, and fine arts. In total, 100 different gods were worshiped in Babylon, not counting the spirits of rivers, lakes, mountains, etc. The most revered Gods: Enlil - God of the earth, Anul - the main God of Uruk, God of the sky, Ea - the main God of Eridu, God of the sea. In the third millennium, the priests united them into a “trinity” that rules the world. The guardians of the cults were the priests. During the ritual, the priests were assisted by the entire temple staff, from singers, musicians to dancers and poets. The positions of priests were inherited and were always well paid. As for literature, its content is in one way or another connected with religion, most of it is associated with liturgical and magical texts, the rest of the finds tell about mythological legends. Myths tell about the origin of the world, people, agriculture, and settled life. The highest achievement of Babylonian fiction is the epic poem about Gilgamesh, the legendary king of Urun. The poem depicts him in the image of a giant hero, handsome and sage; two parts in him were from God, and one from man. Together with his friend, he accomplished a number of feats, he became so famous that the goddess Ishtar fell in love with him, and Gilgamesh rejected her, for which the goddess Ishtar struck Enkida, Gilgamesh’s friend, with illness and death. Then Gilgamesh decides to comprehend the secret of life and death. He decides to travel to the land of the gods. He met Ut-Napishtim there, who told him how he himself received immortality: during his reign in Shuruppan, the gods were angry with people and sent a global flood to them (you can see how this myth resembles our biblical legends), all people died and remained Ut-Napishtim alone with his wife and children, when the water receded, the gods took him to themselves. In conclusion, Ut-Napishtim asks Gilgamin: “Which of the gods will introduce you to the host of immortals?”, but no one was found. Then Gilgamin tries to overcome death by magical means, but this also fails. Gilgamin returns to his homeland and calls Enkidu from the land of the dead to find out the fate of the dead. The end of the poem is lost, but still the meaning of the poem is great. This first poem does not solve problems of life and death, but is critical of religion. Works of moralizing literature were also found, one of the most interesting is “Conversation between a Master and a Slave,” which reflects the decomposition of the slave-owning elite. The works of secular literature include royal records of historical content. They tell about who, when, dug the canal, built the dam, or talk about the accession of the next king to the throne, about his reforms, about victories in wars, etc. Here we see how interest in literature has increased and what a powerful leap the inhabitants of Mesopotamia have made in this area from clay tablets with calculations of the amount of grain to the most interesting poems. When describing the ancient Babylonian culture, one cannot fail to mention the scientific knowledge of this people, especially since it had practical applications in everyday life and the economy. The astronomy techniques of the ancient Babylonians are the basis of Greek and Arab astronomy, which in turn formed the basis of European astronomy. The guardians of this knowledge were the priests. They imagined the universe like this - the Earth is a round mountain standing in the middle of the world's oceans, the celestial sphere rises above the earth, like an overturned thicket, above it there is a celestial dam - the dwelling of the gods. Eclipses of the moon and sun were explained by the fact that the moon and sun were obscured by evil spirits. By the beginning of the second millennium, Babylonian astronomers identified five planets - Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, Saturn. And the stars were distributed among the constellations, then twelve constellations “on the path of the sun” were identified from all of them. (zodiac constellations) Based on astronomical observations, a calendar system was developed. Practical needs led at the beginning of the second millennium to the development of mathematical knowledge; they knew the four rules of arithmetic: squaring and taking the square root; some geometric provisions that were used in measuring areas. But the big obstacle on the way is the decimal number system - one, 60, 3600 with auxiliary divisions 10,600. This system was obtained during the development of time counting: 7 - days of the lunar phase 12 - number of months in a year 12 * 5 = 60 The presence of this number shows a connection with the primitive system of counting by fingers. The sexagesimal system was finally developed in connection with the measurement of the apparent daily circular path of the sun across the sky. The Babylonians calculated that if you place disks equal to the solar one along the daily path of the sun, you will get 180 of them, and 360 in a day. Everything came down to the formula: the sun takes 360 steps in its circle per day. This division began to be applied to any circle; it was later borrowed by the Romans and passed into European geometry - dividing a circle into 360 degrees. The Babylonians divided the month into 4 parts according to the phases of the moon, the seven-day week was established according to the seven great gods - the sun, the moon and five planets visible to the naked eye, the days of the week were named after these gods. The seven-day week of the Romans became the property of all European peoples. In general, Babylon, according to scientists, was the most powerful kingdom in Mesopotamia. But in 539 BC. e. Without resistance, Babylon surrendered to the Iranian king Cyrus. Cyrus destroyed the last representatives of the reigning house and declared himself king of Babylonia. He published a manifesto in which Cyrus promised to preserve the old order in Babylonia, honor its gods and promote the development of the city. It is impossible to ignore the history of the development of the northern part of Mesopotamia, located along the middle reaches of the Tigris. There are 350 km. North of Babylon in the 3rd millennium, Semitic immigrants from Akkad founded settlements with the cities of Assur, Kerkuk, and Nuzi. Rulers of the ancient East. Even then, Assur had trade relations with its neighbors - the Asia Minor region of Cappadonia, this was explained by the fact that Babylon, Syria and Palestine did not have their own metal deposits. I have already mentioned that the natural conditions of the northern Mesopotamia differ significantly from the southern one. Here the Tigris and Euphrates are at a great distance from each other, approximately 400 km, so their spills are not so common. Also, the mountains here approach the Tiger itself. Due to these conditions, agriculture in Assyria depended on rain. And the tribes living in the mountains were engaged in cattle breeding and hunting. The presence of iron in the mountains was of particular importance for Assyria. Iron tools and weapons created advantages in technology and military affairs for the Assyrians. The Assyrian kingdom flourished in the 15th century. The basis of Assyrian society was communal life. In addition to cultivating their lands, communities had to work on the construction of canals, temples and palaces. In the XIV - XIII centuries. The first collection of Assyrian laws appeared, which supported private land ownership. Fines and criminal penalties were established for violation of private property rights. The main enemies of Assyria since the end of the 12th century. There were Arameans. They advanced from Syria to the Euphrates and founded the strong kingdom of Bit-Adini. From here the Arameans began devastating raids into Assyria. Following the Arameans, an enemy appeared from the north - tribes living in the region of present-day Armenia, the Assyrians called them Urartians. By the 10th century, the pressure on Assyria began to weaken, because Some of the Arameans settled in the valleys, built their own settlements, gradually they mixed with the local population and the invasions were no longer renewed. Assyria recovered from devastation and disasters and at the end of the 10th century. The Assyrian kings themselves went on the offensive against the mountain tribes and Urartians. Thousands of slaves were invited to Assyria. Then the foundation of the future great Assyrian power was laid. From the middle of the 13th century. Assyria is ruled by the most outstanding kings who have shown the talent of commanders: chariots with charioteers armed with spears; cavalry and infantry armed with spears, shields and bows. In addition, there were special units of excavators (building siege structures), builders of pontoon bridges on wineskins, and sapper units. Not only slaves, but also hired foreigners were warriors. Tiglath and Sargon carried out the main campaigns of conquest. The first conquered all of Syria with Damascus and annexed Babylonia to Assyria. Inflicted a heavy defeat on the kingdom of Urartu, which was formed in this era. Sargon, having secured support from Syria and Palestine, destroyed the Israeli state and the Hittite principalities. And he completely defeated the army of Urartu. In 671, Sargon's successor, Asargadon, subjugated Egypt. Due to frequent wars, changes occurred in the economic life of Assyria: with the influx of huge masses of military booty and tribute, trade grew rapidly. However, the conquest of Egypt was the last military success of the Assyrian power since the middle of the seventh century; its power was in decline and Assyria was perishing, weakened by the internal crisis and uprisings of the conquered countries. In 605, the remnants of the Assyrian army were destroyed, and Assyria came under the rule of the Median king. All that remained of the cities were the ruins of palaces, but the works of art that decorated the buildings were well preserved. Among such works, a special place is occupied by winged bulls depicting spirits. The influence of Egypt is noticeable in them, but in some respects the Assyrian artists surpassed their teachers. In general, one cannot speak of a completely independent Assyrian culture. The basis of the Assyrian people were people from Akkad, which is why we find Babylonian elements in religion and literature. The Assyrian religion features the same gods who served in Babylonia. One of the last kings, Ashubanipal, collected a library of Summerian and Babylonian literary works in his palace. Moreover, the “books” were arranged by subject and year of publication. The king sent messengers to the temples to replenish the library. The result was a library that preserved everything significant that was created in Mesopotamia over the two and a half thousand years of the country's history. Architecture also developed: already in the 9th century, the Assyrians began building palaces decorated with images of military operations and the world life of kings with their gardens, ponds and wives, entourage and slaves. The Assyrians loved precision in detail, unlike the Babylonian artists, where art was symbolic.

URARTU

And yet there was a time when the power of the Assyrian power was undeniable; in the Anterior Arya there was a people who won the fight against the formidable Assyria; we are talking about the tribes that inhabited the mountain valleys of Transcaucasia. The history of the kingdom of Urartu is of particular importance because... it included the southwestern regions of Transcaucasia and Armenia, in the area of ​​lakes Van and Urman. The first mention of the tribes of Urartu dates back to the first half of the 13th century BC. e., then eight small countries were described conquered by the Assyrian king Salmonassar I. But the Urartian tribes fought for independence in the first half of the 9th century. Became a unified Urartian kingdom. Numerous signatures inscribed on the rocks with wedge-shaped signs borrowed from Assyria, which have survived to this day on the territory of Armenia, tell about him. The population of Urartu lived in a tribal system. The kings captured large areas of land. New fortresses were built in the kingdom; one of them is on the banks of the Araks in Armenia. The fortress was surrounded by basalt walls. Urartu reached its greatest power in the eighth century under the kingdom of Sadur II. He defeated the Assyrian king Amurnirapi. But after the death of Sadur, unrest began and some regions began to be disconnected from Urartu, and the power of the Urartian kingdom finally fell in 714. at the hands of Sargon. After the fall of the kingdom of Urartu, dominance on its territory temporarily passed to the Armenian tribe. In the II century. BC. The unification of the Armenian lands took place and the Armenian kingdom was formed. The economy and culture of the kingdom of Urartu were similar to those of Assyria. Gardens and vineyards were planted on royal and temple lands, and lakes - reservoirs and a network of canals were built to irrigate them, supplying water to fields, mountain settlements and fortresses. Along with agriculture, cattle breeding and horse breeding were developed. Craft workshops existed only at temples and palaces; artistic works of artisans were distributed through merchants outside the kingdom of Urartu. The masters of this kingdom were skilled blacksmiths and inventive builders. Some cities had a regular rectangular layout and were built according to a pre-constructed plan. The style of local buildings was similar to later Greek. The inventions of Urartian engineers and builders were adopted by the peoples of Western Asia. The culture of the kingdom of Urartu was created under the influence of Assyrian culture. The wedge-shaped script was borrowed from the Assyrians. Bronze objects were cast using a special method that differed from the Assyrian technique, but the decoration was made according to Assyrian models: winged bulls adorned the king’s throne, and bronze dishes were decorated with winged female figures. This style subsequently spread widely in Western Asia. So, the history of Urartu, which spanned 300 years, is full of bright events, and the confrontation between Urartu and Assyria played an important role in the history of Western Asia. It was the Urartians who forced the Assyrians to rebuild their economy on a military scale. And the desperate struggle of the Babylonian kingdom with the Central Asian powers gave time for the creation of a state for the peoples of the Iranian Plateau. Many scientists believe that the civilization of ancient Greece would not have developed if the Assyrian armies had reached the shores of the Aegean Sea!

EGYPT

Egypt was a narrow valley of the Nile River. Mountains rise from the west and east. The western mountains separate the Nile Valley from the Sahara Desert, and behind the eastern mountains stretches the shores of the Red Sea. In the south, the Nile Valley runs into the mountains (of present-day Nubia). Here the Nile's flow is blocked by steep rapids. In the north, the valley widens and ends with the Nile Delta. This geographical location is significantly better compared to Mesopotamia. The mountains were rich in building stone - granite, basalt, limestone. Gold was mined in the eastern mountains. In the Nile Valley, valuable tree species grew - tamarisk, sycamore trunks of which were used in shipping. The Nile flows into the Mediterranean Sea - the main artery of the countries of the ancient world. And the conditions for agriculture in Egypt were more favorable than in Mesopotamia. Thanks to the Nile floods, the soil of Egypt was fertilized and the flood provided abundant irrigation. The moss-covered land was fertile, so the Nile was deified by the aborigines. The cult of the Nile is still sacredly observed today. Thanks to the mountains and sea surrounding the valley, Egypt did not experience devastating invasions like Babylonia in its history. The main occupation of the ancient population of the valley was farming, hunting and fishing. The first grain cultivated in Egypt was barley, then wheat and flax began to be grown. Just like in Mesopotamia, irrigation structures were built in Egypt in the form of pools with walls made of knocked down earth and coated with clay. During a spill, water flowed into the pools, and people disposed of it as needed. To maintain this complex system, regional control centers called “nomes” were created. They were ruled by norms (they gave instructions on the preparation of fields for sowing, monitored the harvest and distributed the harvest to the population throughout the year. The Egyptians rarely prepared food at home, it was customary to take grain to the canteens, several villages were fed there. A special official made sure that the cooks did not steal and the stew was poured out equally. The abundance of grain in the country made it possible to free people from working in the fields and use them as builders and warriors. At the head of the Egyptian army was the pharaoh. In the conquered country, a person loyal to Egypt ascended to the throne. The main goal of the war was war booty - slaves , cattle, rare wood, ivory, gold, precious stones. For example, copper was brought from the Sinai Peninsula. The wealth accumulated by the pharaohs made it possible to build a lot, majestically and beautifully as no one in the Ancient East could. In general, the history of Egypt is usually divided into several periods.

ANCIENT KINGDOM III-VI DYNASTY

Characterized by a slave system. Peasants were a small stratum of society and lived in communities. The rest of the population was the top of the government and those close to them - nomes, priests, etc. In the ancient kingdom, private property and temple land ownership developed rapidly. The country was ruled by a priestly senate, and the pharaoh was the executor of this power. The capital of Egypt during the reign of the founder of the Third Dynasty was Memphis. The two dynasties of the ancient kingdom (III-IV) were long-lived and ruled for 200 years. The time of their reign was marked by the construction of majestic pyramids, which, due to their size, were considered one of the wonders of the world until the end of the 19th century. Its height reached 146.5 m. In one complex with the royal borders there is a huge statue of the sphinx. All these buildings were not only subordinated to religious chains, but also political ones, as evidence of power and magnitude. Historians claim that the pyramids took 40 years to build, of which 20 years were spent extracting the material and 20 years for the construction itself. Given the low level of technology, the construction of pyramids was labor-intensive, and a large number of workers died. Popular discontent began to grow and subsequent dynasties built smaller pyramids, and their dignitaries generally abandoned this privilege. Ultimately, popular discontent led to the fall of the Fourth Dynasty. Dan, by the end of the IV dynasty, the power of the pharaoh weakened, and the temples became the rulers of entire regions. At the same time, the custom of hereditary transfer of the position of nomarch was strengthened.

A period of unrest. Dynasties VII-XI During their reign, the power of the pharaohs passed into the hands of the priests of Ra and the process of weakening the central government further intensified. Now each temple began to strive for independence. During the “unrest” four dynasties were replaced. The unity of Egypt was broken and it broke up into separate nomes. There was armed struggle everywhere. Slaves and peasants rebelled. They destroyed the tombs of rulers and other structures.

Middle Kingdom of the 11th and 12th Dynasties After a period of unrest and collapse that lasted for about the 3rd centuries, Egypt again united into one kingdom. Unity was dictated by living conditions: Violation of the unified irrigation system, which led to the decline of agriculture, which threatened famine and death of Egypt. The process of unification began in the gentle city of Nut-Amon (Thebes). However, during the 11th dynasty, the unification was not strong and unrest began again in the north because residents of poor neighborhoods huddled in adobe dwellings, backbreaking labor on the lands and construction sites of the ruling elite could not ensure the existence of the peasant. The exactions of the priests became unbearable, the peasants were confiscated from their crops, which he was taking to the market, and from their donkeys, and they beat him mercilessly. This tense situation led to the fall of the 12th Dynasty. It was followed by an era of uprising of peasants, artisans and slaves, who destroyed the social system of the middle kingdom.

Troubles and domination of the Hyksos. Dynasties XIII-XVII This period lasted 80 years. The state of Egypt in this era is described in one literary monument, “The Speech of Ipuwer.” It tells about the greatest disaster that befell Egypt, as a result of the misrule of the king and the people's forgetting of the fear of the gods and the duties imposed by religion. The mass uprising of peasants sweeping all of Egypt is depicted. The rebels settled in the houses of the masters, and they were forced to work for themselves. The tsar's house was left without income, the temples without offerings. But from the records it is not clear what kind of power the peasants organized, but the fact that the revolutionary movement was not well organized can be traced. And the bloody internal struggle continues in the country. Nomadic tribes took advantage of this circumstance. The conquerors are called "Hyksos" in Egyptian writings. The capital of the Hyksos lasted 150 years and was overthrown by the first Pharaohs of the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom of the XVIII - XX Dynasties After many years of struggle, the liberation and unification of Egypt was completed in 1560 by the Theban king Ahmose. Eleu managed to unite Egypt in fact, because. the people helped him. Changes were made to the system of government of the country: two viziers were appointed, one for the south, the other for the north. All local state and municipal authorities were required to submit periodic reports to the vizier. The military system was transformed, the number of troops was reduced, but the troops were formed into garrisons throughout the country, the ranks of the command staff received land plots. The army of Ahmose was a faithful support of his power. Ahmose's campaigns were the beginning of great campaigns of conquest that led to the formation of the great Egyptian military power. Palestine and Syria were conquered. Their final conquest was continued by their follower, Pharaoh Thutmose III. He continued his campaigns on the Nile and the west, and subjugated part of Libya. At the end of his reign, Thutmose made a campaign into Nubia and moved the Egyptian border south to the four cataracts of the Nile. This is how the great Egyptian military power was created by Tatmose III. It lasted 200 years, but the last few years were spent in a fierce struggle to preserve it and ended in its collapse.

The period of the collapse of Egypt XXI-XXVI dynasties In 1071, the high priest of Amon Herihor overthrew Pharaoh Ramesses XIII and proclaimed himself pharaoh. Thus began the XXI Dynasty. In 941, Egypt was again united under the rule of the Libyan dynasty and then under the rule of the Ethiopian dynasty from Nubia, which in the middle 8th century. Detached from Egypt. Ethiopian rule lasted until 671, when Egypt was conquered by Assyria. But the Assyrian power also lasted for 20 years. The prince of the Sais nome in the Delta Psametikh, a descendant of a noble Libyan family, freed Egypt from the subjugation of Assyria and united all of Egypt, thus began the last dynasty and for 125 years Egypt last existed as an independent state. The era of the Sans dynasty was the heyday of Egyptian trade and the rise of Egyptian culture. At first, literature was independent of religious basis. Numerous expeditions along the Nile and sea voyages fed the artistic imagination of sculptors, the abundance of building and sculptural stone in architecture, sculpture and artistic craft. Writing appeared very early in Egypt at the end of the 5th millennium BC. - signs in the form of pictures denoted entire concepts and short phrases. Over time, the meanings of the signs changed and more simplified signs appeared - hieroglyphs. Egyptian writing in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. served as the basis for the Phoenician alphabetic letter, which contained only twenty-four characters. Technology and science. Huge pyramids were built according to pre-prepared plans and calculations of architects. The scope of construction work required preliminary calculations in large numbers. In this regard, a system of signs developed to indicate the numbers 1, 10, 100, in the decimal system up to 10,000,000. Egyptian astronomers studied the sky and compiled lists of stars according to their relative positions. The Egyptian calendar was solar, through observations over a number of years it was established: the moment of coincidence of the sunrise and Sirius is repeated after 365 days, and from here a year of 365 days was established. They divided it into twelve months, with 3 days in the month and an additional 5 days at the end of the year for holidays. But such a year was 6 hours behind the solar year, and therefore, over the centuries, the Egyptian calendar diverged from the usual one and aligned only after 1460 years. Subsequently, the Egyptian calendar was borrowed from Rome by Julius Caesar, he introduced an improvement into it by establishing leap years of 366 days for every four years. The Egyptians achieved significant success in medicine. The custom of embalming corpses and their autopsy made it possible to study human anatomy. This circumstance, in turn, provided the basis for the development of physiology and scientific medicine. Egyptian doctors looked for the causes of diseases in changes in blood vessels. The history of ancient Egypt as an independent state ends in 528. When it was conquered by Kombiz and since then it has lost its independence for a long time.

PHOENICIA

This is a narrow coastal part of Syria. In ancient times, there were up to 10 coastal cities located here. The cities were inhabited by the same people. The Greeks called them Phoenicians. They were famous as traders and sailors, and their art and culture date back to the second half of the fourth millennium BC. The ancestors of the Phoenicians were tribes in the southern regions of Palestine. They were divided into a number of communities closely related to the Arab Edomites and the Israelite Jewish tribes. In the second half of the 4th millennium, tribes began to move to the northern regions along the Mediterranean coast. These tribes founded the cities of Gebal, Sidon and Ugarit. The first king was Keret in Sidon. He had his own army, but since the Phoenician kingdoms did not unite into one state, each city had its own ruler. During the 1.5 period from the founding of the Phoenician kingdoms until the conquest of Palestine and Syria by Thutlios III, the Phoenician kingdoms were independent. During this era, the first place was occupied by the kingdoms of Gebal and Ugarit. Gebal had constant trade relations with Egypt and Crete. Cities flourished and were built with temples and palaces. The merchants lived in stone houses, richly furnished and with family tombs in the basements. But the middle of the second millennium begins the dependence of the Phoenician kingdoms on Egypt and on the Hittites, who conquer Syria. Since that time, Phenicia has been in decline. And with the weakening of Egypt and the decline of the Hittite kingdom at the end of the 13th century, the Phoenicians were able to regain their independence. And Tire becomes the main city of the Phoenician kingdom. He had a large fleet and conducted brisk trade throughout the Mediterranean Sea. The city itself turned into an impregnable fortress, withstanding the fight against the Assyrians. Carthage joins the previous positions of Tire, which soon also becomes an independent state. The period of independence of Phenicia ended in the 8th century. And since then, in turn, it came under the rule of the great ancient powers - Assyria, Chaldea, Persia, Macedonia, Seleucids and Rome. The economic system of the Phoenician cities is not from the system established in Syria. The main occupation of the population was agriculture; they planted bread and grapes. Foreign merchants bought surplus grain. The peasants lived in a communal system, the communities supplied the king with grain, flour, wine and livestock. Work was also introduced for the king's house. In the coastal parts of the kingdom, working communities remained. The property of the Phoenician kingdom was trade. In the first half of the second century, a large layer of merchants appeared in the Phoenician kingdoms. They conducted purely intermediary trade. Among the wide variety of goods brought for sale or exchange to different countries from the products of Phenicia itself, bread, wine, and Lebanese timber are mentioned. All other goods were bought or exchanged in other countries. This is how the Phoenician merchants gained fame as the first traders of the then world. I have already mentioned that the Phoenicians were also famous as the best and bravest sailors. Already at the end of the 4th millennium, they undertook long sea voyages to the southwest to Egypt, and north along the Aegean Sea to the major centers of the Cretan-Mycenaean world. And since the 2nd millennium they cross the Mediterranean Sea and reach Spain and reach the Strait of Gibraltar. The writings of the navigator Hanno, who sailed to the western coast of Africa to present-day Cameroon, have reached us. But, as history tells, sea voyages were undertaken by the Phoenicians only for peaceful purposes; when the opportunity presented itself, they resorted to robbery and robbery of tribes. At those points where they received valuable goods or where it was possible to arrange intermediate stations for ships, the Phoenicians founded their colonies, which later became large trading cities. Shipbuilding was widely developed in the cities of Phenicia - Tire, Sidon and Gebala. They built ships for the kings of other states, for example for the Persian kings. The culture of Phenicia is very original. We learn about it from excavations in Ras Shaler and at the site of Gebal. Religion is characterized by two directions: state and folk or peasant. In each kingdom there were cults of state gods - Baal and Baalat. For example, in Gebal these are Adonis and Ashtarta, in Tyre - Melqart, etc. And the peasant religion is characterized by the cults of the gods of vegetation and fertility. As a rule, the patron gods of the kingdoms were also endowed with the functions of fertility gods. Everywhere the main holiday of the official cult was the holiday associated with the beginning of the agricultural season. Phoenician literature developed religious themes. Almost all works were ritual texts. Phoenician writing originated at the beginning of the 2nd millennium in the form of hieroglyphs. Later there was a transition to an alphabet of 28 wedge-shaped signs denoting consonants. I already wrote about the significance of this writing in the section on Egyptian culture. In Gebal and Ugarit, many examples of Phoenician art were discovered - statues and figurines of deities, various objects made of gold and silver, bronze and wood. They say that Phoenician artists began by imitating Egyptian models, and then moved on to reworking motifs borrowed from Egypt in a local style. As a result, by the beginning of the 2nd millennium, the Syrian style had developed. And in the second half of the second millennium, the works of Phoenician artists were influenced by examples of Hittite and Cretan-Mycenaean art. The composition on the sarcophagus of the Gebal king Archiramus is considered highly artistic. Phoenician art had a great influence on the art of other Syrian countries and Palestinian peoples, especially Israeli-Jewish art.

Hittite kingdom

Formed at the beginning of the 2nd millennium. Its territory was the region of Asia Minor, located along the Galis River, with its capital - the city of Hattus. There lived many different tribes related to Asian origin. The Hittite language has much in common with the languages ​​of the Indo-European peoples. From clay “tablets” deciphered by the Czech scientist B. the Terrible, we learn about one of the first kings of the Hittites: Tabanu, who ruled at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, and Murmila I. The latter, during the reign of the king of the first Babylonian dynasty, invaded Babylon and plundered the city, then it was taken away many prisoners. He also made a successful campaign in Syria. After Murmil, a troubled period begins. Civil strife among members of the royal house over the throne weakened the Hittite kingdom. But order was quickly restored under Telepin. He suppressed the uprising, and the instigators of the unrest were sold into slavery. From the middle of the 15th century, the Hittite kingdom again became a strong military power, its squads conquered the entire territory of Asia Minor and strengthened themselves in Syria. Around 1200, Asia Minor, like Egypt, Palestine and Syria, was subject to invasion by “sea peoples” and in the 8th century. were finally destroyed by King Sargon. The main occupation of the Hittites was cattle breeding. But they also grew bread and grapes. The social structure of the Hittite kingdom has much in common with the structure of the Old Babylonian kingdom. There are 21 articles on slavery in the Hittite law records. Hittite culture is represented by monuments of writing, art and architecture. The Hittite script was hieroglyphic, created by the Hittites themselves. His beautiful signs look like drawings. Like other ancient peoples, the religion of the “tops” and the people were different. Only the cult of the goddess Mother Nature was revered by all the Hittite people. The development of Hittite fine art was influenced by Babylonian-Assyrian art. The relief sculptures reflect the Hittite folk type, and the images of domestic and wild animals differ sharply in their massiveness from the light figures of Assyrian art. Statues depicting the king, sphinxes, and lions are distinguished by the roughness of their images. The ruins of the Hittite capital Hattushama testify to the high level of Hittite building art. The Habiru tribes, Jewish tribes united in the 2nd millennium BC, begin to invade Syria and Palestine from across the Jordan. under the name Israel. Their unification ends in Palestine with the formation of the first Israeli kingdom. In addition to the Canoanites, part of the Argoreans settled in the northern part of Palestine. After the resettlement, the Israeli tribes retained their tribal way of life, but soon there was a transition from cattle breeding to agriculture. Tribal communities are turning into rural communities. The tribes begin to live settled lives. In the XII-XI centuries. The Palestinian coast is captured by the Philistines. They were armed with iron swords and armor. Having captured the Palestinian coast, the Philistines built the fortified cities of Gaza and Azat there, forming several principalities. The fight against the Philistines united the Israelite tribes into one state. The Bible describes the reign of Saul and David and the unification of Southern and Central Canaan. After expelling the Philistines, David made several trips to the north. David made the city of Urishamere (now Jerusalem) the capital of his kingdom; the sanctuary of the god Judah was built there. David's successor was his son Solomon. Solomon's kingdom was divided into 12 districts. Each district was ruled by a city chief. He collected taxes and sent them to the king's house. He established trade relations not only with Phenicia, but also with Egypt, Syria and Arabia. From these countries they received horses, slaves, gold, silver, precious stones, and fragrant oils. He started a large harem, one of his wives was the daughter of the pharaoh. Life for ordinary people was also difficult, as in many states of Syria and Palestine. Slaves built magnificent temples, and ordinary peasants were taken to forced labor. Gradually, dissatisfaction with Solomon began to grow. The movement against Solomon was led by Jerabeam, a noble man who supervised the work on the king’s house. Solomon wanted to execute Jerabiam, but he managed to escape to Egypt. After the death of Solomon, the leaders of the northern tribes contributed to the division of Canoan into two kingdoms: Judah, in which the Davidic dynasty was preserved, and the kingdom of Ephraim (Israel), in which dynasties often changed. In 722, the Assyrian king Sargon destroyed the capital of Israel, Shomeron, and the kingdom of Israel ceased to exist. The Kingdom of Judah lasted longer, almost a century and a half. After the fall of the kingdom of Israel, the kings of Judah were forced to recognize the supreme authority of the Assyrian king over themselves. By this time, the influence of Assyrian culture was spreading in Judah, penetrating even into religion: the stones of heavenly bodies were introduced into the Jerusalem temple. The kings of Judah paid heavy tribute to Assyria. Kings changed, but neither reforms nor the nationalization of religious cults saved the kingdom of Judah. External wars were added to the peasant revolts. The Egyptian pharaoh Necho moved against Judah. In 586 Jerusalem was destroyed. The temples were burned, and the entire population, except the poor, was taken into slavery in Babylonia. The kingdom of Judah ceased to exist.

Culture of Israel and Judah

The Israeli people created their own culture, which subsequently influenced European culture. The Christian religion in Europe arose under the influence of the Jews, and the plots and images of biblical literature served as a source of inspiration and creativity for many works of European poets, writers and artists. The religion of Israel and Judah also has much in common with the Phoenician religion. For example, the main god of Judah, Jahave, and Elyon are the same person, they are endowed with the same functions. The rituals of folk religion were located according to the annual cycle of agricultural work: the holiday of the beginning of the harvest, harvesting fruits, etc. A great literature was created in Israel and Judah. In the field of mythology, it was imitative: myths about the origin of the world and the first people were taken from Babylonian mythological poems. In the field of narrative literature there were original works, such as stories about the origins of the Israelite tribes and their history before the formation of the kingdom. They are based on folk tales and legends. In Judah, stories about kings David and Solomon were compiled for the purpose of glorifying them. At the court of the Israeli kings there were chroniclers who described the lives of the monarchs, and with the appearance of the prophets they recorded their legends and sayings. The literature of that time included worldly wisdom, folk tales and songs. The collection of wedding songs has gained worldwide fame.

The origins of Indian culture

A special feature is the sharp isolation of India from other countries. It is separated from the north by the Himalayas, from the west by the Arabian Sea, from the east by the Bay of Bengal, and from the south by the Indian Ocean. Therefore, India's development was slow and very isolated. But despite this, the Dravidian culture is superior to the Egyptian, and in some respects, even to the Sumerian. The Dravidians tamed camels, buffaloes and horses 1000 years earlier than the Near Eastern peoples. Already in the 4th millennium they were familiar with the making of bronze, while the Summerians switched to it in the 3rd, and the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium. The level of construction among the Dravidians was also higher than that of the Sumerians. The Dravidians built houses from baked bricks, while the Sumerians built houses from raw bricks. The high level of civilization of the peoples of India is confirmed by the presence of water supply and sewerage in the cities. The ancient tribes of India knew how to make boats and oars and traded with Babylonia through Elam. Along with trade, crafts developed. They produced bronze weapons and jewelry. The dishes were made on a potter's wheel, covered with a thin glaze and painted with several colors of paint. The Dravidian religion has retained its primitive forms. They considered the bull to be a sacred animal. However, the dominant form of religion was the cult of the elements, the forces of nature. The Dravidians created their script in the form of pictograms with 400 characters. They counted using the decimal system, just like the Egyptians. At the end of the 3rd millennium, Aryan tribes related to the Persians came from the Central Asian steppes to the Upper Indus Valley. At this time, the Aryans were far behind the Dravidians in cultural development, despite this they became the dominant class, and the Dravidians turned into servants, into a lower race, as the Aryans believed. As a result, the cultural development of the Dravidians was slowed down. “The Dassu tribes live around us, they do not make sacrifices, they do not believe in anything, they have different rituals, they cannot be considered people,” says the Vedas. With the development of the division of labor, the nobility began to stand out from the common people. Gradually, this division of society turned into castes. There were 4 castes: Brahmans - priests Kshatriya - military Vaishya - peasants Shudra - servants. Moreover, religion supported divisions into castes. According to Brahmanical teaching, the soul of a person after death moves into some creature. The character of a creature depends on a person’s behavior during life: if he fulfilled all religious and state regulations, then his soul will move into a brahmana, if he has sins, then into a vaishya, if there are many sins, into a sudra. As for other forms of ideology, by this period the Indians knew an alphabetic script of 51 letters. In the field of mathematics, the decimal number system was developed - zero was invented. They had extensive knowledge of medicine: surgeons were especially skilled. They could cut out tumors, remove eyesores, and in linguistics the Indians surpassed all ancient Eastern peoples: dictionaries and other works on grammar were compiled. In the VI century. A new religion began to emerge in India - Buddhism. Spiritual culture in India is flourishing, philosophy and temple literature are emerging. Buddhist temples carved into rocks amaze with their enormous size, rounded lines, geometric shapes and images on the vault. Thanks to Indian traders, Buddhism spread to Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia and China.

ANCIENT CHINA

China, with its colossal size, resembles India, and is equal in area to Europe. The culture of China developed in accordance with natural conditions, for example, the Great Plain of China became the birthplace of the Ancient Chinese civilization. In 1893, bronze weapons and utensils were already found in China. Economy of this period: the development of hunting and cattle breeding. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Irrigation and plow farming begins to play an important role in the economy. Wheat, barley and rice were cultivated. Since the mulberry tree was cultivated in China, it became the birthplace of sericulture and paper. The technical process of processing silkworms was kept secret, the disclosure of which was punishable by death. Only 2.5 thousand years later, sericulture penetrated into Japan and Persia. Pottery and trade gradually developed. The function of money was performed by a precious shell - cowrie. In the 18th century A patterned writing arose, with about 30,000 characters. They wrote on bamboo sticks, split into pieces, thus forming a vertical line, characteristic of Chinese writing. In conclusion, I would like to highlight the importance of Eastern culture for European countries. So, the eastern peoples were the first in history to create powerful states and luxurious temples, books and irrigation canals. From the Sumerians we inherited knowledge about the creation of the world and the principles of constructing irrigation structures. From Babylon - dividing the year into 12 months, the hour into minutes and seconds, the circle into 360 degrees, the principles of arranging libraries. Egypt taught the world to mummify corpses and gave physiology and anatomy. From the Hittite language came Slavic, Germanic, and Romance. The Phoenicians compiled the glass formula and were the first to stretch a thread of trade relations across the Mediterranean Sea. They determined the seasons. The Bible came to us from Judea. The military art of Assyria gave rise to the modern construction of pantons and hovercraft. The works of the great philosophers of China are still studied in all educational institutions of the world.

Nature told the woman: be beautiful if you can, wise if you want, but you must certainly be prudent.

In Shelley’s famous poem “Ozymandias,” a fragment of a statue lies in the desert, on the pedestal of which are written the boastful words: “I am Ozymandias, I am the mighty king of kings! Look at my great deeds, Lords of all times, all countries and all seas!” But the name of this king was forgotten. And there are many similar examples.

1. Lugalzagesi

The civilization of ancient Sumer was located in the rich lands between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. But in 2330 B.C. the region faced massive destruction. The "culprit" was Lugalzagesi, the ruler of Umma. Before he inherited the throne, Lugalzagesi was a priest of the goddess Nisaba and (as historians believe) a fanatic obsessed with conquest and destruction. Soon after he inherited the throne of Umma, Lugalzagesi also became king of Uruk, probably through dynastic marriage. He then conquered the neighboring city-state of Lagash, after which he sacked and burned its palace and temples.

But Lugalzagesi did not stop at conquering Lagash, also conquering Ur, Zabala and Niipur and essentially becoming the ruler of all of Sumer. His troops carried out raids from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea:. Lugalzagesi's conquests soon brought him into conflict with Sargon the Ancient, king of Akkad. Sargon's well-trained troops defeated the primitive armies of Sumer. Lugalzagesi was put in chains and sent to Nippur. Soon everyone forgot about him, and Sargon eventually founded the first large empire in history, becoming the king of Akkad and Sumer.

2. Mode

Horses were first domesticated on the great Eurasian steppe, an endless ocean of grass stretching from Mongolia to Eastern Europe. The nomadic horsemen of this plain were repeatedly united by various great rulers, after which the horde went on to conquer the “civilized world”. Some of these conquerors became famous (Attila, Genghis Khan and Tamerlane), but Mode, who was one of the earliest conquerors, is almost completely forgotten today. Mode's father, Touman, was a shanyu (ruler) of the Xiongnu (or Huns), who at that time lived in the territory of modern Mongolia. Touman disliked Mode very much and planned to send his son on a hopeless raid against the Yuezhi so that Mode would be killed. As a result, Mode figured out his plan and killed his father, as well as his brothers and sisters, becoming the ruler of the Huns.

Mode immediately began a campaign of conquest against the Donghu and Yuezhi, eventually forming a huge empire that stretched across the entire eastern steppes. In 200 BC, he lured the troops of the Chinese Emperor Han Gao-Tzu into an ambush and forced him to sign a humiliating treaty. The Chinese had to pay tribute and Gao-Tzu agreed to give his daughter as a concubine to Mode. Mode died in 174 BC, the ruler of an empire that rivaled that of Alexander the Great in size.

3. Uvakhshatra

For many centuries, the mighty Assyrian Empire dominated the ancient Middle East. Its influence even spread to the lands of Media (modern Iran). Many Medes did not like this and eventually a nobleman named Phraortes led a revolt in 653 BC. The rebellion was crushed, Phraortes was executed, and his grieving son Uvakhshatra (also known as Cyaxares) vowed to finish what his father had started. This was not easy, since at the same time the Scythians invaded Media. But Uvakhshatra defeated them by cunning: he invited all the Scythian leaders to a banquet, got them drunk, and then executed them.

Left without command, the Scythians went home. Uvakhshatra then united Media into one kingdom under his command. He reformed the Median army, providing it with new weapons and emphasizing cavalry, of which the Assyrians had very little. In 614 BC. The Medes attacked the Assyrian fortress of Ashur. Over the next two years they took the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, which fell in 612 BC. Cyaxares avenged his father by destroying the largest empire at that time.

4. Nabopolassar

But Uvakhshatra and the Medes were not alone in the great war against Assyria. In order to overthrow such a powerful empire, they formed an alliance with Nabopolassar, a rebel who made himself king of the ancient city of Babylon. Babylon was a real jewel in the Assyrian Empire, but the Assyrians were cruel and greedy rulers, so it is not surprising that the city always sought to restore its former independence. The Babylonians rebelled in 705 BC, but the Assyrian king Sennacherib practically razed the city to the ground.

Another revolt was crushed in 651 BC, with almost equally disastrous consequences. The origins of Nabopolassar were not entirely clear: he himself was born into an unknown tribe of Chaldeans outside Babylon and surviving monuments describe him as “the son of no one.” But he became the leader of a celebrated resistance, waging a guerrilla campaign in the swampy Tigris-Euphrates delta. When the people of Babylon overthrew their ruler in 630 BC, they invited the famous veteran to become their king.

For 15 years, Nabopolassar tried to drive the Assyrians out of Babylonia. By 616 BC. he succeeded and decided to attack Assyria. In 612 BC. he signed a treaty with Cyaxares and their combined forces destroyed Nineveh. After this they divided the Assyrian Empire among themselves. Nabopolassar died in 605 BC, and the neo-Babylonian empire he founded collapsed.

5. Piankhi

In the eighth century BC, the ancient kingdom of Egypt fell into chaos. Insignificant kings seized power over individual cities, and in the north Libyan military leaders, who were not interested in the Egyptian gods, prevailed. At this time, Egyptian culture survived in the Kushite kingdom (in the territory of Nubia or modern Sudan). This powerful African kingdom was heavily influenced by Egypt (and to this day, there are more pyramids in Sudan than in Egypt).

Unlike most of the people on this list, the Kushite pharaoh Pianhi did not like conquest. Although his influence extended to the south of Egypt, he might have been happy to allow the north to develop in its own way. But Piankhi was a true believer and could not allow Amon to be disrespected. That is why he ordered the storming of Egypt, conquered it and became pharaoh.

6. Zu Nuwas

In the sixth century AD, the last Judean king of Arabia watched a bloody battle take place on a beach in modern-day Yemen. His name was Yusuf Al-As "ar, but because of his flowing hair he was usually known as Zu Nawasa ("Lord of the Pace"). Seeing that his enemies had already effectively won, he turned around and spurred his heavily armored horse, sending it towards The Red Sea, after which it was swallowed by the waves.For many decades before the advent of Islam, Yemen was the scene of struggle between Zoroastrian Persia and Christian Byzantium and Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia).

In fact, an Abyssinian governor ruled Yemen before Dhu Nawas seized power. It is possible that his conversion to Judaism was intended to assert independence from both Persia and Abyssinia. In any case, chroniclers agree that he launched a campaign against the Christian Abyssinians in Yemen, slaughtering them wherever possible. By about 525 AD, Dhu Nawas had gained complete control of Yemen. It is not surprising that this did not go unnoticed by Abyssinia and Byzantium, who sent their troops and inflicted a crushing defeat on Zu Nuwas.

7. Brenn

Thanks to Alexander the Great, the Greeks and Macedonians conquered most of the known world. But after Alexander's death in 323 BC, his successors began to quarrel with each other and eventually the great empire collapsed. Just over 40 years later, things had deteriorated to such an extent that an army of Celtic tribes that came from the north sacked his old Macedonian kingdom. The Gauls were led by the leader Brennus, who gathered a large army from different tribes. After the Macedonian kingdom was captured, Brennus (it is believed that this may actually be a title, not a name) offered to go south to even richer Greece.

Panicking, the Greeks formed an alliance and decided to put their combined forces on the pass at Thermopylae, where the notorious 300 Spartans defended themselves against the Persians many years ago. But Brenn was no fool and sent troops to raid Aetolia, which was left defenseless. After this, the Aetolians withdrew from Thermopylae to defend their lands, weakening the forces of the defenders. Brennus then paid the locals to show him the same path that Xerxes had once walked around 300 Spartans. The advance of the Gauls was delayed only by a miracle and the supposed omen of the Delphic oracle, which inspired the Greeks, who launched a counter-offensive.

8. Pachacutec

In the 15th century, the Peruvian people known as the Chancas vigorously expanded their territory. The Chanka had a large and experienced army, as well as talented commanders, and few dared to oppose them. In 1438, the Chanca decided to attack Cuzco, the capital of the Incas. The Inca ruler Viracocha Inca and his heir Urco fled the capital. But Viracocha's son Cusi Yupanqui refused to flee, led the Inca army and somehow managed to defeat the Chanca in battle. After this, he took on a new name, Pachacutec, which means “Earthbreaker.”

His cowardly father was overthrown and his brother was killed, and Pachacutec Yupanqui became ruler and began to transform the Inca state into an empire. He conquered the surrounding cities under the pretext that they had not helped the Incas during the Chanca attack. Having made a solid base for the future empire, he then conquered the vast and ancient provinces of Peru.

When his brother Capac Yupanqui conquered the northern provinces, subjugating the Huanca people, Pachacutec welcomed him with open arms, but then immediately executed him before Capac could become a threat. By Pachacutec's old age, the Incas were the dominant force in Peru. Earthshatter eventually handed over the army to his son and quietly retired to enjoy a quiet life in Cuzco.

9. Zenobia

Very few women ruled in the ancient world, but the few who did tend to be very cruel and unscrupulous. Consider only Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, who was so cruel that she herself led her troops during the attack, and after the victory she often “drank” the men. In the third century AD, Zenobia founded a short-lived empire that stretched from Egypt to Turkey and seemed a real threat to Rome. Her rise to power began when she married Lucius Odaenathus, the Roman governor of Syria.

After this, Zenobia refused to sleep with her husband, except when they conceived their only son. In 266 BC, Lucius was mysteriously murdered, along with his son from a previous marriage. Rather than wait for Rome to appoint a new governor, Zenobia placed her young son on the throne of Palmyra and appointed herself regent. At the time, Rome was ruled by a succession of very short-lived emperors who were too busy trying not to get killed to care about Zenobia. She then turned her attention to Egypt.

Not wanting to completely break with Rome, the queen sent an agent to Egypt, whose goal was to start a rebellion against Rome. Then the uprising began, her army invaded Egypt to “suppress the rebellion and return Egypt to Roman rule,” and in fact annex the country to Palmyra. Unfortunately for her, a Roman army found itself in Egypt, and Zenobia's intentions were revealed after she defeated this army. Soon the entire Roman east swore allegiance to Zenobia. But in Rome, a competent emperor eventually came to power - the old soldier Aurelian, who defeated Zenobia. The Queen of Palmyra was brought to Rome, where she was allowed to live into her old age in quiet obscurity.

10. Eighth Deer Nakuaa or Jaguar Claw

In the 11th century, the Mixtecs were a warring group of city-states on the Pacific coast of Mexico. They chronicled their history in so-called "Codes", which were similar to modern comic books. Many of these codices tell the story of the conqueror Eighth Stag of Nacuaa or Jaguar Claw, who was born into the royal family of Tilantongo, but he was put in line for the throne.

After meeting an oracle at age 18, he entered into a treaty with a group of Toltec merchants who were seeking to acquire coastal goods such as salt and cocoa. Having amassed a fortune, the Eighth Deer of Nakuaa began his conquests. He first captured small villages along the coast before moving on to larger cities inland. As his wealth and power grew, other members of the Tilantongo royal family began to die, eventually making the Eighth Deer the sole contender for the throne.