at the end of the 19th century. England suffered the longest and most severe crisis since 1873. It affected industry, agriculture, trade, and finance. During 1870-1914 it has lost its global industrial monopoly. The country's total industrial production doubled during this time (but globally it quadrupled). Instead of a third of world industrial output (as it was before), England now accounted for only a seventh. In the early 80s, it was overtaken by the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. - Germany. English goods lost their competitiveness in competition with German and American ones. However

England still occupied first place in the world in terms of the volume of capital exports, its merchant fleet remained the world's carrier (half of American goods were transported by English ships). It had a powerful navy. The British pound sterling remained the world's currency of account.

The Liberal (branches) or Conservative (Tory) parties were in power, replacing each other. The Liberal Party, led by William Benjamin Gladstone, and the Conservative Party, led by Disraeli, defended the interests of big business, in addition, the Conservatives also represented the interests of large landowners. Trying to win over the mass voter, liberals were forced to implement social reforms. Conservatives focused primarily on foreign policy, although they sometimes resorted to limited social reform.

During Gladstone's Liberal government, public funding for primary education was increased, examinations for entry into the civil service were introduced, as well as parliamentary reform: parliamentary elections became secret, and the law of 1884 expanded the circle of voters. Conservatives responded by lifting the ban on strike pickets, equalizing the rights of workers and entrepreneurs before the courts, and banning children under 10 from working.

Both conservatives and liberals pursued an active colonial policy. The Conservative government of Salisbury established control over the Suez Canal, sent troops to the island. Cyprus waged a war against the Boer republics - the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, and in the 60s - against Afghanistan, completed the conquest of Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and Sudan. For the liberal government of Gladstone, Egypt was occupied, a war was started in Sudan, and Uganda was destroyed.

The colonial expansion of England became the cause of the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). The Boers, descendants of the Dutch who moved to South Africa, conquered the local population and resisted the British for more than two decades. The discovery of gold deposits there prompted England to prepare aggression against the Boers. The latter, convinced of the immediate threat to their independence, declared war on England, but the forces were unequal and in 1902 the Boers signed a peace treaty, according to which the Transvaal and the Orange Free State became English colonies. Subsequently, they were united with other English colonies into the Union of South Africa, which became an English dominion1.

Boers (Afrikaners) are the self-name of Dutch, French and German colonists in South Africa. The center of colonialism in

South Africa was a Papal colony created by the Dutch in the second half of the 17th century. French Huguenots and immigrants from Germany also moved here. Having seized the lands of local African tribes, the Boers created farms in the Cape of Good Hope area where slave labor was actively used. In the first half of the 19th century. The papal colony passed to England, which eliminated local self-government of the Boers, introduced the English language and actively resettled colonists from England. After the adoption of the law of 1833r. After the liberation of slaves in the English colonies, the Boers began to leave the Cape Colony and seize the neighboring lands of the Zulu. In the battles of 1838. (“The Day of Ding-an”) and 1840r. The Boers inflicted a final defeat on the Zulus, but were unable to create their own state on their territory, since they were annexed by the British into the Papal Colony. The Boers ousted the Bechuano and Basotho tribes from the Orange and Vaal river basin and created two state entities there - Transvaal (South African Republic) and Orange (Orange Free State), the independence of which was recognized by England in the mid-19th century. In the summer of 1867 Diamonds were accidentally found on the banks of the Orange River. Joint-stock companies began to be created for their extraction, but soon the De Beers company, created by S. Rhodes, who dreamed of creating a system of British colonies in Africa - from Blight to Egypt - became a monopolist. London intensified its policy in the region and proposed a project for a federation of British colonies and Boer republics for joint colonial conquests in Africa. After its rejection by the Boers, England in 1877. captured the Transvaal. У1879-1887pp. England defeated the Zulus and incorporated Zululand into the English colony of Natal. However, the Boers of the Transvaal refused to obey the British and began an armed struggle against them. This forced England to again recognize the independence of the Transvaal. After gold deposits were discovered in the Transvaal, S. Rohde, at that time the Prime Minister of the Papal Colony, began to actively interfere in the internal affairs of the Transvaal. Foreign gold miners in the Transvaal (“Uitländer”) did not allow the Boers to participate in the political life of the republic. Then they created their own “reform party” and established contacts with S. Rhodes and the head of the British administration in Rhodesia, Jameson. In December 1895, members of the “Reform Party” published ultimatum demands to the Transvaal government. The next day, an English detachment of 500 people set out from Rhodesia in the direction of Johannesburg, the center of gold mining in the Transvaal. However, in January 1896, British soldiers were defeated by Boer farmers at the Battle of Krugensdorf. The prisoners were sent to London, where they were convicted of violating the borders of an independent state. However, “gold” and “diamonds” increasingly attracted the colonialists, which led to the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902pp.

Among the internal problems, the Irish one was the most acute. In the 60-80s pp. The national liberation movement intensified in Ireland. The Irish bourgeoisie put forward a program of home rule (home rule) for Ireland within the framework of the British Empire. A movement of defiance began in Ireland. The Irish faction in the House of Commons obstructed the activities of the English parliament. At the beginning of 1886. Gladstone's liberal cabinet developed a judicious plan for Home Rule: a local parliament was created in Ireland, but the most important issues of domestic policy were to be decided by London. However, even such a moderate concession encountered decisive resistance in England. Even among liberals there was a split. Gladstone's government resigned.

The monopolization of production in England led to increased exploitation of workers and aggravation of social problems. The organizer of the movement of workers to improve their economic situation were trade unions, uniting highly skilled workers. The struggle of unorganized workers also intensified (rallies and demonstrations of the unemployed, strikes by workers in match factories, London gas plants, London dockers). A “new unionism” was being formed in the country - trade unions of low-paid, unskilled workers. In 1893, the Labor Party, independent of the trade unions, emerged and fought for the election of representatives of the working class to the House of Commons.

Entrepreneurs decided to weaken the influence of trade unions. 1900 During the Taff Valley railway strike, the railway company sued the railway workers, demanding payment of losses the company suffered from the strike. Other companies began to follow the railroad company's lead. Then, by decision of the Congress of Trade Unions at the conference, a Workers' Representation Committee was established to introduce workers' deputies to parliament in order to influence the country's legislation and stop the advance of entrepreneurs. 1906 The committee was renamed the Labor Party.

In order to ease social tensions, Minister of Economy Lloyd George (Liberal government) introduced in 1909 a bill on the maximum retirement age of 70 years, the introduction of material support for labor exchanges for the unemployed, and social security in case of illness or disability. The bill was approved. However, Lloyd George's social maneuvering did not produce noticeable results. Conflicts between workers and entrepreneurs continued: in 1911-1912. Miners, dockers, sailors, and railway workers went on strike, demanding higher wages, recognition of trade unions, and an 8-hour working day.

There was no peace in rebellious Ireland. The Liberal government, which depended on the votes of Irish deputies in the House of Commons, adopted a bill on Home Rule for Ireland, which transferred all local affairs under the control of the Irish parliament (subject to the leadership of London in foreign policy, army, police, finance, taxes). Opponents of the project demanded that the future Irish state should not include Ulster - the northern part of the island, where the most developed industrial centers were concentrated. their supporters created armed units in Ulster, which were supported by the English reaction. However, the officers of the British military units, who received the order at the beginning of 1914 to go to Ulster to restore order there, refused to carry out the order. The Liberal government made concessions to the rebel officers.

The First World War actually became the reason for the postponement of the Home Rule law.

At the beginning of the 20th century. England's international position has deteriorated. In the context of the intensification of the struggle of the imperialists for markets and colonies, the question of their redistribution was raised, which primarily threatened England as the largest colonial power. Anglo-German relations sharply deteriorated, naval rivalry between both states, trade competition, and the struggle for colonies intensified.

Until the end of the 19th century. England pursued a policy of “brilliant isolation”: the country’s leadership believed that the contradictions between continental states were more acute than between England and its rivals from continental Europe. In this regard, in the event of a conflict with Russia or France, England could count on the support of Germany or Austria-Hungary, and therefore it did not feel the need to bind itself to allied obligations that could drag it into a war for other people’s interests.

By stirring up contradictions between the great powers, England secured freedom of action for itself. Its island position and powerful navy protected its territory from attack by anyone. The need to fight against its main competitor - Germany - forced England to abandon its previous policy and form blocs with other states. 1904 England and France reached an agreement on the main colonial problems: France stopped opposing England in the colonies, in particular in Egypt, and England recognized France's right to conquer Morocco. In 1907, an Anglo-French agreement was signed, called the Entente. England and Russia divided spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. This made possible Anglo-Russian cooperation against Germany.

In the presence of the Franco-English agreement, agreements between England and Russia, the creation of the Anglo-Franco-Russian alliance - the Entente - was completed. In general, the Entente as a military alliance was formed only during the First World War.

England, small in size and population, ranked first in the world in terms of industrial production and financial resources. The political system in England was one of the most democratic. But despite this, there were many disadvantaged people here too.

In the first half of the 19th century. In England, the formation of a parliamentary monarchy was largely completed. The highest power belonged to the monarch (king or queen), parliament and government. The monarch was the head of state and approved the laws. Parliament adopted draft laws (bills).

Parliament consisted of two houses: the upper - the House of Lords and the lower - the House of Commons. Members of the House of Lords were appointed by the monarch from among the highest nobility. Its chairman was the Lord Chancellor. Members of the House of Commons were elected by the population for a term of 7 years. The importance of the lower house increased, while the influence of the lords and royal power decreased. Monarchs “reigned but did not govern.” The government was responsible to parliament, not to the monarch. It could remain in power as long as it was supported by the House of Commons.

The House of Commons met in a small hall in the Palace of Westminster. Its work was led by the chairman - speaker (from the English speaker - speaker). Deputies of the ruling party sat to the right of the speaker, deputies of the opposition sat to the left. There was no tribune in the hall; deputies spoke from their seats. From above, in the gallery, the public could be present.

There were two political parties in England - the Tories and the Whigs - formed at the end of the 17th century. The Tories represented the interests mainly of large landowners, and the Whigs - the big bourgeoisie. The party that won the elections formed a government headed by its leader. The defeated party was in opposition and criticized government policies. The electoral system was unfair. Parliament was dominated by representatives of a small landed aristocracy, while many cities did not have a single seat there, and millions of Englishmen were deprived of the right to vote. This sparked a widespread movement for electoral reform that included workers and farmers. The movement was led by the Whigs. After a stubborn struggle, electoral reform was carried out in 1832. The leading role in governing bodies continued to belong to large landowners, but some of the seats in the House of Commons were given to cities, and the number of voters increased. As a result of this, the industrial bourgeoisie gained access to political power. The electoral system became more democratic, but the petty bourgeoisie and workers did not receive voting rights.

Features of the development of the capitalist economy of England

In agriculture, capitalist orders were established while maintaining the land ownership of landlords. Landlords leased their land to capitalist farmers, who hired agricultural workers - farm laborers - to cultivate it. Some farmers had their own land and worked it themselves. Most of the peasants lost their plots, and the peasantry as a class by the middle of the 19th century. disappeared. Some of the villagers went to the cities, the other part turned into farm laborers, and many left for America. A fifth of the country's population remained in the village. Nevertheless, thanks to technology and better cultivation of the land, agricultural production increased, although the British did not have enough of their own bread, and they imported grain from abroad. C the center of economic life moved from villages to cities.

During the Industrial Revolution, England created the most powerful factory industry in the world. In the first half of the 19th century. the volume of industrial production increased 4 times. Hundreds of large enterprises were built, and the island was covered with a network of railways. In 1840, England accounted for 45% of world industrial output. It was called the “factory of the world”; it was the only industrialized country at that time.

England dominated the world market, built the most powerful fleet and became the “mistress of the seas.” To facilitate trade, she abolished tariffs on many goods. The free export and import of goods reached its peak in the 50s and 60s.

Labor movement. Chartism. Trade unionism

England was a developed and rich country, but the living conditions of most workers were extremely difficult. The working day lasted 14-16 hours, wages were low, housing was poor, and unemployment was constantly threatening.

Seeking to improve their situation, the workers filed complaints with parliament, went on strikes, broke machines and set fire to factories, but the authorities did not yield. Moreover, a law was passed to abolish the payment of benefits to the poor and send them to workhouses, where almost prison conditions existed. The latest economic crisis has put thousands of workers at risk of starvation.

The indignation of the working population resulted in a mass political labor movement - Chartism (from the English charter - charter, charter).

In 1836, the London Association of Workers was created. She began campaigning for a charter to be passed by Parliament, demanding new electoral reforms and granting the right to vote to all Englishmen over 21 years of age, regardless of their wealth. If successful, the Chartists expected to win a majority of seats in the House of Commons and pass laws in favor of workers.

In 1840, the all-English National Chartist Association arose - the first workers' party in history. However, due to internal disagreements, she was unable to unite the entire proletariat of England.

The Chartists drew up petitions three times demanding the adoption of the charter, collected a huge number of signatures in support of it (about 9 million) and delivered them to parliament. The third petition, with signatures of about 5 million people, weighed 250 kg and was taken to parliament on a cart. But Parliament refused even to discuss the Chartist proposals.

The Chartist movement was accompanied by demonstrations, strikes, and the destruction of police stations. It shocked all of England, but due to the intransigence of Parliament and the lack of organization of the workers, it did not achieve its goal in the middle of the 19th century. disappeared from the historical stage. Many Chartists were arrested, imprisoned, and sent to colonies. The authorities made only one concession: the working day was reduced to 10 hours.

With the decline of revolutionary Chartism, peaceful trade unionism began to play a leading role in the English labor movement. After the ban on trade unions was lifted in 1824, their number and influence began to grow rapidly. The main thing for the trade unions was to increase wages and reduce working hours. Their leaders were supporters only of peaceful actions and reforms.

Foreign and colonial policy

After Napoleon's defeat in relations with continental European countries, England adhered to the principles of balance of power and freedom of hands. The British government sought to prevent the strengthening of the positions of other great powers - France, Russia, Prussia and Austria. At the same time, it did not want to enter into long-term alliances, thus maintaining freedom of hands. England opposed the revolutionary and national liberation movements that could disrupt the existing balance of forces.

In addition, she made great efforts to expand her colonial possessions. Its industry and trade needed raw materials, markets, ports, roads in all corners of the world.

At this time, the conquest of India was completed, New Zealand and other territories were captured. England was the first colonial power in the world. She owned about 40 colonial possessions. The British seized jewelry there, collected taxes, and sold goods to help their economy flourish.

England developed a special relationship with Ireland, its first colony, the capture of which began in the 12th century. In 1801, Ireland was incorporated into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Its parliament was liquidated, almost all the lands were seized by English landlords, local industry was destroyed, and the population was declining. The consequences of English policy in Ireland are still being felt: a significant part of the population of Northern Ireland (Ulster) does not want to remain part of the British state.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.

The historical fate of England after the accession William the Conqueror(in 1 066 who killed the Saxon king Harold in the battle of Hastings) was intertwined with the fate of France for a long time. William continued to be the ruler of Normandy, a region in northern France, and his great-grandson Henry II Plantagenet, King of England (1153-1189), owned almost half of the French lands (albeit on the terms of vassal ownership: the French king was considered his overlord). Henry carried out several important reforms. Among them, reforming the judicial process by involving people other than the judge in making court decisions "worthy people" from among the subjects; it was from here that it subsequently developed jury trial.

After Henry, the English throne was inherited by his eldest son, Richard I the Lionheart (1189-1199), famous for his participation in the Crusades. His younger brother, who became king after Richard's death John the Landless (1199-1216) had to defend English possessions in France from the claims of the French king Philip Augustus. In this struggle the English monarch was defeated in Battle of Buvin (1214), and England lost almost all French regions, including Normandy, where it all began. In 1215, King John the Landless signed a guarantee of rights providing for the rule of law "Magna Card" which is sometimes called the first constitution in history. And under the son of John the Landless Henry III (1216-1272) originated in England the world's first parliament. King Edward I (1272-1307) used the growing power of his power to conquer Wales, and after a stubborn struggle it was annexed to England.

The northern regions of Britain were little affected by the Norman conquest. In the IX-XI centuries. Scotland was formed here. The community in this state was formed on the basis of ancient tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes who settled in the southern regions of Scotland. The composition of the formed at this time Welsh people entered mainly Celtic tribes Britons. The mountains protected the Celts here from the hostile Anglo-Saxons, and later the Normans. The conquerors settled mainly in the south and valleys of central Wales, while the north of the peninsula remained in the possession of the indigenous population.

The British tried to conquer Scotland, but as a result of the war of national liberation, the Scots managed to defend their independence for several centuries. 1314g. Robert De Bruce defeats the English at the Battle of Bannockburn.

Centralization of the country in the XII-XIII centuries. contributed to the further development of the economy and the growth of cities .. If earlier the common people in the mass spoke the Anglo-Saxon language, and the royal nobility spoke French, now transition from bilingualism to a new single language, which developed on the basis of the London dialect of the Anglo-Saxon language under the very strong influence of French.

In the first half 15th century Most English peasants had already freed themselves from the bonds of serfdom, and their duties began to be limited to cash payments.

Taking advantage of France's dynastic crisis Edward III (1327-1377) laid claim to the throne there (he was the grandson of the late French king on his mother’s side). Strengthened England wanted to return its former possessions on the continent, and in 1337 the so-called Hundred Years' War, which lasted until 1453 116 years old. The first period of the war passed with an overwhelming advantage for the British. In 1340 they sank the French fleet, in 1346 they completely defeated the French army at the Battle of Crecy, and in 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers, where the French king himself was captured. IN 1415 The most significant battle of the 100 Years' War took place at Agincorte (Agincourt), wherein Henry V defeated the French. The defeated French monarch agreed to cede rule of France to the English king, recognize him as his heir and marry his daughter to him.

England took possession of a significant part of French lands, and hostilities entered a protracted stage and were interrupted by long truces. It was at this time in England - in response to the introduction of a new tax to cover military expenses - that a powerful peasant uprising broke out (1381) led by Wat Tyler. The authorities suppressed it with great difficulty. The threat of losing national independence raised the French people to resist the invaders. The legendary Joan of Arc appeared among the French military leaders, and a turning point came in the seemingly endless war. 1453 The British were expelled from almost all French territory, except for the city of Calais. For war-weary England, with a weak-willed monarch Henry VI at the head, a dark time has come.

IN 1455 g. The War of the Scarlet and White Roses began - two rival dynasties of Lancaster and York. In this struggle, both dynasties and many of the old feudal nobility died, and power went to the new king - Henry VII (1485-1509.), founder of the Tudor dynasty. A significant battle took place at Bosford Fields in 1485, where Richard III (York family) was killed and Henry VII from the Lancaster family, won. He married a girl from the York family and thus reconciled both dynasties, symbolically combining both scarlet and white roses in his coat of arms.

Henry VII laid the foundations of absolutism - the unlimited power of the monarch. During the reign Henry VIII (1491-1547) a reformation of the church was carried out: the king broke with the Roman Catholic Church and proclaimed himself the head of the Anglican (Protestant) Church.

In the 16th century The process of initial accumulation of capital unfolded, the basis of which was the dispossession of the peasantry (fencing). The place of the old nobility is gradually taken by a new nobility - the gentry, associated with trade and in its interests close to the emerging bourgeoisie. Landlords and gentry increasingly began to seize the lands of their peasants, turning them into sheep farms. Enclosures were a prerequisite for the development of capitalism in England.

Protestantism was declared the official religion in England under the reign ofEdward VI (1537-1553).The son of Henry VIII died at the age of 15, he reigned for only 6 years. After his death, power passed to his older sister "Bloody Mary"- Catholic. In 1536 it was signedAct of Union of England and Wales.

The last of the Tudor line was Elizabeth I (1533-1603). It was under her that the defeat of the famous Spanish Armada in 1588 and with her, Francis Drake undertook his first trip around the world.

Having no heirs of her own, in 1603 she transferred the throne to the King of Scotland James I Stuart ( James I ) - son of Mary Stuart ( aka James VI Scottish), who became the first king of England, Ireland and Wales.

James continued Elizabeth's work and colonized Ulster, the northern part of Ireland, resettling mainly Scottish farmers there. Catholic Irish were expelled from Ulster, and even those who worked for Protestant masters were replaced by Protestants from England and Scotland.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Great changes occurred in English architecture associated with the name of Inigo Jones, the greatest master of that time. He brought the spirit of the classics to it: his works were made under the influence of the outstanding Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio.

From 1615 to 1642 Jones was the court architect of the English kings. He made scenery for theatrical performances and also designed royal palaces. The first among them was the country house of Queen Anne (wife of King James I) - Queens House in Greenwich, a suburb of London (1616-1635).

James I was not particularly popular among the English, who were skeptical of him because of his Scottish origins. Anglicanism remained the state religion, but the new king immediately showed himself to be the patron of Catholic groups within the country and the persecutor of local Puritans (consistent Protestants-Calvinists). Tens of thousands of English Puritans were forced to move to the North American colonies, the future USA.

At the same time, James I began a rapprochement with Catholic Spain and France. Also, the new king came into conflict with parliament, which turned into a real opposition to the power claims of the monarch, who imposed his will, regardless of the real state of affairs. With the son of Jacob,Charles I (1625-1649) aka Charles (1)the confrontation between the monarch and his opponents only intensified. IN1629the king dissolved parliament and ruled England single-handedly for 11 years. All manifestations of discontent were brutally suppressed. However, an attempt by force, contrary to the rights of Scotland, to introduce Anglican worship there instead of traditional Presbyterianism caused an armed uprising in this country.Defeats in battles with the Scots forced Charles to convene parliament.

In 1641, just when Charles needed a respite, Ireland rebelled. More than three thousand Protestants, including women and children, were killed by Irish Catholics.

As a result, the struggle between the king and the representative government resulted in the civil war in which the "roundheads" (supporters of parliament), with their leader Oliver Cromwell, defeated the royalists. The civil war ended with the execution in 1649 King Charles I (Charles I).

IN 1653 -1658. Oliver Cromwell ruled the country as Lord Protector. He led campaigns of conquest in Scotland and Ireland and by 1652 had completely conquered them, while Ireland was brutally plundered and lost a third of its population. The wars against Holland and Spain ended in a similar way, which further strengthened England's superiority in the sea routes.

During the years of the revolution, a lofty dream was born among the people themselves. This was the utopian communism of Winstanley - the leader of the representatives of the most radical movement in the English revolution - diggers. The greatness of the people's struggle was felt by the poet and publicist of the revolution, Milton; during the triumph of reaction after the return of the Stuarts, he had the courage to glorify this struggle in the biblical imagery of the grandiose poem Paradise Lost. The ugliness of morals and political contradictions in England after 1689 was reflected in bitter satire Jonathan Swift- his pamphlets and the immortal book “Gulliver's Travels”.

The order established by Cromwell collapsed with the death of the dictator V 1658 d. The opposing forces of society managed to come to an agreement among themselves, and in 1660 the son of the executed king, who had previously lived in exile, arrived in London and was proclaimed king Charles II (1660-1685). The monarchy was restored. His accession was accompanied by reprisals against the “regicides”; even Cromwell’s body was dug out of the grave and hanged. Meanwhile, the political confrontation between the king’s supporters (Tories) and his opponents (Whigs) again intensified in the country, in which the monarch gained the upper hand through brute force.

Thus, at the end of the 17th century. political parties took shape - Tories and Whigs(in the mid-19th century they were transformed accordingly into conservative And liberal party). There were wars with Holland at sea. Plague was added to all the trials 1665 g., which claimed many lives, and a year later almost all of London perished in a terrible fire.

IN 1688 g. as a result of “bloodless”, as it is also called Glorious revolution, The Stuarts were deposed, and the English king became William of Orange. The power of the king was limited, and the rights and privileges of the new ruling class - the bourgeoisie - were strengthened. And if Scotland recognizes the coup, then in Ireland the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants has intensified, and repression by the British has also intensified. William III of Orange resolves internal and external conflicts skillfully and diplomatically. William carried out reforms that were of great importance for the future of England: they contributed to the birth of political parties and the flourishing of the press. IN 1694 forty merchants create Bank of England.

William of Orange's victory in 1690 had a significant impact on the Irish people. Over the next half century, the Protestant parliament in Dublin passed laws that Catholics could not be members of parliament, could not vote in elections, could not be lawyers or hold public office, enter university or the navy. There were still more Catholics than Protestants, but they became second-class citizens in their own land. By the 1770s, however, life became easier and some of the laws against Catholics were repealed.

Anna Stewart, second daughter James II, succeeds William III on the throne. Her reign was marked chiefly by the final union of England and Scotland:1707 was born United Kingdom Great Britain.

William Hogarth. Morning in the young people's house. Engraving from the “Fashionable Marriage” series. 1743

The revolution led to the rapid development of agriculture, capitalist relations quickly penetrated into the countryside. The agrarian revolution, the process of enclosures, led to the massive dispossession of peasants, as well as the plague, which claimed the lives of!/3 of the population of England and Scotland, led to the fact that by the end of the 18th century. the peasantry virtually disappeared as a class. The capitalist economy could not absorb the entire mass of former peasants, so a large surplus of labor appeared, so necessary for the developing industry.

To increase British control, Ireland was annexed by Britain in 1801 and the Irish Parliament was abolished. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland lasted 120 years.

Scotland also suffered from the Stuart attempts to regain the throne. Thirty years after the unsuccessful attempt of the son of James II, his grandson, Prince Charles Edward Stuart, landed on the west coast of Scotland and began to gather an army against the British. Some mountain clans went with him, but the prince's army was defeated and the revolt was crushed. The mountaineers were severely punished: many of them were killed, others were sent to America. Their houses were burned and their livestock killed. The fear of the Highlanders was so great that a law was even passed prohibiting the wearing of a kilt and the playing of bagpipes.

The bourgeois revolution brought England into the arena of the struggle for colonial, commercial and maritime dominance. To achieve these goals, England, like many European states, in the 17th-18th centuries. waged numerous trade wars. IN War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) thanks to the victories of the Duke Marlborough ( Marlborough)England did not allow the unification of the Spanish and French colonies under the de facto supremacy of France.

The British army won several important battles, and 1713 France agreed to restrictions on its expansion. She recognized Queen Anne in place of her son James II as the sole ruler of Britain.At the same time, England took possession of Gibraltar and some territories in North America.

Joshua Reynolds. Portrait of Sarah Siddons. 1784

Participation in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) became an important stage in the creation of the colonial empire of England, as it emerged from the war as a more powerful power. The most important result for England was the acquisition of new territories. So English troops captured Canada, France lost several islands in the West Indies. French dominance in India was ended; France retained only five acquired cities and could not lay claim to dominance over India.

IN 1763. At Versailles, peace was signed between England, France and Spain, which secured Canada and dominance in India for England. Spain ceded Florida and Minorca to England. England became the ruler of India. The use of India's natural resources accelerated the industrial revolution in England and made it easier for the English bourgeoisie to transform their country into the “industrial workshop” of the world.

IN 1764 A quarrel broke out between the American colonies and the British government over taxation. TO 1770 In 2008, there were already about 2.5 million people in the British colonies of North America. Some of them believed that they were being taxed illegally and without their consent. The American colonies declared a boycott of British goods. It was a rebellion that the government decided to put down by force. The American War of Independence began.

The war in America lasted from 1775 to 1783 year. It was a complete defeat of the British troops. As a result, Britain lost everything except Canada.

The immediate reason for the English colonization of the Australian continent was the loss of 13 North American colonies by England. The British ruling circles wanted to compensate for losses in North America by seizing new territories. It was also significant that the English government lost the opportunity to send exiles from England there, and English prisons were overcrowded. In search of a way out, the English government turned its attention to the “Southern Land” (1768-1771), which had recently been rediscovered by J. Cook. Parliament passed legislation establishing a convict settlement in Australia. The first transport of exiles was sent in May 1787 and arrived in Australia in January 1788. The first convict settlement was founded - Sydney. In 1793, the first group of free settlers from England arrived in Australia. The population grew slowly and mainly due to exiles.

Rich in events of the 18th century. brought changes in state and political terms. During the reign three Georges from the Hanoverian dynasty England is increasingly leaning towards a parliamentary type of government, which will henceforth determine political life: compared to the House of Lords, the House of Commons plays a more active role, in particular when voting on issues related to taxes.

Thomas Gainsborough. Lady Caroline Howard. 1778

New weaving and printing machines appeared at the end of the 18th century. The first steel bridge is being built. Watt's invention of the first steam engine was revolutionary; coal, rich deposits of which were available in England, became the main source of energy. Communication lines are also being developed, while workers' quarters are being built around factories. In 1811, the population of England reaches 10 million people. By this time, the state of the English economy was quite satisfactory, but in the social sphere the situation was bleak: workers’ wages were low, and the constant threat of unemployment did not contribute to the improvement of living conditions.

IN 1837. a young eighteen-year-old queen takes the throne Victoria; she is destined to rule the country for sixty-four years. Victoria strengthens the monarchy and strengthens the role of parliament. The beginning of her reign is associated with the successes of the free trade movement. The trade union movement is born. Minister Disraeli in 1867 leads parliament to vote on the “Reform Act,” which grants suffrage to the middle classes and highly paid workers. IN 1868 Several democratic reforms are being carried out. Prime Minister Gladstone will transform the legal system, the education system, the army. Social injustice is gradually being mitigated. Female labor in the mining industry is prohibited, and the working day for women is limited to 10 hours. More humane laws regarding workers are being adopted. The Victorian era was marked by prosperity such as England had never known before. The country becomes the first world power.

Being an island, Great Britain was in less danger than other European countries, but it also entered the war against France when the latter captured Belgium and Holland. One by one, European countries surrendered to Napoleon and forcibly united with her. Most of Europe was under Napoleon's control.

Britain decided to fight France at sea because it had the best navy, and because Britain's life depended on the safety of its trade routes. The commander of the British fleet, Admiral Nelson, won several decisive battles off the coast of Egypt, off Copenhagen and finally off Spain at Trafalgar. 1805 where he destroyed the Spanish-French flotilla.

On land, the British troops were commanded by General Wellington. After several victories over the French in Spain, he entered France. Napoleon, weakened after the defeat in Russia, surrendered in 1814. But the next year he escaped from captivity and quickly gathered an army in France. Wellington, with the help of the Prussian army, finally defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815.

John Constable. Wyeenhoe Park. 1816

BRITISH EMPIRE (The British Empire), Great Britain and its overseas possessions. The largest empire in human history. The name "British Empire" came into use in the mid-1870s. Since 1931, it was officially called the British Commonwealth of Nations, after the 2nd World War - the Commonwealth of Nations and the Commonwealth.

The British Empire arose as a result of centuries-old colonial expansion: the colonization of the territories of North America, Australia, New Zealand, islands in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans; subordination of states or areas separated from them; capture (mainly by military means) and subsequent annexation of the colonies of other European countries to British possessions. The formation of the British Empire took place in the acute struggle of Great Britain for maritime dominance and colonies with Spain (see Anglo-Spanish wars of the 16th-18th centuries), the Netherlands (see Anglo-Dutch wars of the 17th-18th centuries), France (18th - early 19th centuries), and also with Germany (late 19th - early 20th century). Rivalry for influence in a number of areas of the Asian continent became the cause of serious contradictions between Great Britain and the Russian Empire. In the process of the formation and development of the British Empire, a British imperial ideology emerged, which left a bright imprint on all aspects of life, the domestic and foreign policy of Great Britain.

The creation of the British Empire began in the mid-16th century, with England's transition to a policy of conquest of Ireland, the eastern coast of which was captured by it at the end of the 12th century. By the mid-17th century, Ireland had become a colony. In 1583, England declared sovereignty over the island of Newfoundland, which became its first overseas possession and a base for its conquests in the New World.

The defeat of the "Invincible Armada" by the British in 1588 weakened Spain's position as a leading naval power and allowed them to join the struggle for colonies. Primary importance was attached to the conquest of positions in the West Indies, which made it possible to control the sea routes connecting Spain with its colonies in Central and South America (transportation of gold, slaves), to seize part of the trade in colonial goods (cotton, sugar, tobacco, etc.) and acquired lands to independently begin their production. In 1609, the British established themselves in Bermuda (officially a colony since 1684), in 1627 - on the island of Barbados (a colony since 1652), in 1632 - on the island of Antigua, in the 1630s - in Belize (from 1862, a colony of British Honduras) , in 1629 - in the Bahamas (a colony since 1783); in the 1670s, the island of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands officially came into their possession. At the same time, English merchants strengthened their positions on the Gold Coast in West Africa (the first English trading post was founded there in 1553). In 1672, the Royal African Company was established, taking over part of the trade in gold and slaves. As a result of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), the British achieved a monopoly on the slave trade in the Spanish colonies, and by capturing Gibraltar (1704) and the island of Minorca (1708), they established control over Spain's communications directly off its coast. Until the mid-18th century, the economic and trade interests of Great Britain in the “Atlantic Triangle” (Great Britain - West Indies - West Africa) were of paramount importance for the development of the British Empire, the construction of which was carried out by undermining the position of Spain. From the beginning of the 18th century, having subjugated Portugal to their influence (see Methuen Treaty of 1703), the British also became involved in the exploitation of its vast colonial possessions, primarily in South America.

With the founding of the settlement of Jamestown and the colony of Virginia in 1607, the English colonization of the Atlantic coast and adjacent areas of North America began (see North American colonies of England); New Amsterdam, captured by the British from the Dutch in 1664, was renamed New York.

At the same time, the British were entering India. In 1600, London merchants founded the East India Company (see East India Companies). By 1640, she had created a network of her trading posts not only in India, but also in Southeast Asia and the Far East. In 1690, the company began to build the city of Calcutta. As a result of the Seven Years' War of 1756-63, Great Britain ousted France from India (see Anglo-French struggle for India) and significantly undermined its position in North America (see also Anglo-French wars in Canada in the 17th and 18th centuries).

The British Empire experienced its first crisis when it lost 13 of its colonies as a result of the Revolutionary War in North America of 1775-83. However, after the formation of the United States (1783), tens of thousands of colonists moved to Canada, and the British presence there strengthened.

From the mid-18th century, British penetration intensified into the coastal areas of New Zealand, Australia and the Pacific Islands. In 1788, the first British settlement arose in Australia - Port Jackson (future Sydney). In 1840, British colonists arrived in New Zealand, after which it was included in the overseas possessions of Great Britain. The resistance of the local population was suppressed (see Anglo-Maori Wars 1843-72). The Congress of Vienna of 1814-15 assigned Great Britain the Cape Colony (South Africa), Malta, Ceylon and other territories captured in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. By the middle of the 19th century, the British had largely completed the conquest of India (see Anglo-Mysore Wars, Anglo-Maratha Wars, Anglo-Sikh Wars), and established control over Nepal (see Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-16). The port of Singapore was founded in 1819. In the mid-19th century, as a result of the Anglo-Chinese War of 1840-42 and the Anglo-French-Chinese War of 1856-60, unequal treaties were imposed on China, a number of Chinese ports were opened to British trade, and the island of Hong Kong came into the possession of Great Britain. At the same time, Great Britain switched to a policy of colonial conquest on the African continent (see Anglo-Ashanti Wars, Anglo-Buro-Zulu War of 1838-40, Lagos-British War of 1851).

During the period of the “colonial division of the world” (the last quarter of the 19th century), Great Britain captured Cyprus (1878), established full control over Egypt and the Suez Canal (1882), completed the conquest of Burma (see Anglo-Burmese Wars), established a de facto protectorate over Afghanistan (see Anglo-Afghan wars, Anglo-Afghan treaties and agreements), imposed unequal treaties on Siam and achieved the separation of a number of territories from it (see Anglo-Siamese treaties). It conquered vast territories in Tropical and Southern Africa - Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Southern and Northern Rhodesia, Bechuanaland, Basutoland, Zululand, Swaziland, Uganda, Kenya (see Anglo-Zulu War 1879, Boer War 1880- 81, Opobo-British War 1870-87, Broughamie-British War 1894, Sokoto-British War 1903). After the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902, Great Britain annexed the Boer republics of Transvaal (officially the Republic of South Africa) and the Orange Free State (annexed as the Orange River Colony) to its colonial possessions and, uniting them with the Cape and Natal colonies, created the South African Republic. -African Union (1910).

The British Empire consisted of states and territories that had different (in many cases changing over time) international legal status: dominions, colonies, protectorates and mandate territories.

Dominions are countries with a large number of immigrants from Europe that had relatively broad rights of self-government. North America, and later Australia and New Zealand, were the main destinations for emigration from Great Britain. They had a multi-million white, mostly English-speaking population. Their role in the global economy and politics became increasingly noticeable. If the United States won independence, then other overseas British possessions with a “white” population gradually achieved self-government: Canada - in 1867, the Commonwealth of Australia - in 1901, New Zealand - in 1907, the Union of South Africa - in 1919, Newfoundland - in 1917 ( became part of Canada in 1949), Ireland (without the northern part - Ulster, which remained part of Great Britain) - in 1921. By decision of the imperial conference of 1926, they began to be called dominions. Their independence in domestic and foreign policy was confirmed by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Economic ties between them, as well as between them and the mother country, were consolidated by the creation of sterling blocks (1931) and the Ottawa Agreements of 1932 on imperial preferences.

The vast majority of the population of the British Empire lived in the colonies (there were about 50 of them). Each colony was governed by a governor-general, appointed by the British Colonial Office. The governor formed a legislative council from officials of the colonial administration and representatives of the local population. In many colonies, traditional institutions of government were reorganized and integrated into the system of colonial government as “native” administrations, and the local nobility was left with some power and sources of income (indirect control). The largest colonial possession, India, officially became part of the British Empire in 1858 (previously controlled by the British East India Company). Since 1876, the British monarch (at that time Queen Victoria) began to be called the Emperor of India, and the Governor-General of India - the Viceroy.

The nature of the administration of protectorates and their degree of dependence on the metropolis varied. The colonial authorities allowed some independence for the local feudal or tribal elite.

Mandate territories are parts of the former German and Ottoman empires, transferred after World War I by the League of Nations to the control of Great Britain on the basis of the so-called mandate.

In 1922, during the period of greatest territorial expansion, the British Empire included: the metropolis - Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland); dominions - Ireland (without Northern Ireland; colony until 1921), Canada, Newfoundland (dominion in 1917-34), Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand, Union of South Africa; colonies - Gibraltar, Malta, Ascension Island, St. Helena, Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Mauritius, Seychelles, Somaliland, Kenya, Uganda, Zanzibar, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, Swaziland, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Cyprus, Aden (with the islands of Perim, Socotra), India, Burma, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, Malaya, Sarawak, North Borneo, Brunei, Labrador, British Honduras, British Guiana, Bermuda, Bahamas , the island of Jamaica, the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, the Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Falkland Islands, the island of Barbados, Papua (a colony of the Commonwealth of Australia), Fiji, the Tonga Islands, the Gilbert Islands, the Solomon Islands and a number of small islands in Oceania; mandate territories - Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, Tanganyika, part of Togo and part of Cameroon, South West Africa (mandate of the Union of South Africa), the island of Nauru, former German New Guinea, the Pacific islands south of the equator, the islands of Western Samoa (mandate New Zealand). The rule of Great Britain actually also extended to Egypt, Nepal and to Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and Weihawei (Weihai), which had been torn away from China.

The struggle of the Afghan people forced Great Britain to recognize the independence of Afghanistan in 1919 (see Anglo-Afghan Treaties of 1919, 1921). In 1922, Egypt became formally independent; in 1930, the British mandate to govern Iraq was terminated, although both countries remained under British rule.

The collapse of the British Empire occurred after World War II as a result of a powerful upsurge in the anti-colonial struggle of the peoples inhabiting it. Attempts to preserve the British Empire through maneuvering or the use of military force (colonial wars in Malaya, Kenya and other British possessions) failed. In 1947, Britain was forced to grant independence to its largest colonial possession, India. At the same time, the country was divided along regional and religious lines into two parts: India and Pakistan. Independence was declared by Transjordan (1946), Burma and Ceylon (1948). In 1947, the UN General Assembly decided to terminate the British Mandate for Palestine and create two states on its territory - Jewish and Arab. The independence of Sudan was proclaimed in 1956, and Malaya in 1957. The Gold Coast was the first of the British possessions in Tropical Africa to become an independent state in 1957, taking the name Ghana.

1960 went down in history as the “Year of Africa”. 17 African colonies achieved independence, including the largest British possession in Africa, Nigeria, as well as Somaliland, which united with the Italian-ruled part of Somalia to create the Republic of Somalia. Subsequent major milestones of decolonization: 1961 - Sierra Leone, Kuwait, Tanganyika; 1962 - Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda; 1963 - Zanzibar (in 1964, united with Tanganyika to form the Republic of Tanzania), Kenya; 1964 - Nyasaland (became the Republic of Malawi), Northern Rhodesia (became the Republic of Zambia), Malta; 1965 - Gambia, Maldives; 1966 - British Guiana (became the Republic of Guyana), Basutoland (Lesotho), Bechuanaland (became the Republic of Botswana), Barbados; 1967 - Aden (Yemen); 1968 - Mauritius, Swaziland; 1970 - Tonga, Fiji; 1980 - Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe); 1990 - Namibia. In 1997, Hong Kong became part of China. In 1961, the Union of South Africa proclaimed itself the Republic of South Africa and left the Commonwealth, but after the liquidation of the apartheid regime (1994) it was again accepted into it.

The collapse of the British Empire did not mean, however, a complete break in the close economic, political and cultural ties between its parts that had developed over many decades. The British Commonwealth itself underwent fundamental changes. After the declaration of independence by India, Pakistan and Ceylon (since 1972, Sri Lanka) and their entry into the British Commonwealth of Nations (1948), it became a union of not only the mother country and the “old” dominions, but also all states that arose within the British Empire. The word “British” was removed from the name “British Commonwealth of Nations”, and later it began to be called “Commonwealth”. At the beginning of the 21st century, it had 53 members: 2 in Europe, 13 in America, 9 in Asia, 18 in Africa, 11 in Australia and Oceania. Mozambique, which had never been part of the British Empire, was admitted to the Commonwealth.

The turn of the 20th and 21st centuries was marked by the publication in Great Britain of fundamental studies on the history of the British Empire, including those devoted to the problems of interaction between the cultures of the peoples of the empire, various aspects of decolonization and the transformation of the empire into the Commonwealth. A long-term project for a multi-volume publication “British Documents on the End of the Empire” was developed and began to be implemented.

Lit.: Cambridge history of the British Empire. Camb., 1929-1959. Vol. 1-8; Erofeev N.A. The empire was created like this... English colonialism in the 18th century. M., 1964; aka. Decline of the British Empire. M., 1967; aka. English colonialism in the mid-19th century. M., 1977; Ostapenko G.S. British Conservatives and Decolonization. M., 1995; Porter V. The lion’s: share: a short history of British Imperialism, 1850-1995. L., 1996; Oxford history of the British Empire. Oxf., 1998-1999. Vol. 15; Davidson A. B. Cecil Rhodes - Empire Builder. M.; Smolensk, 1998; Hobsbawm E. Century of Empire. 1875-1914. Rostov n/d., 1999; Empire and others: British encounters with indigenous people / Ed. by M. Daunton, R. Halpern. L., 1999; Boyce D.G. Decolonization and the British Empire, 1775-1997. L., 1999; The commonwealth in the 21st century / Ed. by G. Mills, J. Stremlau. L., 1999; Cultures of empire: colonisers in Britain and the Empire in the nineteenth and twentieth century: a reader / Ed. by S. Hall. Manchester; N.Y., 2000; Lloyd T. Empire: the history of the British Empire. L.; N.Y., 2001; Butler L. J. Britain and empire: adjusting to a post-imperial world. L., 2001; Heinlein F. British government policy and decolonization. 1945-1963: scrutinizing the official mind. L., 2002; Churchill W. World crisis. Autobiography. Speeches. M., 2003; Seeley JR, Cramb JA. British Empire. M., 2004; James L. The rise and fall of the British Empire. L., 2005; Bibliography of imperial, colonial and commonwealth history since 1600 / Ed. by A. Porter. Oxf., 2002.

A. B. Davidson.

British overseas territories - colonies of Britain in the 21st century?

The British Overseas Territories include 14 territories under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United Kingdom. These are parts of the British Empire that did not gain independence or voted to remain British territories and have a British monarch (Elizabeth II) as head of state.

These territories are not part of the United Kingdom (with the exception of Gibraltar), and are not part of the European Union. The population of the territories is internally self-governing, and Great Britain assumes responsibility for the defense and external relations of these territories.

Most of the British Overseas Territories are uninhabited or have a temporary population (military or scientific personnel).

The term "British Overseas Territory" was introduced in 2002, replacing the term "British Dependency" (British Nationality Act). Until 1 January 1983, the territories were officially called British Crown Colonies. Excludes the British Antarctic Territory, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (which are home to only officials and staff of research stations), and the British Indian Ocean Territory (which is used as a military base).

Although the British Overseas Territories are subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United Kingdom, they are not part of the United Kingdom.

British Overseas Territories citizenship is different from British citizenship and does not provide a right of residence in the United Kingdom (with the exception of Gibraltarians).

All citizens of the British Overseas Territories (other than those associated exclusively with the sovereign base territories of Cyprus) were granted British citizenship on 21 May 2002 and therefore have the right of abode in the UK.

They can use this full right of residence if they enter the UK with a British Citizen passport or a BOTC passport, having obtained a Right of Residence Certificate.

A British Overseas Territories national traveling to the UK on a BOTC passport without a proof of residence is subject to immigration controls.

According to the 2001 census, there are 27,306 people living in the UK (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) born in the 14 British Overseas Territories.

Collectively, the British Overseas Territories cover a population of approximately 250,000 people and land area of ​​1,727,570 square kilometers.

Colonies of Great Britain at the end of the 19th century

The vast majority of this land area is the virtually uninhabited Antarctic territory of Britain, and the largest area by population is Bermuda (almost a quarter of the total population of the British Overseas Territories).

At the other end of the scale are three territories that have no civilian population:

1. Antarctic territories
2. British Indian Ocean Territories (Chagos Islanders were forcibly removed)
3. South Georgia

The Pitcairn Islands are inhabited by the surviving Bounty rebels (it is the smallest settled territory, with only 49 inhabitants).

And the smallest territory in terms of area is Gibraltar - at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula.

The United Kingdom participates in the Antarctic Treaty System. Under this agreement, the British Antarctic Territory is recognized by four of the six other sovereign states claiming Antarctic territory.

Although the Crown, Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man are also under the sovereignty of the British monarch, they have different constitutional relationships with the United Kingdom.

The British Overseas Territories and Hereditary Dependencies are themselves distinct from the Commonwealth of Nations: a group of 15 independent countries, each with Elizabeth II as their reigning monarch, and the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of 52 countries mostly historically associated with the British Empire.

British Overseas Territories - List

What were the British Overseas Territories like in the twentieth century and what did they become in the twenty-first?

http://voda.molodostivivat.ru/topics/neobxodimo-znat
http://voda.molodostivivat.ru/

Home page -> B -> British colonial empire

BRITISH COLONIAL EMPIRE, Great Britain and its colonial possessions (1607 - mid-20th century). The term has been used since the 1870s.

The empire included the metropolis (Great Britain) and colonies (there were about

Colonies of England

50), which were governed by governors general. From the 2nd half of the 19th century. Self-governing dominions appeared (the name was adopted at the imperial conference in 1926), then protectorates and mandated territories (mandated by the League of Nations).

British colonial empire.

Indian Prince's Toy: Tiger Attacking a British Soldier.

The first territories annexed were Ireland and Scotland (13th-17th centuries). From the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. accumulated capital and the discovery of new trade routes during the Great Geographical Discoveries pushed the English gentry (new nobility) and merchants to seize markets and territories.

In the wars 16 - beginning 17th century England inflicted a number of defeats on Spain (see the article “Invincible Armada” - death). Its first base for conquests in the New World was the island of Newfoundland (16th century, since 1917 part of Canada). The first English colony was formed in 1607 on the coast of North America (Virginia), then in a number of areas of its eastern coast.

The English East India Company (1600-1857) played an important role in the creation of the colonial empire.

During the War of the Spanish Succession, Great Britain captured Gibraltar and new territories in North America (lost them during the War of Independence in North America 1775-1783).

In the 18th century it already dominated the West Indies and the West African coast; ousted the Dutch and French (Seven Years' War 1756-1763, etc.), capturing French Canada and other territories in North America; began the conquest of India (completed in the 19th century).

During the Napoleonic Wars, Great Britain gained new advantages. Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

recognized its rights to the Cape Colony in South Africa, the island of Malta, the island of Ceylon, etc. In the 1870-1890s. Great Britain annexed significant territories in Asia and Africa (see.

Art. Anglo-Afghan Wars, Anglo-Burmese Wars, Anglo-Mysore Wars, Anglo-Boer War). In 1910, the Union of South Africa was formed.

Great Britain established control over the Suez Canal (1875) and Egypt (1882).
Participation in the Opium Wars allowed her to impose unequal treaties on China and open a number of its ports to English trade. Great Britain captured the island of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, 1819) from China.

Its sphere of influence included Iran and the Ottoman Empire. There was colonization of Australia (the first settlement was founded in 1788) and Oceania, New Zealand (1840). The majority of the population of these settler colonies (as well as Canada) were immigrants from Great Britain.

From ser. 19th century after a series of uprisings they achieved self-government and became dominions (the name was adopted at the imperial conference in 1926): Canada in 1867, the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, New Zealand in 1907, the Union of South Africa in 1910, Newfoundland in 1917. Suppressed Sepoy Rebellion 1857-1859.

prompted the British to carry out reforms.

Colonial and naval rivalry between Great Britain and Germany was one of the causes of the First World War of 1914-1918.

As a result, the British Empire included mandated territories: Iraq, Palestine, Transjordan, Tanganyika, part of Togo and Cameroon, South-West Africa, part of New Guinea and the adjacent islands of Oceania, the islands of Western Samoa. On the other hand, the struggle for Irish independence culminated in obtaining dominion status (1921), Great Britain recognized the Independence of Egypt (1922), and in 1930 Iraq ceased to be a mandated territory.

In India in the 1st half. 20th century a campaign of civil disobedience took place. The situation in the empire was affected by the economic crisis of 1929-1933. (see article Great Depression 1929-1933).
After World War II 1939-1945 The fall of the colonial system began. Great Britain granted independence to Transjordan (1946), India (1947), Burma and Ceylon (1948).

In 1947, the British Mandate for Palestine was abolished (see Art. Israel education). In the 1950-70s. Sudan, Ghana, Malaya, Malaysia, Singapore, Somalia, Cyprus, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Kuwait, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Zanzibar and Tanganyika, Kenya, Malawi, Malta, Zambia, Gambia, Maldives, Guyana became independent states , Botswana, Lesotho, Barbados, South Yemen, Mauritius, Swaziland, Tonga, Fiji. Hong Kong was ceded to China in 1997.
The former colonies together with Great Britain formed the British Commonwealth of Nations.

British colonial empire

Anglo-American intervention and civil war in the Russian North 1918-1920.

2.2 Colonial policy of the interventionists

Under the banner of so-called friendly economic assistance, the region was flooded with a large army of Anglo-American merchants and speculators.

Military speculators established monopolies on more valuable raw materials: furs, ornamental bones...

Foreign policy of Holland in the second half of the 17th and early 18th centuries

Chapter II.

Dutch colonial policy

The colonial policy of European states in the 20-60s differed significantly from the methods of colonial rule in the second half of the 17th-18th centuries...

2. Colonial policy of England in the 19th century

Colonial policy of England in the 19th century

2.1 England's colonial policy in India in the 19th century

Colonies under capitalism are countries and territories under the rule of a foreign state (the metropolis), deprived of political and economic independence, governed on the basis of a special regime...

Colonial policy of England in the 19th century

2.2 England's colonial policy in North America

In the middle of the 19th century.

England was the largest colonial power in the world. Its colonies occupied an area of ​​more than 2 million square meters. km with a population of one hundred million people...

Colonial policy of England in the 19th century

2.4 England's colonial policy in Africa

Relying on previously established colonies in Asia, primarily India, England continued to strengthen and expand its position in this part of the world.

In 1880 At the cost of great military efforts, England managed to establish a protectorate over Afghanistan...

British colonial policy

2.1 Colonial policy of Great Britain in the first half of the 19th century

After the defeat of France under the leadership of Napoleon in 1815, which was the main rival in the colonial field, the British colonialists took advantage of the favorable situation through threats and bribes, wars and diplomacy...

Consequences of the Industrial Revolution in Europe

9.

Colonies and colonial policy

By the end of the 19th century. The process of formation of the world market, in which the economic and territorial division of the world was of great importance, was completed. Monopolization of the foreign market implied the seizure of colonies...

Industrial Revolution in England

2.

British Empire

English trade and colonial expansion

In the 18th century England was involved in 119 conflicts related to colonial issues. The final stage in the creation of the colonial empire of England was its participation in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), from which it emerged as a more powerful power...

Commonwealth of Nations

2.

Colonial policy of England during the period of imperialism

The British Empire entered the First World War in its entirety. This war also marked the beginning of the crisis of the British Empire.

The previously growing centrifugal forces burst out...

Asian countries at the beginning of the 20th century

1. Colonial policy of the West at the beginning of the 20th century

Industrial revolution of the 19th century. gave a new impetus to the overseas expansion of European powers. Territorial conquests began to be seen as a means of increasing wealth, prestige...

Chapter 1.

Colonial policy of the German Empire in 1871-1914

The evolution of the colonial policy of the German Empire in 1871-1914.

§ 2 Colonial policy of Emperor Wilhelm II (1888-1914)

Chapter I. Colonial policy of the German Empire in 1871-1914.

The evolution of the colonial policy of the German Empire in 1871-1914

§ 2. Colonial policy of Emperor Wilhelm II (1888-1914)

In June 1888, after the short reign of his father, Frederick III, William II ascended the throne at the age of 29 and declared himself heir to the principles of the rule of his grandfather, William II (38; p.

Modern colonies- a list of surviving colonies of countries around the world.

Colonies and dependent territories of Great Britain

In total, colonies (from the time of the colonial system) survived in (at least) 8 countries. The largest existing colony is the island of Greenland, and the most populated is the island of Puerto Rico.

[edit]Portugal

• Azores.
• Madeira Island.

[edit]Spain

• Canary Islands.
• city ​​of Ceuta.
• city ​​of Melilla.

[edit]Netherlands

• Netherlands Antilles.
• island of Aruba.

[edit]Denmark

• Greenland island.

  Area 2.175 million square kilometers. Population 55,117 people.

[edit]France

• Guadeloupe Island
• Martinique island.
• Islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
• French Guiana.
• Renyon Island.
• Mayotte island.
• island of New Caledonia.
• French polynesia.
• Wallis and Futuna Islands.
• French South Antarctic Territories.

[edit]Great Britain

• Isle Of Man.
• Guernsey.
• Jersey.
• city ​​of Gibraltar.
• Falkland Islands.
• Pitcairn Island.
• Anguilla island.
• Cayman Islands (Cayman Islands).
• Montserrat island.
• Bermuda.
• British Virgin Islands.
• Turks and Caicos Islands.

[edit]USA

• Virgin Islands.
• island of Puerto Rico.
• Eastern Samoa.
• island of Guam.
• Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.

[edit]Australia

• Norfolk Island.

  The territory is 36 square kilometers. Population 2,367 people.

• Christmas Island. The territory is 135 square kilometers. Population 1,300 people.
• Cocos (Keeling) Islands. The territory is 14.2 square kilometers. Population 600 people.
• McDonald Island.

[edit]New Zealand

• Cook Islands.

  Area 240 square kilometers. Population 18,547 people.

• Niue island. Area 259 square kilometers. Population 2,239 people.
• Tokelau island. Area 10.12 square kilometers. Population 1,690 people.

1. England in the first half of the 19th century. Chartist movement.

2. Political development of England in the second half of the 19th century.

3. Development of the labor and socialist movement in England.

4. England at the end of the 19th century - beginning of the 20th century. Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902.

· A.B. Davidson. Cecil Rhodes and his time. M. 1991.

· V.G. Trukhanovsky. Benjamin Disraeli, or the Story of an Incredible Career. M. 1993.

The first stage - 1836-1839.

The third stage - the second half of the 40s - 1848.

In 1836, the Chartists submitted their “First National Petition” to Parliament. Her requirements:

1. Introduction of universal suffrage (for men).

3. Destruction of “rotten towns”.

4. Introduction of salaries for deputies.

5. Uniform distribution of electoral districts.

6. Annual re-election of parliament.

In the same 1836 it was created The first Chartist organization was the London Laborers' Association (LAR). The lawyer becomes the leader William Lovett. Soon it was joined by a second association - the Birmingham Union. Worker George Julian Garney becomes the leader of the union. They gradually merge into a single Chartist Association, the leaders of which are Irish lawyers Fergus O'Connor and James O'Brien. Immediately in this association there is a split into supporters of 2 directions: supporters of moral strength (Lovett) and supporters of physical strength (O'Connor, O'Brien, Gurney).

Supporters of moral strength They offered only a peaceful struggle for reform through petitioning and winning seats in parliament. Supporters of physical force advocated putting constant pressure on the government by all available means. The “radicals” (J. Stevens) called for preparing an armed struggle against the government, uniting disgruntled workers with disgruntled farmers. The government used the calls of the radicals to subject the Chartists to repression. The Chartists themselves expelled the radicals from their midst.

At the first stage The Chartists' struggle ends in defeat; Parliament rejects their petitions. The government forcibly disperses all Chartist organizations, their leaders end up in prison or exile.

Slogan of the second stage: “organizing a general labor strike in the country.” By 1842 such a strike could be organized. But in August 1842 the government dealt with it with the help of workers(??). however, after the strike was suppressed, the government made concessions. In 1847, the Corn Laws were repealed and a ten-hour working day was introduced for women and children.

During the third stage, Chartism is defeated. The petition was rejected due to a large number of incorrect signatures.

The significance of the Chartist movement was enormous. The ruling circles of England slowly made concessions, fearing an armed uprising of the people. In 1832, 1867 and 1884 Three parliamentary reforms were carried out, which by the end of the 19th century gave England universal suffrage and secret voting in elections. This gives a country with a monarchical system of government a democratic form of government. The Chartists became the direct predecessors of the legal organizations of the English working class (trade unions).

2. Political struggle in the country in the second half of the 19th century still unfolds between Whigs And Tory. In the first half of the 19th century, the Conservative party declined and was replaced by liberals led by G.J. Palmerston (1784-1865). he becomes a major figure in the struggle for British leadership in Europe. His idea is an alliance with Prussia to neutralize the influence of France and Russia. But when it became clear that under Nicholas I Russia was significantly strengthening, Palmerston became the head of the anti-Russian coalition.

W. Gladstone (1809-1898) became Palmerston's assistant. Reforms:

1) The primary school education system has been completely reorganized on a democratic basis.

2) The ground army has been reorganized - its numbers have been reduced, and it has been re-equipped with the latest technology.

3) Mandatory examinations have been introduced for entry into the civil service.

5) Legalization of trade unions (1871).

The Whigs formed the government and had a majority in parliament until the Conservative Party was led by B. Disraeli (1804-1881). In 1867, on his initiative, conservatives carried out a reform by which workers received additional voting rights. In 1868 Disraeli became prime minister. At this time, the French begin to build the Suez Canal in Egypt. The French were forced to transfer part of the rights to the Viceroy of Egypt, the Khedive, who began selling shares in the canal. Disraeli decided to strengthen England's position in this region. Through frontmen and newspapers, he began to spread rumors of an impending uprising and, and shares of the Suez Canal plummeted in price. Disraeli buys up the shares, and England becomes the sole owner of the Suez Canal. In 1882, taking advantage of this, she established a protectorate over the entire territory of Egypt.

Therefore, it was Disraeli who Queen Victoria(1837-1901) proposes to take the post of Prime Minister (1875-1880). In 1876, Disraeli achieved an act through parliament declaring the creation of the British Empire and the inclusion of India within the empire. With the active participation of Disraeli, the colonial system of Great Britain was formed. Jingoism is an active colonial policy with bayonets. Great Britain was hindered by France and Russia. Great Britain weakened the position of France by seizing control of the Suez Canal, and the position of Russia at the Berlin Congress of 1878, when the results were revised Treaty of Saint Stephen and Britain received the island of Cyprus. But while England was fighting with France and Russia, it received a new enemy in the person of a united Germany. The government is formed by Lord Soulsbury (J. Chamberlain), who became the father of the policy of “brilliant isolation”, when England isolated itself from European problems for a long time. But the colonial policy failed. Chamberlain's successor, George Curzon, called colonial policy a "policy of throwing dice" to involve England's enemies in internecine conflicts.

Ireland problem. This issue was important for British domestic politics. It often determined the success/failure of conservatives and liberals. Liberals advocated the provision of home rule and independence. A radical and moderate opposition is forming in Ireland. Moderate (Parnell) - hope for parliament. The radical opposition (M. Davitt) called for an armed struggle for the liberation of Ireland. Moderate - Irish Home Rule League; radical - Irish Republican Brotherhood. The majority of the British opposed the Home Rule problem. Conservatives supported the interests of the British, who had long lived in Ireland. Ireland gained independence in 1918.

3. Development of the labor and social movement in England.

Z Then relations with Russia were settled. The defeat of Russia in the war with Japan (1904-1905) and the First Russian Revolution (1905-1907) proved to London that St. Petersburg would not threaten British interests. The Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 was signed, according to which the contradictions between the two countries in Central Asia, Tibet and the Far East were resolved. This marked the completion of the creation of the Entente. The agreement was confirmed during a personal meeting between Edward VII and Nicholas II in Reval (Tallinn). However, London did not make any specific commitments. Britain wanted to maintain “free hands” until the last moment.

This is also explained by that at the turn of the century the social struggle and the struggle of the Irish for the complete independence of the island sharply intensified in the country. In such a situation, a liberal cabinet led by Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1905-1908) came to power. His government tried to carry out some important social reforms, in particular trying to stop the spread of the static movement in the country. To do this, they met the demands of trade unions to introduce an eight-hour working day at state enterprises. Establishing a minimum wage for miners and those who work in hazardous enterprises.

In April 1909, the new Prime Minister David Lloyd George proposed adopting the first “people's budget” in the country's history:

1) introduction of old-age pensions (from 70 years of age);

2) provision by the state of material support to labor exchanges (10 million pounds were allocated for these 2 purposes);

3) an increase in taxes for the wealthy, primarily the introduction of an inheritance tax;

4) increase in costs for the construction of the navy by 4 times.

The House of Commons voted 554 times to pass the budget.. This budget was passed in November 1909 by the votes of the Liberals, Labor and Irish. The budget passage in the House of Lords was no less difficult. It was initially unsuccessful, but Loyge George received the support of the new King George V (1910-1936). The king threatened the House of Lords that he would introduce 300 new members into it, and the budget would not be accepted. The budget was passed a year after it was introduced in the House of Lords. All this time, the country lived off temporary budgets. After this, a radical reform of the House of Lords was carried out (1911). The House of Lords lost the right to discuss any financial issues, and on other issues could only delay bills for two sessions. This made it possible to stabilize the discussion of laws in parliament.

Since the end of the 19th century financial transactions, the export of capital abroad and the exploitation of colonies become the basis of the country's power. Thanks to its vast colonial possessions, England maintains a leading political and economic position in the world. By the beginning of the 20th century, England had become a world banker and still had the largest merchant and military fleet, which allowed it to maintain dominance on the seas.