Taxonomy conclusions about the closeness of humans to these monkeys are based on solid comparative morphological and comparative physiological material.

The latter serves as the basis for the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man, in view of which we will briefly dwell on it. A comparative morpho-physiological analysis of the characteristics of humans and anthropomorphic monkeys makes it possible, in particular, to outline the formulation of the question of the phylogenetic relationships between them. Indeed, it seems important to find out which of the three great apes is closer to humans.

The table compares, first of all, the main dimensional characteristics of all four forms.

The table shows that according to most of the listed dimensional characteristics, chimpanzees and gorilla are closest to humans. It is striking that in terms of brain weight the chimpanzee is closest to a human.

Hairline. The body of anthropomorphic monkeys is covered with coarse hair. The back and shoulders are more heavily haired (especially in the orang). The chest is poorly covered. The face, part of the forehead, soles of the feet, palms of the hands are hairless. The backs of the hands are lightly covered with hair. There is no undercoat. Consequently, the hairline shows signs of rudimentation, however, not nearly as pronounced as in humans. Chimpanzees sometimes have armpits covered with hair (similar to humans). Orangs have a strong development of beard and mustache (resemblance to humans). As in humans, the hair of the shoulder and forearm of all anthropomorphic individuals is directed towards the elbow. Chimpanzees and orangs, like humans, experience baldness, especially in the hairless chimpanzee - A. calvus.

Color of the skin. Chimpanzees have light skin except for their faces. The pigment is formed in the epidermis of the skin, like in humans.

Skull and jaw apparatus. The skull of an adult human is, in a number of ways, sharply different from the skull of great apes. However, here too there are some similarities: the table compares some elements of the characteristics of human and ape skulls.

Selected elements of the characteristics, as well as the data in the table, show that African anthropomorphic monkeys are closer to humans than the orangutan. If we calculate the volume of a chimpanzee's braincase in relation to its body weight, then this monkey will be closest to humans. The same conclusion follows from a comparison of the 5th, 6th, 10th and 12th indicators given in the table.

Spinal column. In humans, it forms an S-shaped profile line, that is, it functions like a spring, protecting the brain from a concussion. Cervical vertebrae with weak spinous processes. Anthropomorphic monkeys do not have an S-shaped curvature; the spinous processes are long, especially in the gorilla. They are most similar to human ones in chimpanzees, evenly lengthening from the first to the last cervical vertebrae, as in humans.

Rib cage. Its general shape in humans and anthropomorphic animals is barrel-shaped, somewhat compressed in the dorso-ventral direction. This configuration of the chest is characteristic only of humans and anthropomorphs. In terms of the number of ribs, the orang is the closest to humans, having, like the latter, 12 pairs of ribs. However, the same number is observed in the gorilla, although, like in the chimpanzee, there are 13 pairs. A human embryo normally has the same number of ribs that is sometimes found in an adult. Thus, anthropomorphic animals are very close in this characteristic to humans, especially the orangutan. However, the chimpanzee and gorilla are closer to humans in the shape of the sternum, which in them consists of a small number of elements, more numerous in the orang.

Limb skeleton. Anthropomorphic monkeys, like all monkeys, are characterized by a certain similarity in the functions of the fore and hind limbs, since both arms and legs are involved in climbing a tree, with the forelimbs having a significantly greater lifting force than those of Homo. Both anthropomorphic limbs are multifunctional, and the functions of the hand are wider and more diverse than the functions of the leg. A person's hand is completely freed from the function of movement, and other functions associated with his work activity have become unusually enriched. The human leg, having become the only support of the body, on the contrary, experienced a process of narrowing of functions and, in particular, an almost complete loss of the grasping function. These relationships caused the development of significant differences in the skeletal structure of anthropomorphic and human limbs, especially the legs. The human leg - thigh and lower leg - significantly exceeds the same anthropomorphic elements in length.

The powerful development of muscles in the human leg has determined a number of features in the structure of its bones. The femur is characterized by a strong development of the linea aspera, a long neck and an obtuse angle at which it deviates from the body of the bone itself. The human foot has a number of distinctive features. Whereas in anthropomorphic people, as a rule, the big toe is deviated at an angle to the rest, in humans it is located approximately parallel to the other toes. This increases the supporting force of the leg, i.e. is a sign associated with upright posture. This is also confirmed by the fact that in the mountain gorilla, which often assumes a vertical position, the big toe of the hind foot is similar in position to a human one. Another feature of humans is the dome-shaped, concave lower surface of the sole, which springs when walking. This feature is absent in the pes planus of monkeys. The latter have very long hands and feet. The gorilla's hand and foot are, in general, closer to those of humans, which is due to the more developed chthonobiontism of this monkey.

Pelvis. The human pelvis is wider than it is long. The sacrum fused with it includes 5 sacral vertebrae, which increases the supporting force of the pelvis. The gorilla's pelvis is most similar to that of humans, followed by chimpanzees and orangutans. And in this feature, the closeness of the gorilla to humans is a consequence of chthonobnoty.

Muscles. A person has highly developed leg muscles (upright posture), namely: gluteus, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, soleus, third peroneus, quadratus pedis. As in humans, the ear muscles of anthropomorphs are vestigial, especially in the orang, while the chimpanzee is able to move its ears. However, in general, the muscular system of African anthropomorphs is closer to that of the human than to that of the orangutan.

Human and chimpanzee brains. (12). Both brains are shown equal in size for ease of comparison (in reality, the chimpanzee brain (2) is much smaller). Brain regions: 1 - frontal, 2 - frontal granular, 3 - motor, 4 - parietal, 5 - striatal, 6 - temporal, 7 - preoccipital, 8 - insular, 9 - postcentral. (From Nesturkh)

Brain, sense organs. The volume of the cranium and the weight of the brain have already been indicated. The farthest from humans in terms of brain weight are orangs and gorillas, the closest are chimpanzees. The human brain is strikingly larger in volume and weight than the brains of anthropomorphic creatures. More. more important is the fact that it is richer in convolutions, although in this respect it is similar to the brain of anthropomorphs. However, the functional characteristics of the brain associated with its fine (cytological) architecture are of decisive importance. The figure shows that this latter is very similar in humans and chimpanzees. However, in anthropomorphic animals the motor and sensory “speech centers” are not developed, of which the first is responsible for the motor work of the human articulatory apparatus, and the second for the semantic perception of heard words. The cytological architecture of the human brain is much more complex and more developed, especially within the frontal lobe, which makes up 47% of the lateral surface of the brain in humans, 33% in chimpanzees, 32% in gorilla, and even less in orang.

Sense organs human and anthropomorphic are similar in many ways. In all these forms, some reduction of the olfactory organs is observed. Human hearing is close in its perceptive characteristics to the hearing of a gorilla; a chimpanzee has a greater ability to perceive high tones. The similarity between the auricle of African anthropomorphic animals and humans is very great. It is remarkable that the pinna exhibits variations remarkably similar to those of chimpanzees and other apes. Both humans and anthropomorphic species are characterized by greater visual acuity, both three-dimensional (stereometric) and color.

Ontogenesis. The embryogenesis of anthropomorphic animals is unusually similar to human embryogenesis. The early stages of development are generally little distinguishable in all monkeys. Differentiation by species (and generic) characters begins at later stages. The figure shows that the heads of human, chimpanzee and gorilla embryos on the eve of birth, as well as the skulls of newborn anthropomorphic humans, have many similarities - the roundness of the cranial vault, large, forward-directed rounded orbits, the dominance of the cranium over the jaw apparatus. There are also many similarities in the soft parts of the face. In chimpanzee and gorilla embryos, the eyeball protrudes noticeably from the eye orbit, due to the initial predominance of eyeball growth over orbital growth. In the human embryo, this discrepancy also occurs, but to a lesser extent. On the eyelids of human embryos and these monkeys, characteristic restrictive grooves are visible, weaker in humans. The ear of the gorilla embryo has a free lobe, like many people, etc. The general similarity of the mentioned embryos is therefore very great. In gorilla and chimpanzee embryos, distinct “mustaches” and “beards” are visible. In the human embryo they are less developed, but Darwin pointed out (“The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection”) that in the human embryo in the fifth month around the mouth the embryonic down is noticeably elongated, so in this character; there is a clear resemblance.

However, during postembryonic development, signs of similarity give way to increasing signs of differences, i.e., ontogenetic divergence occurs. In the skull, it is expressed in the progressive development of the dentition, jaws, chewing muscles and sagittal crest in anthropomorphic monkeys (in the gorilla and orang) and a lag, compared with humans, in the development of the cranium.

General conclusion. The above comparative review leads to the following general conclusions:

A. Humans and anthropomorphic monkeys have many similarities in morpho-physiological organization and in the patterns of embryogenesis.

b. African forms (gorilla, chimpanzee) are closer to humans than orangutans. The chimpanzee is closest to humans, but in a number of characteristics it is a gorilla, and in a few it is an orangutan.

V. If we take into account the phenomena of ontogenetic divergence noted above and the fact that signs of similarity with humans are scattered within all three genera of apes, then the final conclusion from the review will be the following: humans and anthropomorphic apes come from a common root, and later historically developed in divergent directions.

We see, therefore, that the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man corresponds to comparative morphological and comparative physiological data.

Great apes or hominoids are a superfamily that includes the most highly developed representatives of the order of primates. It also includes man and all his ancestors, but they are included in a separate family of hominids and will not be discussed in detail in this article.

What distinguishes an ape from a human? First of all, some features of the body structure:

The human spine bends forward and backward.

The facial part of the ape's skull is larger than the brain.

The relative and even absolute volume of the brain is significantly less than that of humans.

The area of ​​the cerebral cortex is also smaller, and the frontal and temporal lobes are also less developed.

Apes do not have a chin.

The chest is round and convex, while in humans it is flat.

The monkey's fangs are enlarged and protrude.

The pelvis is narrower than that of a human.

Since a person is erect, his sacrum is more powerful, since the center of gravity is transferred to it.

The monkey has a longer body and arms.

The legs, on the contrary, are shorter and weaker.

Monkeys have a flat grasping foot with the big toe opposed to the others. In humans, it is curved, and the thumb is parallel to the others.

Humans have virtually no fur.

In addition, there are a number of differences in thinking and activity. A person can think abstractly and communicate using speech. He has consciousness, is capable of summarizing information and drawing up complex logical chains.

Signs of great apes:

large powerful body (much larger than that of other monkeys);

absence of a tail;

lack of cheek pouches

absence of ischial calluses.

Hominoids are also distinguished by their way of moving through trees. They do not run along them on all fours, like other representatives of the primate order, but grab branches with their hands.

Skeleton of apes also has a specific structure. The skull is located in front of the spine. Moreover, it has an elongated front part.

The jaws are strong, powerful, massive and adapted for gnawing solid plant food. The arms are noticeably longer than the legs. The foot is grasping, with the big toe set to the side (like on a human hand).

Great apes include, orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees. The first are separated into a separate family, and the remaining three are combined into one - pongidae. Let's take a closer look at each of them.

The gibbon family consists of four genera. All of them live in Asia: India, China, Indonesia, on the islands of Java and Kalimantan. Their color is usually gray, brown or black.

Their sizes are relatively small for anthropoid apes: the body length of the largest representatives reaches ninety centimeters, weight - thirteen kilograms.

Lifestyle – daytime. They live mainly in trees. They move uncertainly on the ground, mostly on their hind legs, only occasionally leaning on their front legs. However, they go down quite rarely. The basis of nutrition is plant food - fruits and leaves of fruit trees. They may also eat insects and bird eggs.

Pictured is a gibbon ape

Gorilla is very great ape. This is the largest representative of the family. The height of a male can reach two meters, and weight – two hundred and fifty kilograms.

These are massive, muscular, incredibly strong and resilient monkeys. The coat color is usually black; older males may have a silver-gray back.

They live in African forests and mountains. They prefer to be on the ground, on which they walk mainly on four legs, only occasionally rising to their feet. The diet is plant-based and includes leaves, grass, fruits and nuts.

Quite peaceful, they show aggression towards other animals only in self-defense. Intraspecific conflicts occur, for the most part, between adult males over females. However, they are usually resolved by demonstrating threatening behavior, rarely even leading to fights, much less murder.

Pictured is a gorilla monkey

Orangutans are the rarest modern apes. Currently, they live mainly in Sumatra, although previously they were distributed throughout almost all of Asia.

These are the largest of the monkeys, living mainly in trees. Their height can reach one and a half meters, and their weight can reach one hundred kilograms. The coat is long, wavy, and can be of various shades of red.

They live almost entirely in trees, not even coming down to drink. For this purpose, they usually use rainwater that accumulates in the leaves.

To spend the night, they make nests in the branches, and build a new home every day. They live alone, forming pairs only during the breeding season.

Both modern species, Sumatran and Climantan, are on the verge of extinction.

In the photo there is an orangutan monkey

Chimpanzees are the smartest primates, apes. They are also the closest relatives of humans in the animal world. There are two types of them: ordinary and dwarf, also called. Even the normal size is not too big. The coat color is usually black.

Unlike other hominoids, with the exception of humans, chimpanzees are omnivores. In addition to plant foods, they also eat animals, obtaining them by hunting. Quite aggressive. Conflicts often arise between individuals, leading to fights and death.

They live in groups, the average number of which is ten to fifteen individuals. This is a real complex society with a clear structure and hierarchy. Common habitats are forests near water. Distribution: Western and central part of the African continent.

Pictured is a chimpanzee monkey

Ancestors of great apes very interesting and varied. In general, there are much more fossil species in this superfamily than living ones. The first of them appeared in Africa almost ten million years ago. Their further history is very closely connected with this continent.

It is believed that the line leading to humans separated from the rest of the hominoids about five million years ago. One of the likely candidates for the role of the first ancestor of the genus Homo is considered Australopithecus - great ape, who lived more than four million years ago.

These creatures contain both archaic characteristics and more progressive, already human ones. However, there are much more of the former, which does not allow Australopithecines to be classified directly as humans. There is also an opinion that this is a side, dead-end branch of evolution that did not lead to the emergence of more developed forms of primates, including humans.

But the statement that another interesting human ancestor, Sinanthropus - great ape, is already fundamentally wrong. However, the statement that he is the ancestor of man is not entirely correct, since this species already clearly belongs to the genus of humans.

They already had developed speech, language and their own, albeit primitive, culture. It is very likely that Sinanthropus was the last ancestor of modern homo sapiens. However, the possibility is not excluded that he, like Australopithecus, is the crown of a side branch of development.

In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, in his System of Nature (Systema Naturae), classified humans - Homo sapiens - as one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order in the class Mammals. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: prosimians (including lemurs and tarsiers) and higher primates. The latter include apes, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans. Primates share many common characteristics that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man as a species separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient species of apes that lived in trees and were most similar to modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient ape turned into Homo sapiens thanks to work - “labor created Man.”

Similarities between humans and monkeys

The relationship between humans and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. The similarity between human and monkey embryos remains for a very long time. Specific (species) human characteristics arise only at the very latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship between humans and animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: the coccygeal bone (the remnant of a reduced tail); fold in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); fine body hair (fur residue); process of the cecum - appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include the external tail, with which people are very rarely born; abundant hair on the face and body; multiple nipples, highly developed fangs, etc.

A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was discovered. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes, homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins the amino acid sequences differed by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
The DNA of humans and chimpanzees contains at least 90% of similar genes.

Differences between humans and monkeys

- true upright posture and associated structural features of the body;
- S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low, widened pelvis;
- chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction;
- legs elongated compared to the arms;
- arched foot with massive and adducted big toe;
- many features of the muscles and location of internal organs;
— the hand is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous brow ridges;
- the cerebral part of the skull dominates to a large extent over the facial part (high forehead, weak jaws);
- small fangs;
- the chin protuberance is clearly defined;
— the human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of apes in volume and 3-4 times larger in mass;
— a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only humans have articulate speech, and therefore they are characterized by the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.

Walking on two legs

Upright walking is the most important sign of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupeds, or, as they sometimes say, “four-armed.”
Some apes (baboons) have adapted to a terrestrial existence, but they walk on all fours like the vast majority of mammal species.
Great apes (gorillas) are primarily terrestrial dwellers, walking in a partially upright position, but often supported by the backs of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, wide flat feet and short toes, the originality of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped curve of the spine that shock-absorbs when walking, a special shock-absorbing connection between the head and the spinal column.

Brain enlargement

An enlarged brain puts Man in a special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average chimpanzee brain size, the modern human brain is three times larger. In Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, it was twice as large as in chimpanzees. Humans have significantly more nerve cells and their arrangement has changed. Unfortunately, fossil skulls do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between brain enlargement and its development and upright posture.

Structure of teeth

The transformations that have occurred in the structure of teeth are usually associated with changes in the way of eating of ancient man. These include: reduction in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. the gap that includes the protruding canines in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior section has a rounded shape, and the lateral sections expand outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
During the evolution of hominids, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.

Differences at the biomolecular level

The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their relationships with other primate families. The methods used include: immunological analysis, i.e. comparison of the immune response of different species of primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which allows one to estimate the degree of relatedness by the degree of matching of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different species;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, therefore, the proximity of these species is assessed by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field;
Protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of a given protein. The listed methods showed a very close relationship between species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, one protein sequencing study found that the differences in DNA structure between chimpanzees and humans were only 1%.

Traditional explanation of anthropogenesis

The common ancestors of apes and humans - gregarious monkeys - lived in trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused a restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arched S-shaped spinal column, which gave it flexibility and the ability to absorb shock. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of shock absorption during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which provided greater stability to the body when walking upright (lowering the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed over fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became more free and varied, and their functions became more complex.

The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand proceeded through the natural selection of mutations useful for work activity. The first tools were hunting and fishing tools. Along with plant foods, higher calorie meat foods began to be used more widely. Food cooked over fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys, lost its importance and gradually disappeared during the selection process. The intestines became shorter.

The herd lifestyle, as labor activity developed and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and oral apparatus of monkeys into human speech organs. The root cause of the emergence of language was the social and labor process. Work, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
The transition to upright walking, a herd lifestyle, a high level of development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which work activity, speech and thinking developed and improved.

Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossils of Australopithecus afarensis have been discovered in Omo (Ethiopia) and Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but erect chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was like that of apes: with a low forehead, a supraorbital ridge, a flat nose, a cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth had gaps, apparently because they were used as tools for grasping.

Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth approximately 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. It probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors have suggested that it was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. The lower part of the face protruded forward, but not as much as in apes. Some skulls show traces of the occipital crest, to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but casts indicate that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from that of apes. In terms of the relative size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant food, but perhaps also gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest record of Africanus is a 5.5-million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegama in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Findings indicate that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better physically developed than Australopithecus africanus. As we have already said, some authors believe that both of these “southern monkeys” are males and females, respectively, of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to Africanus, it had a larger and flatter skull, which accommodated a larger brain - about 550 cc. cm, and a wider face. Powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which moved the massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of Africanus, and the molars were larger. At the same time, the molars of most specimens known to us are usually very worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel. This may indicate that the animals ate solid, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves where they were probably dragged by predatory animals. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Beuys's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that it was the ancestor of the gorilla.

Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg, small incisors designed for biting and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked upright. With their powerful physique they resembled a gorilla. As with gorillas, males were apparently significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Beuys's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, Beuys's crest was smaller and more forward, his face was flatter, and his fangs were less developed. Due to the huge molars and premolars, this animal received the nickname “nutcracker.” But these teeth could not exert strong pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Beuys, which is 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could have used the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a person who succeeded in using stone tools.

A little criticism of classical ideas about the origin of Man

If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and his intestines relative to the body are almost twice as long as those of carnivores? The jaws of prezinjanthropes were already significantly reduced, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?

When there is danger, birds fly into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge in trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with slow movement and the absence of tools other than pathetic sticks and stones, escape from predators?

M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev openly include the mysterious reasons for the loss of hair in people as unresolved problems of anthropogenesis. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys retain their fur. Why did our ancestors lose it?

Why did a cap of hair remain on a person’s head while it was being reduced on most of the body?

Why does a person’s chin and nose protrude forward with the nostrils turned down for some reason?

The speed of transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens), as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia, is incredible for evolution. Biologically this is inexplicable.

A number of anthropological researchers believe that our distant ancestors were australopithecines who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but australopithecines were land monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees they lived in savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time as him. There is evidence that Australopithecines, who lived in West Africa 2 million years ago, were hunted by ancient people.

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Apes and humans - similarities and differences. Types and characteristics of modern apes

Apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and apes is the main one that allows them to be classified as one taxon.

Evolution

Apes first appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was approximately thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that Dryopithecus, Gibbon and Pliopithecus arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of apes that existed at that time.

At that time, there was an active spread of Dryopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, humans and apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.

Fossil finds

The oldest known apes are Rukvapithecus, Camoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus.

Some scientists are of the opinion that modern apes are descendants of Parapithecus.

Differences between humans and monkeys.

But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the paucity of the remains of the latter. As a relict hominoid we mean the mythical creature - Bigfoot.

Video on the topic

Description of primates

Apes have a larger body than that of apes. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), or cheek pouches.

A characteristic feature of hominoids is their method of movement. Instead of moving on all their limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their arms. This method of movement is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a flattened chest in the anteroposterior direction.

All apes are able to stand on their hind limbs, freeing their forelimbs. All types of hominoids are characterized by developed facial expressions, the ability to think and analyze.

Difference between humans and apes

Short-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity between humans and apes in skeletal structure, the arms of humans are not as well developed and are significantly shorter in length.

At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Apes move easily through trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, all limbs are typically used.

Some individuals prefer the “walking on their fists” method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and apes also manifest themselves in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as those of humans.

However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.

Habitat

Apes inhabit the tropical forests of Asia and Africa. All existing species of primates are characterized by their own habitat and way of life. Chimpanzees, for example, including dwarf ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are distributed in almost all types of African forests and open savannas.

However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in the humid tropics of the Congo Basin. The eastern and western lowland gorilla subspecies are more common in humid African forests, while representatives of the mountain species prefer temperate forests.

These primates rarely climb trees due to their massive size and spend almost all their time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, and the number of members changes constantly. Orangutans, on the contrary, are loners, as a rule. They inhabit swampy and humid forests, climb trees well, and move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite deftly. Their arms are very long - reaching all the way to their ankles.

Speech

Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals.

Many scientists have studied the issues of teaching speech to great apes. However, the work did not produce the expected results. Primates can only produce isolated sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and their vocabulary in general is very limited, especially compared to talking parrots.

The fact is that narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-producing elements in the oral cavity in organs corresponding to humans. This is what explains the inability of individuals to develop skills in pronouncing modulated sounds. Monkeys express their emotions in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them is with the sound “uh”, passionate desire is manifested by panting, threat or fear is manifested by a piercing, sharp cry.

One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To convey any information, facial expressions, gestures, and posture are the main mechanisms. With this in mind, the researchers tried to start talking to the monkeys using sign language, which is used by deaf and mute people.

Young monkeys learn signs quite quickly. After a fairly short period, people were able to talk with animals.

Perception of beauty

The researchers noted, not without pleasure, that monkeys love to draw. In this case, primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet.

In addition, animals are quite skillful in dividing the plane of paper into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony in both color and form.

More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, while observing animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat at sunset on the edge of the forest and watched the sun set in fascination.

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Greater primates or monkeys

Representatives of this order, which includes the family of upright primates (hominids), the only modern representative of which is Homo sapiens, are characterized by a strong development of the cerebral hemispheres with a cortex complicated by numerous grooves and convolutions. The sense of smell is poorly developed, so the noses are shortened, and three-dimensional color vision becomes the main sense organ.

Many monkeys have no hair on the facial part of the skull and highly developed facial muscles, which provides very expressive facial expressions.

The golden marmoset is decorated with bright fur and a lush mane

Broad-nosed monkeys

Monkeys living in America are called broad-nosed monkeys due to the structure of the nasal septum.

They lead an arboreal lifestyle and have a long, prehensile tail, which they use as a “fifth” limb. The smallest and most primitive of the broad-nosed monkeys are marmosets, weighing only 400-500 g. They spend their entire lives in trees, feeding on fruits and insects. There are about 30 species of marmosets, and due to their striking appearance, they are often caught for zoos and private collections.

With a cry, the howler asserts its right to a certain territory

The largest broad-nosed monkeys are howler monkeys, weighing 6-8 kg.

Howler monkeys live in the treetops in large herds of 20-40 individuals. They got their name for their ability to produce a very loud roar, reminiscent of the roar of predatory animals. A herd of howler monkeys creates a noise that can be heard for many kilometers.

Narrow-nosed monkeys

A female orangutan gives birth to one baby every 6 years, and feeds it with milk until the age of 4.

Narrow-nosed monkeys live in Asia and Africa.

This group includes 2 superfamilies: monkeys and hominoids (humanoids). Hominoids include the distinctive gibbons, the great apes (gorillas, orangutans and chimpanzees), as well as hominids, or humans, with a single representative - Homo sapiens. Marmosets are the smallest of the narrow-nosed monkeys.

In search of food, they often descend from trees to the ground and can visit plantations. Monkeys adapt well in captivity.

Gorillas are the largest apes (the height of adult males reaches 2 m and weight more than 300 kg). Two species of gorillas live in forested and mountainous regions of Equatorial Africa. Gorillas are strict vegetarians; they feed on the stems and roots of plants, in search of which they constantly roam the forest. They live in family groups consisting of females with newborn cubs and adolescents and an adult male - the leader with gray hair on his back.

Despite their menacing appearance, gorillas have a calm and peaceful disposition.

Chimpanzees are closer to humans in intelligence than gorillas and orangutans.

Two species of these monkeys (common and pygmy chimpanzees) are common in equatorial Africa. They lead a terrestrial lifestyle, but climb trees well. They eat both plant and animal foods. They live in large groups led by a leader.

Chimpanzees can use simple tools: pick out termites with a stick, make a sponge out of leaves to collect water for drinking. Chimpanzees have very developed facial expressions; they can smile and laugh. They communicate with each other using a variety of gestures and sounds.

Darwin's theory

Charles Darwin in his work “The Descent of Man and Natural Selection” suggested that the ancestors of humans are the apes that inhabited our planet many millions of years ago.

Despite numerous finds confirming Darwin's theory, not all the mysteries of our origin have been solved. In 1974, the fossilized remains of a very ancient hominid were discovered in Ethiopia. It was a female, named Lucy.

Write down the words that define the difference between a human and a monkey in terms of body structure. Urgent!!!

She lived 3.5 million years ago, her height was only 105 cm, her brain was very small, but she walked on her hind legs.

Before Lucy's discovery, it was believed that our ancestors switched to upright walking at a higher stage of development in order to free their hands to use tools. Lucy's discovery proved that the most ancient hominids lived in savannas, led a terrestrial lifestyle and stood on their feet to have a better view.

Comparative human anatomy
and great apes

"The Cambridge Guide To Prehistoric Man"
by David Lambert and the Diagram Group, 1991

A comparison of anatomical features convincingly suggests that the human body is nothing more than the body of an ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs.

Our arms and shoulders are not much different from the arms and shoulders of chimpanzees. However, unlike apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright.

(Large apes can stand on two legs with only their knees bent and walk on their feet, staggering from side to side.)

Adapting our feet to this new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs on our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, when bent over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need when making and using tools.

Walking on two legs, greater intelligence and a varied diet all contributed to the differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth between humans and apes.

Compared to body size, the human brain and cranium are much larger than those of the monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its comparatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech.

The jaws of modern omnivores are significantly shorter and weaker than those of great apes, which eat a largely vegetarian diet.

difference between humans and apes in body structure

Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges, to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that support the protruding snout in adult monkeys. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dental rows of apes arranged in the shape of the Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of the molars are much higher than ours.

But human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows them to chew harder food.

Differences in the structure of the tongue and pharynx between humans and chimpanzees allow us to produce a greater variety of sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.

Chimpanzees are our closest relatives, but before Darwin's theory, many did not even know about them. However, our similarities and differences with them are not what they seem.

Number of species

Chimpanzees are often mistakenly called apes, but in fact they belong to the ape family, just like us. Other apes include orangutans and gorillas. Currently, there is only one species of human, homo sapiens. Humans and chimpanzees descended from a common ancestor, possibly sahelanthropus tchadensis.

DNA

It is often said that humans and chimpanzees share 99% of their DNA. Genetic comparisons are not as easy due to the nature of gene repeats and mutations, but the best estimate is somewhere between 85% and 95%. Quite impressive numbers. But most of the DNA goes into basic cellular functions that all living organisms have. For example, we have half the same DNA as a banana, but we don't say that a banana is like us. Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, twice as many as humans. It is believed that this happened due to the fact that in a human ancestor, 2 pairs of chromosomes merged into one. Even two completely unrelated humans are more genetically similar than two related chimpanzees.

Brain size

The chimpanzee brain has a volume of 370 ml. However, a person has 1350 ml. Brain size is not an indicator of intelligence. The structure and organization of different parts of the brain play an important role here. The human brain has a larger area because it is more convoluted than a chimpanzee's and has more connections between different parts. This and the relatively large frontal lobe allow us to think abstractly and logically.

Sociability

Chimpanzees spend a lot of time socializing. The youngsters play and tickle each other. Showing attention also includes hugs and kisses, as well as searching. Human conversations are a more subtle form of grooming that strengthen our relationships. People often show their feelings through physical contact such as a pat on the back, a hug, or a friendly nudge.

Language and facial expressions

Chimpanzees have complex greetings and communication methods that depend on the primate's social status. They communicate verbally using variations of whoops, grunts, screams and other sounds. Most of their communication takes place through gestures and facial expressions. Many of their expressions of surprise, smile, request, consolation are very human-like. At the same time, people smile, exposing their teeth, which among chimpanzees is considered a sign of aggression or danger. The person also communicates more verbally, which is why our chin is more prominent.

Diet

Both chimpanzees and humans are omnivores. Humans are more carnivorous than primates. Chimpanzees occasionally hunt other mammals, but their regular diet includes fruits and insects. People also eat in small portions rather than continuously throughout the day.

Upright walking

Both humans and chimpanzees are capable of walking on two legs. Chimpanzees usually stand on their feet to see further, but prefer to walk on all four limbs. A person walks upright from childhood and has a cup-shaped pelvis that supports the internal organs. Chimpanzees don't need this, so they have wider hips, which makes childbearing easier for them.

Eyes

In humans there is white around the iris of the eye, but in chimpanzees it is dark brown. So, it is easier for a person to notice where he is looking. This may be an adaptation to more complex social situations. Or just a genetic mutation. Both humans and chimpanzees can distinguish colors and also have binocular vision.

Use of tools

For years, humans were considered the only living creatures that used tools. However, observations of chimpanzees using a sharpened stick to catch termites changed this fact. Both humans and chimpanzees are capable of transforming their environment using tools. Chimpanzees make spears, use rocks as hammers and anvils, and crush leaves into a soft paste for makeshift sponges. It is believed that as a result of walking upright, our hands were freed for tools, and we transformed this ability into a kind of art.

Science fiction writers often speculate on the theme of the rebellion of monkeys against humanity. Hollywood films on this topic are regularly released, and the results of scientific (quasi-scientific) experiments are published, during which monkeys master skills inherent in humans: master sign language, learn to make a fire, cook food and use tools. Our closest relatives, from the point of view of the theory of evolution and genetic similarity, are chimpanzees. Before the publication of Darwin's scientific work "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection" (1871), in which the scientist argues for the natural descent of man from ape-like ancestors, chimpanzees were already known in most developed countries of the world as one of the smartest apes. The publication of Darwin's scientific work and the controversial reaction of society gave rise to a lot of misconceptions about chimpanzees. In the fiction books of that time, the fact of the relationship between chimpanzees and humans was never played up, which created a bunch of false stereotypes about these primates. Even today, many people mistakenly consider completely ridiculous facts about the relationship between chimpanzees and humans to be true. It’s time to finally separate the wheat from the chaff and show what the true differences and similarities between the higher primates and the lower ones are.

Using Tools

For many years, humans were considered the only species to possess tools. Scientific observations of chimpanzees in 1960 refuted this.

Chimpanzees use sharpened tree branches as weapons to catch termites. It is clear that humans and chimpanzees are capable of modifying their environment using tools in order to cope with everyday tasks. Chimpanzees can create primitive wooden spears by sharpening them with a stone, just as we use a hammer and anvil. One of the reasons we do this so much more skillfully is because of our ability to walk upright. As a result of standing on our hind limbs, we freed up our front limbs, which we use to create tools and all other man-made things.

Eyes

We have white sclera around the pupil and iris, while chimpanzees are typically dark brown. There are several theories why this is so. The first is to adapt to more complex social relationships to understand what others see, think and feel. This can help during collective hunting, so as not to spook the game and silently show the direction of movement with the eyes. Or it could simply be a genetic mutation, as evidenced by some cases where chimpanzees also have white sclera around the iris. Be that as it may, humans and chimpanzees have approximately the same vision: they distinguish colors, have binocular function and other similarities.

Upright walking

Humans and chimpanzees can walk on two legs. Chimpanzees often do this to look around and chart a path, but prefer to move on all fours. People stand confidently on their feet from early childhood. Already in the second year of life, babies walk confidently. Chimpanzees do not need to lean forward when moving to maintain the balance of the pelvis and internal organs, which makes their hips much wider than those of humans. This is what causes easy childbirth in female chimpanzees, unlike women. Also, when a person walks, his legs are straight, and his toes maintain balance while walking. With chimpanzees it's the other way around. When moving, they rely more on their arms, also using them for climbing, crawling, moving sideways, diagonally and rotating movements.

Sex

The Bonobos, a species of chimpanzee, are known for their sexual appetite. Ordinary chimpanzees resolve controversial situations with aggression and violence, but bonobos defuse any social tension through sexual pleasure. They also greet and show affection for each other through sexual arousal. Common chimpanzees do not engage in sex for pleasure, and mating takes only ten to fifteen seconds (often while eating or doing other rewarding activities). Friendship and emotional attachments have nothing to do with them. Female chimpanzees usually mate with several males in a row, who patiently wait their turn right next to each other. Humans experience sexual pleasure like bonobos, but sex to reproduce takes much longer and requires more effort. Unlike humans, chimpanzees have no concept of sexual jealousy or competition, as they do not recognize long-term partners. They tried to introduce something similar in the communes at the dawn of the Soviet Union, which turned into complete collapse and a series of mass suicides in the mid-20s.

Diet

Chimpanzees and humans are omnivorous primates, eating plants and meat. The human intestine is better suited to digesting meat than that of chimpanzees. Chimpanzees rarely hunt or kill other mammals, often monkeys. In most cases, they limit themselves to fruits and insects. We are much more dependent on meat. You can only get vitamin B12 naturally through animal products. Based on our digestive system and the lifestyle of primitive tribes, it is believed that we became human only by introducing regular consumption of meat products into our diet, at least once every few days. Humans also tend to eat heavily and in large quantities, unlike chimpanzees, who eat fruit throughout the day. Perhaps this is due to the fact that a person could only eat enough meat after a successful hunt, and this developed the habit of eating in large quantities, but infrequently.

Language and facial expressions

Chimpanzees have complex greeting and communication systems that depend on the social status of the group representative. They communicate verbally using a variety of calls, grunts, squeals, trousers and other sounds. But most of their connections are made through gestures and facial expressions. Many of their facial expressions - surprise, smile, consolation, pleading - are the same as ours. However, our smile for chimpanzees and many other animals is a sign of aggression and danger rather than a friendly greeting. We also communicate much more verbally, we have very complex vocal cords, which allows us to make a wide range of sounds, but at the same time prevents us from drinking and breathing at the same time, as a chimpanzee can. In addition, we have a very muscular tongue and lips, which allows us to accurately produce sounds. This is why we have a pointed chin while chimpanzees have a sloping chin.

Sociability

Chimpanzees spend a lot of time communicating. Much of their communication involves grooming each other. Chimpanzees often play, especially young ones. Tickling, playing catch and other fun means of communication are held in high esteem by them. Common expressions of love, regardless of gender and age, are hugs and kisses. In this regard, the Bonobos chimpanzee variety is especially different, in which one of the main topics of communication is sex, and gender does not matter. In this, humans, of course, differ in many ways from chimpanzees. But we also demonstrate closer relationships through physical contact—a pat on the back, a hug, or a friendly nudge. The size of the social group is also of great importance. For chimpanzees, this is usually about 50 close friends and acquaintances, while for humans it is from 150 to 200. Today, scientists associate this with the size of the brain.

Brain size

The chimpanzee brain has an average volume of 370 ml, while in humans this figure is about 1350 ml. Brain size alone is not an absolute indicator of intelligence. Thus, in history there have been Nobel Prize winners with brain sizes below 900 ml and more than 2000 ml. It cannot be said that a person with a large head, therefore a large brain, is a priori smarter than a person with a small head. The structure and organization of the different parts of the brain is the best way to determine intelligence. The human brain has a larger surface area because it is much more wrinkled than a chimpanzee's brain, with more connections between many of its regions. The relatively large frontal lobes of the brain allow us to think abstractly and logically, but chimpanzees lack this pleasure.

A very common misconception is that the DNA of humans and chimpanzees is 99% identical. Modern genetic comparisons indicate that this figure actually ranges from 85% to 95%. And even this figure may sound impressive, but it is worth understanding that the majority of DNA is used for basic cellular functions in all biological living matter. For example, we have about half the same DNA as a banana, and yet we don't say that bananas are half like us, right? Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, two more than humans. There is a hypothesis that in the human ancestor two pairs of chromosomes merge into one pair. Remarkably, we have the least genetic differentiation of any animal. That is why family ties lead to such disastrous results. Even two completely unrelated humans are genetically closer to each other than two chimpanzee siblings.

Number of species

Chimpanzees belong to the order of primates, like humans. Besides us, the most famous hominid primates are also orangutans and gorillas. Currently, there is only one species of human in the modern scientific picture of the world: Homo sapiens. In the past, many scientists have tried to prove that there are several species of humans, and often add that they themselves belong to the “higher” species. For chimpanzees the situation is different. Today, at least two species are known: the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus), also known as the bonobo. Both species are in danger of becoming extinct. Humans and chimpanzees as a species descended from a common ancestor, possibly Sahelanthropus tchadensis, which existed on the planet five to seven million years ago.