Albert von Wallenstein - commander of the Thirty Years' War

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

— Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back from Protestantism the positions lost during the Reformation
— The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
— The fears of France, which saw in the policy of the Habsburgs an infringement of their national interests
The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopoly control the maritime trade routes of the Baltic
— Selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs, who hoped to snatch something for themselves in a general dump

Members of the Thirty Years' War

— Habsburg bloc - Spain and Portugal, Austria; Catholic League - some of the Catholic principalities and bishoprics of Germany: Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Würzburg
— Denmark, Sweden; Evangelical or Protestant Union: Electorate of the Palatinate, Württemberg, Baden, Kulmbach, Ansbach, Palatinate-Neuburg, Landgraviate of Hesse, Electorate of Brandenburg and several imperial cities; France

Stages of the Thirty Years' War

• Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624)
• Danish period (1625-1629)
• Swedish period (1630-1635)
• Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)

course of the Thirty Years' War. Briefly

“There was a mastiff, two collies and a St. Bernard, a few bloodhounds and a Newfoundland, a beagle, a French poodle, a bulldog, a few lapdogs and two mutts. They sat patiently and thoughtfully. But then a young lady came in, leading a fox terrier on a chain; she left him between a bulldog and a poodle. The dog sat down and looked around for a minute. Then, without a hint of any reason, he grabbed the poodle by the front paw, jumped over the poodle and attacked the collie, (then) grabbed the bulldog by the ear ... (Then) and all the other dogs opened hostilities. The big dogs fought among themselves; small dogs also fought with each other, and in their free moments they bit big dogs by the paws.(Jerome K. Jerome "Three in One Boat")

Europe 17th century

Something similar happened in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. The Thirty Years' War began as a seemingly autonomous Czech uprising. But at the same time, Spain fought with the Netherlands, in Italy they sorted out the relations between the Duchy of Mantua, Monferrato and Savoy, in 1632-1634 Muscovy and the Commonwealth clashed, from 1617 to 1629 there were three major clashes between Poland and Sweden, Poland also fought with Transylvania, that in turn called on Turkey for help. In 1618, an anti-republican conspiracy was uncovered in Venice ...

• March 1618 - Czech Protestants appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor Matthew with a demand to stop the persecution of people on religious grounds
• 1618, May 23 - in Prague, the participants of the Protestant congress committed violence against the representatives of the emperor (the so-called "Second Prague defenestration")
• 1618, summer - palace coup in Vienna. Matthew on the throne was replaced by Ferdinand of Styria, a fanatical Catholic
• 1618, autumn - the imperial army entered the Czech Republic

  Movements of Protestant and imperial armies in the Czech Republic, Moravia, the German lands of Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, sieges and the capture of cities (Ceske Budejovice, Pilsen, Palatinate, Bautzen, Vienna, Prague, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Bergen-op -Zoom), battles (at the village of Sablat, on the White Mountain, at Wimpfen, at Hoechst, at Stadtlon, at Fleurus), diplomatic maneuvers were characteristic of the first stage of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1624). It ended with the victory of the Habsburgs. The Czech Protestant uprising failed, Bavaria got the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Electoral Palatinate, securing a foothold for another war with the Netherlands

• 1624, June 10 - Treaty of Compiègne between France, England and the Netherlands on an alliance against the imperial house of Habsburg
• 1624, July 9 - Denmark and Sweden joined the Treaty of Compiegne, fearing the growth of Catholic influence in northern Europe
• 1625, spring - Denmark opposed the imperial army
• 1625, April 25 - Emperor Ferdinand appointed Albrech von Wallenstein as commander of his army, who suggested that the emperor feed his mercenary army at the expense of the population of the theater of operations
• 1826, April 25 - Wallenstein's army at the battle of Dessau defeated the Protestant troops of Mansfeld
• 1626, August 27 - The Catholic army of Tilly defeated the troops of the Danish king Christian IV in the battle of the village of Lutter
• 1627, spring - Wallenstein's army moved to the north of Germany and captured it, including the Danish peninsula of Jutland
• 1628, September 2 - at the Battle of Wolgast, Wallenstein once again defeated Christian IV, who was forced to withdraw from the war

  On May 22, 1629, a peace treaty was signed in Lübeck between Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire. Wallenstein returned the occupied lands to Christian, but obtained a promise not to interfere in German affairs. This ended the second phase of the Thirty Years' War.

• 1629, March 6 - the emperor issued an Edict on restitution. fundamentally curtailed the rights of Protestants
• 1630, June 4 - Sweden entered the Thirty Years' War
• 1630, September 13 - Emperor Ferdinand, who feared the strengthening of Wallenstein, dismissed him
• 1631, January 23 - an agreement between Sweden and France, according to which the Swedish king Gustav Adolf pledged to keep a 30,000-strong army in Germany, and France, represented by Cardinal Richelieu, to take on the costs of maintaining it
• 1631, May 31 - The Netherlands made an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, pledging to invade Spanish Flanders and subsidize the king's army
• 1532, April - the emperor again called Wallenstein to the service

  The third, Swedish, stage of the Thirty Years' War was the most fierce. Protestants and Catholics had already mixed up in the armies for a long time, no one remembered how it all began. The main driving motive of the soldiers was profit. Because they killed each other without mercy. By storming the fortress of Neu-Brandenburg, the emperor's mercenaries completely killed his garrison. In response, the Swedes destroyed all the prisoners during the capture of Frankfurt an der Oder. Magdeburg was completely burned, tens of thousands of its inhabitants died. On May 30, 1632, during the battle at the Rhine fortress, the commander-in-chief of the imperial army Tilly died, on November 16, the Swedish king Gustav Adolf was killed in the battle of Lützen, on February 25, 1634, Wallenstein was shot dead by his own guards. In 1630-1635, the main events of the Thirty Years' War unfolded in Germany. Swedish victories alternated with defeats. The princes of Saxony, Brandenburg, and other Protestant principalities supported either the Swedes or the emperor. The conflicting parties did not have the strength to bend fortune to their own advantage. As a result, a peace treaty was signed between the emperor and the Protestant princes of Germany in Prague, according to which the execution of the Edict of Restitution was postponed for 40 years, the imperial army was formed by all the rulers of Germany, who lost the right to conclude separate alliances among themselves

• 1635, May 30 - Peace of Prague
• 1635, May 21 - France entered the Thirty Years' War to help Sweden, fearing the strengthening of the House of Habsburg
• 1636, May 4 - the victory of the Swedish troops over the allied imperial army in the battle of Wittstock
• 1636, December 22 - the son of Ferdinand II Ferdinand III became emperor
• 1640, December 1 - Coup in Portugal. Portugal regained independence from Spain
• 1642, December 4 - Cardinal Richilier, the "soul" of French foreign policy, died
• 1643, May 19 - Battle of Rocroi, in which the French troops defeated the Spaniards, which marked the decline of Spain as a great power

  The last, Franco-Swedish stage of the Thirty Years' War had the characteristic features of a world war. Military operations were conducted throughout Europe. The duchies of Savoy, Mantua, the Venetian Republic, and Hungary intervened in the war. The fighting was fought in Pomerania, Denmark, Austria, still in the German lands, in the Czech Republic, Burgundy, Moravia, the Netherlands, in the Baltic Sea. In England, supporting the Protestant states financially, broke out. A popular uprising raged in Normandy. Under these conditions, in 1644, peace negotiations began in the cities of Westphalia (a region in northwestern Germany) Osnabrück and Münster. Representatives of Sweden, the German princes and the emperor met in Osanbrück, and the ambassadors of the emperor, France, and the Netherlands met in Münster. Negotiations, the course of which was influenced by the results of incessant fighting, lasted 4 years

THIRTY YEARS WAR

The strengthening of foreign policy contradictions in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was caused, on the one hand, by the aggravation of intra-German contradictions, and on the other, by the confrontation between the European powers. Starting as an intra-imperial conflict, it turned into the first European war in history.

The most acute foreign policy contradiction in the West at that time was the confrontation between France and the Habsburg monarchies. France, which by the beginning of the 17th century had become into the strongest absolutist state in Western Europe, sought to establish its hegemony in the system of states surrounding it. On its way stood the Habsburg monarchies - Austrian and Spanish, which usually acted in concert against France, although there were known contradictions between them, in particular because of Northern Italy.

France sought by all means to maintain the balance established in Germany after the Peace of Augsburg in order to prevent the strengthening of the position of the Habsburgs. She provided patronage to the Protestant princes and tried to break up the coalition of Catholic forces, to win over to her side one of the strongest Catholic princes - the Duke of Bavaria. In addition, France had territorial claims to the empire, she intended to annex Alsace and the Lorraine regions. With Spain, France had a conflict over the Southern Netherlands and Northern Italy. Joint Spanish-Austrian actions on the Rhine at the beginning of the war significantly exacerbated the contradictions between France and Spain.

England joined the anti-Habsburg coalition. But her position was controversial. On the one hand, she fought against the penetration of the Habsburgs into the Lower Rhine and the northern sea routes, and on the other hand, she did not want to allow the strengthening of the positions in this area and the opponents of the Habsburgs - Holland, Denmark and Sweden. England also sought to prevent the complete victory of the supporters of the anti-Habsburg coalition on the continent. She feuded with France over influence in the Middle East. Thus, England maneuvered between the two coalitions, equally afraid of the victory of both sides - Catholics and Protestants.

At first, Denmark, which owned the German regions - Schleswig and Holstein (Holstein), acted on the side of the Protestant forces; the Danish king was the prince of the "Holy Roman Empire". Denmark considered itself the successor to the Hansa in the North and Baltic Seas and sought to prevent the Habsburgs from strengthening their positions in this area. But her interests clashed here with Swedish aggression.

Sweden, which by that time had become the strongest militarily state in Northern Europe, fought to turn the Baltic Sea into its "inland lake". She subjugated Finland, captured Livonia from Poland, and, taking advantage of the weakening of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, achieved the annexation of the Ladoga region and the mouths of the Narva and Neva rivers by the Peace of Stolbov in 1617. The implementation of Sweden's plans was hampered by the protracted war with Poland, an ally of the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs tried in every possible way to prevent the conclusion of peace between Sweden and Poland in order to prevent Sweden from entering the Thirty Years' War that had begun.

Holland, recently freed from the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs, in 1621 again entered the war with Spain. She was an active ally of German Protestants and Denmark in the Thirty Years' War. The aim of Holland was to push Spain into the Spanish Netherlands, weaken the Habsburgs and ensure the dominance of their merchant fleet on the old Hanseatic routes.

Türkiye directly or indirectly participated in the military conflict between European states. Although the Turkish danger threatened many European countries, it was most directed against Austria. Naturally, the opponents of the Habsburgs sought an alliance with the Ottoman Empire. Türkiye sought to use the outbreak of the war to strengthen its positions in the Balkans. She was ready to contribute in every possible way to the defeat of the Habsburgs.

Russia did not directly participate in the outbreak of a military conflict, but both warring camps had to reckon with its position. For Russia, the main task of foreign policy was the fight against Polish aggression. Therefore, quite naturally, she was interested in the defeat of Poland's ally - the Habsburg monarchy. Contradictions with Sweden in this situation receded into the background.

Thus, the vast majority of European states directly or indirectly opposed the Austrian Habsburgs. Only the Spanish Habsburgs remained their reliable allies. This ultimately sealed the inevitable defeat of the Habsburg Empire.

The uprising in the Czech Republic and the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. After the creation of two military-political groups - the Protestant Union and the Catholic League (1608-1609) - the preparation for war in Germany entered a decisive phase. However, deep contradictions were revealed in both camps, which did not give them the opportunity to immediately enter into a military conflict. In the Catholic camp, enmity was manifested between the head of the league - Maximilian of Bavaria and Emperor Ferdinand of Habsburg. The Bavarian duke himself claimed the imperial crown no. He did not want to help strengthen his rival. No less sharp contradictions were found in the Protestant camp, where the interests of the Lutheran and Calvinist princes clashed and conflicts arose over separate possessions. The intra-German contradictions were skillfully used by the European powers, recruiting supporters in both camps.

The beginning of the war was an uprising in the Czech Republic against the power of the Habsburgs. Since 1526, the Czech Republic was part of the Habsburg state. The Czech nobles were promised to preserve the old liberties: the national Sejm, which enjoyed the formal right to elect a king, regional estate meetings, the inviolability of the Hussite religion, self-government of cities, etc. But these promises were already violated in the second half of the 16th century. Under Rudolf II, who patronized the Catholic reaction, an attack began on the rights of Czech Protestants. This activated the noble opposition in the Czech Republic, which began to merge with the Protestant camp in the empire. In order to prevent this, Rudolf II made concessions and confirmed the “Letter of Majesty”, which granted freedom to the Hussite religion and allowed him to be elected to protect his defensors (defenders). Taking advantage of this, the Czech nobles began to create their own armed forces under the command of Count Thurn.

Matthew, who succeeded Rudolf II on the throne, relied on the Germans and pursued a policy hostile to the Czech nobility. He declared as his heir Ferdinand of Styria, a friend of the Jesuits and an ardent opponent of the Protestants, who openly declared that he would never recognize the "Charter of Majesty". This caused widespread unrest. An armed crowd of Praguers occupied the town hall and demanded reprisals against the Habsburg henchmen. According to the old Czech custom, a defenestration was arranged: two of the Habsburg "deputies" were thrown out of the windows of the town hall (May 1618). This was the beginning of open warfare.

The Czech Sejm elected a government of 30 directors who took over power in Bohemia and Moravia. The government strengthened the national troops and expelled the Jesuits from the country. It was announced that Ferdinand was deprived of power over the Czech Republic. Military operations began. Czech troops under the command of Count Turnn inflicted several defeats on the Habsburg army and reached the outskirts of Vienna. But it was a temporary success. The Habsburgs had military allies in the form of the Catholic League, while the Czechs were essentially alone. The leaders of the Czech uprising did not call the masses to arms, hoping for military assistance from the German Protestants. The Czech Sejm, hoping to get the support of the Protestant Union, elected Frederick of the Palatinate as king. But this did nothing to improve the situation. Frederick of the Palatinate did not have sufficient military forces, and he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Catholic League, in fact agreeing with the impending massacre of the Czech Republic.

Under such conditions, on November 8, 1620, the decisive battle took place at Bela Hora (near Prague), in which the Czech army was defeated. Bohemia, Moravia and other areas of the former Czech kingdom were occupied by the troops of Ferdinand II (1619-1637). Mass repressions began against all participants in the uprising. The property of those executed and those who fled from the Czech Republic passed to the Catholics, in large part to the Germans. The Hussite religion was forbidden.

The defeat of the Czech Republic was followed by rampant Catholic reaction throughout Germany. Frederick of the Palatinate, nicknamed the "winter king" of Bohemia (he held the royal title for only a few winter months), was subjected to imperial disgrace. The Palatinate was occupied by Spanish troops, the title of elector, taken from Frederick, was transferred to Maximilian of Bavaria. Military operations in Germany continued. Catholic troops advanced to the northwest. In the Czech Republic and Austria, mass demonstrations of peasants began, directed against military robberies and rampant feudal reaction.

Danish war period (1625-1629). The offensive of the Catholic troops to the north caused alarm in Denmark, Holland and England. At the end of 1625, with the assistance of France, Denmark, Holland and England entered into a military alliance against the Habsburgs. The Danish king Christian IV received subsidies from England and Holland and undertook to start a war against the Catholic camp in Germany. The Danish intervention, carried out under the guise of military assistance to fellow believers - the Protestants, pursued predatory goals - the rejection of the northern regions from Germany.

The Danish offensive, supported by Protestant forces in Germany, was at first successful, aided by discord in the Catholic camp. The emperor was afraid of the excessive strengthening of the league and did not provide material assistance to its troops. The discord among the Catholic forces was facilitated by French diplomacy, which pursued the goal of splitting Bavaria from Austria. In this environment, Ferdinand II decided to create his own army, independent of the Catholic League. He accepted the plan proposed by Albrecht Wallenstein.

A. Wallenstein (1583-1634) was a Czech nobleman who became extremely rich by buying confiscated lands of Czech rebels. An outstanding condottiere commander, he was able to create a large army of mercenaries in the shortest possible time. His principle was: "War feeds war." The troops were kept at the expense of the robbery of the population and military indemnities. The officers received high salaries, and therefore there was always plenty of various adventurers from the nobles and declassed elements to replenish this bandit army. Having received from the emperor several districts in Bohemia and Swabia for standing troops, Wallenstein quickly completed and prepared an army of sixty thousand and, together with Tilly, began military operations against German Protestants and Danes. During 1627-1628. Wallenstein and Tilly defeated their opponents everywhere. Wallenstein laid siege to Stralsund, but could not take it, running into the staunch resistance of the Danish and Swedish troops who came to their aid.

Wallenstein's army occupied all of Northern Germany and was ready to invade the Jutland Peninsula. But this was prevented by the position of the European states, and especially France, which declared a strong protest against the emperor. In the Catholic League itself, contradictions also escalated: the Catholic princes expressed obvious dissatisfaction with the actions of the power-hungry imperial commander.

Defeated Denmark was forced to make peace on the terms of restoring the status quo and refusing to interfere in the affairs of Germany (Peace of Lübeck 1629). But this peace did not bring peace to Germany. Wallenstein and Tilly's mercenaries continued to rob the population of Protestant principalities and cities. Wallenstein benefited the most from the war. He received from the Emperor the Duchy of Mecklenburg and the title of "Admiral of the Baltic and Oceanic Seas." all harbors in Pomerania and prepared the fleet for the beginning of military operations on the seas.All these activities were directed against Sweden and her plans in the Baltic Sea.

The victory over Denmark seemed to open up an opportunity for the Habsburgs to assert their influence in the north and restore the dominance of the Catholic faith everywhere. But these plans were doomed to inevitable failure. In Germany, dissatisfaction with the policy of the emperor and his commander, who spoke openly about the dangers of princely pluralism and called for an end to it, was ripening.

Most of all, the interests of the Protestant princes were hurt. According to the Restorative (restorative) edict issued in 1629, the secularized possessions were taken away from the Protestants. To enforce this edict, Wallenstein used mercenary troops, occupying with their help the possessions of former monasteries abolished by the Reformation. The Catholic princes were also in opposition to Wallenstein. Ferdinand II was forced to agree to the resignation of Wallenstein (1630).

Swedish period of the war (1630-1635). Peace with Denmark was in fact only a pause in the European war that had begun in Germany. Neighboring states were waiting for an opportunity to enter the war and realize their aggressive plans for the empire. The policy of the Habsburgs fueled contradictions and gave rise to the unleashing of a European war.

Sweden, having achieved a truce with Poland, began to vigorously prepare for the invasion of Germany. An agreement was concluded between Sweden and France: the Swedish king undertook to send his army to Germany. France was to provide financial assistance. To deprive the Habsburgs of support from the papal curia, Richelieu promised to help the pope in the capture of the Duchy of Urbino in Italy.

The Swedish king, acting as a savior of the Protestant princes who suffered from restitution, in the summer of 1630 landed his army in Pomerania, relatively few in number, but possessing high fighting qualities. It consisted of free Swedish peasants, was well trained and armed with the most advanced weapons for that time, in particular artillery. King Gustavus Adolphus was an outstanding commander, skillfully applied the tactics of maneuvering combat and won battles against a numerically superior enemy.

The offensive actions of the Swedish troops were delayed for a whole year due to the position of the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony hostile to the Swedes. Only after the commander of the Catholic troops, Tilly, captured and destroyed the Protestant city of Magdeburg, and the Swedish army began to prepare for the shelling of Berlin, an agreement was reached with the Elector of Brandenburg to allow the Swedish troops to pass. The Swedish army began active offensive operations. In September 1631, the Swedes defeated Tilly's troops at the Battle of Breitenfeld (near Leipzig) and, continuing to move deeper into Germany, reached Frankfurt am Main at the end of the year. The success of the Swedish troops was facilitated by peasant and urban uprisings in a number of regions of Germany. Gustav Adolf, who declared himself the defender of the peasants, tried to speculate on this. But later the peasants turned their weapons against the atrocities of the Swedish troops.

The offensive of the Swedes did not develop at all as Richelieu expected. Gustav Adolf strove for a decisive victory and did not stop at the violation of the neutrality of the Catholic principalities allied with France, in particular Bavaria. On the territory of the latter, on the outskirts of Austria, battles unfolded. In the battles on Lech, the commander of the Catholic army, Tilly, was killed. The position of the Habsburgs became critical. Ferdinand II had no choice but to turn again to Wallenstein, who now demanded complete independence in command of the army and the conduct of the war. The emperor was forced to sign a humiliating treaty and in fact transfer the highest military power into the hands of the power-hungry "generalissimo". Wallenstein insisted on the submission of the head of the Catholic League, Maximilian of Bavaria, otherwise refusing to liberate Bavaria from the Swedish troops. In April 1632, Wallenstein, taking over the supreme command, quickly created an army of mercenaries, which included his former adventurer soldiers. France had no intention of hindering Wallenstein's progress; now she was most afraid of the implementation of the military-political plans of Gustavus Adolphus.

Preferring not to engage in a general battle with the Swedes, which Gustav Adolf was so eager for, Wallenstein exhausted the enemy in skirmishes, capturing communications and creating difficulties for supplying his troops. He moved his army into Saxony, which forced the Swedes to withdraw from southern Germany in order to protect their northern communications. On November 16, 1632, the Swedes imposed a decisive battle at Lutsen, in which they gained an advantage, but lost their commander in chief. The death of Gustavus Adolf did not allow the Swedish army to realize the victory. Wallenstein withdrew his troops to the Czech Republic.

The Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who led the policy of Sweden after the death of the king, created an alliance of Protestant princes (1633), thereby abandoning the previous projects of establishing a Swedish protectorate over Germany .. This led to an improvement in relations between Sweden and France and in the future to even more their close union.

Meanwhile, Wallenstein, who had a hundred thousandth army, began to show more and more independence. He negotiated with the Lutheran princes, the Swedes and the French, not always accurately informing the emperor about their content. Ferdinand II suspected him of treason. In February 1634, Wallenstein was removed from his post as commander and killed by bribed officers. His mercenary army was placed under the command of the Austrian Archduke.

Subsequently, hostilities unfolded in the territory between the Main and the Danube. In September 1634, Imperial-Spanish troops inflicted a heavy defeat on the Swedish army at the Battle of Nördlingen and devastated the Protestant areas in Central Germany. Protestant princes went to reconciliation with the emperor. The elector of Saxony concluded a peace treaty with Ferdinand in Prague, achieving the annexation of a number of territories to his possessions (1635). His example was followed by the Duke of Mecklenburg, the Elector of Brandenburg and a number of other Lutheran princes. The war finally turned from intra-imperial to European.

Franco-Swedish war period (1635-1648). In an effort to prevent the strengthening of the position of the Habsburgs and the loss of its influence in Germany, France renewed its alliance with Sweden and began open hostilities. French troops simultaneously launched an offensive in Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and the Pyrenees. Soon Holland, Mantua, Savoy and Venice also intervened in the war. During this period, France played a leading role in the anti-Habsburg coalition.

Despite the fact that the largest Protestant princes of Germany went over to the side of the emperor, the opponents of the Habsburgs had a preponderance of forces. Under the control of France, the 180,000-strong army of Berenhard of Weimar, hired with French money, fought in Germany. The enemy troops did not enter into decisive battles, but tried to wear each other out, making deep raids into the enemy's rear. The war took on a protracted, exhausting character, the civilian population suffered the most from it, subjected to constant violence by the riotous soldiery. One of the participants in the war describes the atrocities of the landsknechts as follows: “We ... flew into the village, took and stole everything we could, tortured and robbed the peasants. If the poor fellows did not like it and they dared to protest ... they were killed or their houses were set on fire. The peasants went into the forests, created detachments and entered into battle with the robbers - foreign and German mercenaries.

The Habsburg troops suffered one defeat after another. In the autumn of 1642, in the battle near Leipzig, the Swedes defeated the imperial troops. In the spring of 1643, the French defeated the Spaniards at Rocroix. The largest victory was won by the Swedes in the spring of 1645 at Janko-vice (Czech Republic), where the imperial army lost only 7 thousand people killed. But the Habsburgs resisted until the victories of the French and Swedish troops created an immediate threat to Vienna.

Peace of Westphalia 1648 Consequences of the war. A peace treaty was signed in two cities in the Westphalia region: in Osnabrück - between the emperor, Sweden and the Protestant princes - and in Münster - between the emperor and France. The Peace of Westphalia led to significant territorial changes both in the German Empire itself as a whole and in individual principalities.

Sweden received Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania with the city of Stettin, as well as the island of Rügen and, as an "imperial fief", the city of Wismar, the Archbishopric of Bremen and the Bishopric of Verden. Thus, under the control of Sweden were the mouths of three large rivers - the Oder, Elbe, Weser, as well as the Baltic coast. The Swedish king acquired the rank of imperial prince and could send his representative to the Reichstag, which gave him the opportunity to interfere in the internal affairs of the empire.

France secured for itself the rights to the bishoprics and the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun, acquired in the world. in Cateau-Cambrais, and annexed Alsace without Strasbourg and several other points that remained formally part of the empire. In addition, 10 imperial cities came under the care of the French king. Holland and Switzerland were finally recognized as independent states. Significantly increased their territories some large German principalities. The Bavarian Duke received the title of Elector and the Upper Palatinate. The eighth Electorship was established in favor of the Count Palatine of the Rhine.

The Peace of Westphalia finally consolidated the fragmentation of Germany. The German princes achieved the recognition of their sovereign rights: to conclude alliances and enter into contractual relations with foreign states. They could pursue an independent foreign policy, but the treaty contained a proviso that their actions were not to harm the empire. The formula of the Augsburg religious world "whose country, that is the faith" was now extended to the Calvinist princes. Divided into many large and small principalities, Germany remained a hotbed of internal and international complications.

The Peace of Westphalia brought significant changes to international relations. The leading role has passed to the large national states - France, England, Sweden, and in Eastern Europe - Russia. The multinational Austrian monarchy was in decline.

The Thirty Years' War brought Germany and the countries that were part of the Habsburg monarchy unprecedented ruin. The decline in population in many areas of Northeast and Southwest Germany has reached 50 percent or more. The Czech Republic was subjected to the greatest devastation, where out of 2.5 million people, no more than 700 thousand people survived. An irreparable blow was dealt to the productive forces of the country. The Swedes burned and destroyed almost all ironworks, foundries and ore mines in Germany.

“When peace came, Germany was defeated - helpless, trampled, torn to pieces, bleeding;

and the peasant was again in the most distressed situation.'” Serfdom intensified throughout Germany. It existed in the most severe forms in the eastern regions beyond the Elbe.

Reference table for thirty years war contains the main periods, events, dates, battles, participating countries and the results of this war. The table will be useful to schoolchildren and students in preparing for tests, exams and the exam in history.

Bohemian period of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1625)

Danish period of the Thirty Years' War (1625-1629)

Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1630-1635)

Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War (1635-1648)

The results of the war: Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all segments of the population. In Western history, it has remained one of the most difficult European conflicts among the predecessors of the World Wars of the 20th century. The greatest damage was done to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died. Many regions of the country were devastated and remained deserted for a long time. A crushing blow was dealt to the productive forces of Germany. In the armies of both opposing sides, epidemics broke out, constant companions of wars. The influx of soldiers from abroad, the constant deployment of troops from one front to another, as well as the flight of the civilian population, spread the plague farther and farther from the centers of disease. The plague became a significant factor in the war. The immediate result of the war was that over 300 small German states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806. The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic. Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests. It is customary to count the modern era in international relations from the Peace of Westphalia.

The 17th century is characterized by the unification of states, which, like people under the influence of the church schism and despite the emergence of the Protestant Union and the Catholic League, began to change and find common ground with each other. Unfortunately, the desire of states to unite was marked by a terrible devastating thirty-year war, which covered the space of Europe from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the banks of the Po River and the mouth of the Scheldt.

The old church, mired in the abuse of its own power and the assertion of absurd teachings, revolted not only the people, but also the ruling sovereigns. And to the considerable benefit of Europe, the interests of the peoples coincided with the interests of statesmen. The benefit of the rulers went hand in hand with the interest of the subjects. The Reformation coincided with the sudden power of the Austrian Habsburgs, who threatened the freedom of the European peoples.

The Thirty Years' War is divided into four periods. Bohemian-Palatinate stage from 1618 to 1623. Danish period of the war - 1624 - 1629 The Swedish period includes 1630 - 1634. The last period of the Thirty Years' War, the Franco-Swedish, falls on 1635 - 1648.

Czech period

Open military confrontation began with the Czech uprising against the ruling House of Austria. The Kingdom of the Czech Republic occupied not the last place in the Holy Roman Empire, the nobles of the Czech Republic led an active lifestyle, revolving in enlightened European circles, their ties with Germany were especially friendly. Archduke Ferdinand of Styria, proclaimed heir by Emperor Matthew, abolished the rights of Czech Protestants enshrined in the Letter of Majesty.

On May 23, 1618, the “Prague defenestration” took place, during which the imperial governors were thrown out of the windows of the town hall, “miraculously” escaping by landing on a dunghill, it was the official beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 30 directors, elected by the Czech Sejm to the government of Bohemia and Moravia, were able to strengthen the army and expel the Jesuits. Count Jindrich Matthias Thurn was able to inflict several defeats on the imperial troops, and led the army under the walls of Vienna.

Despite the fact that the rebel forces fought successfully in different directions, due to the disagreements that prevailed among the Czech commanders, lost time, as well as the unusually vigorous activity of the outwardly good-natured Ferdinand, the Czechs began to give up their positions. Albrecht Wallenstein led an army of mercenaries from Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Imperial Field Marshal Buqua defeated the Czechs at the Battle of Sablat. Ferdinand's diplomacy was also successful. Bavaria and Saxony took the side of the empire, Spain, Tuscany and Genoa sent armies to help the emperor.

On November 8, 1620, Catholic troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Czech-Moravian rebels in a fierce battle near the White Mountain. Wallenstein's mercenaries, the Polish Cossacks of Lisovsky and the Hungarian haiduks, called upon to fight the "foxes", terrified the Czechs and completely deprived them of the will to resist. The "era of darkness" has come, the Czech Republic has become an ordinary province of Austria.

Danish phase of the war

After the suppression of the Czech uprising, the flames of war engulfed new lands. Fearing the strengthening of Austria, Denmark and Sweden entered the war. England and France supported the Danish king financially. Encouraged by the allies, Christian moved troops against the empire, but it was not there. In fact, the Allies did not support Denmark, busy with their own, both external and internal Civil Wars, and in addition, the plague was decimating Europe.

In the battles of Dessau and near the village of Lutter, the Danes were finally defeated by Wallenstein and Tilly. In Lübeck in 1629, a peace was concluded according to which Denmark did not interfere in the affairs of Germany, in addition, consolidating the victory over the Danes, Ferdinand proclaimed the Restructuring Edict, which prohibited Calvinism.

Swedish period

The strengthening of the Habsburgs gave rise to European confrontation. Guided by Richelieu, the ambitious Swedish king, who dreamed of an empire in the center of Europe, landed his troops in Pomerania. The army of Gustavus Adolphus was equipped with mercenaries accustomed to fighting and free Swedish peasants who received modern flintlock guns and light field artillery. Swedish troops won a series of victories and reached Berlin.

The empire was in danger of defeat were it not for the genius of Wallenstein. The Swedes lost their king at the Battle of Lutzen. Wallenstein, with a 100,000 army, had a rather power-hungry character, and became objectionable to Ferdinand, who suspected Friedlanz of treason. Hired assassins eliminated the Generalissimo. Further successes of the imperial army caused a truce between the warring parties, but not for long, but only for the war to move into the phase of a European conflict.

Franco-Swedish period

The anti-Habsburg coalition, led by France, having 180,000 Berenhardus's army in its arsenal, inflicted endless defeats on the Habsburgs, and despite the resistance of the Austrians, came close to Vienna.

Aftermath of the Thirty Years' War

In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded. The Habsburg Empire lost significant territories and its influence on European politics. France received Alsace and the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun, 10 cities of the empire, and several other settlements. The German principalities expanded their borders considerably. Holland and Switzerland became independent.

But Sweden had the biggest benefit, the territory of Western Pomerania and the regions of Eastern Pomerania, the island of Rügen, the cities of Wismar and Stetin, control over the rivers Oder, Elbe, and Weser, as well as the entire Baltic coast, passed to it. The Swedish king became an imperial prince and was given the opportunity to interfere in the affairs of the empire. The Austrian empire of the Habsburgs was in decline, and Germany and the Czech Republic were subjected to unprecedented ruin.

The war began as a religious clash between the Protestants and Catholics of the empire, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe. The conflict was the last significant religious war in Europe and gave rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.

Prerequisites:

From the time of Charles V, the leading role in Europe belonged to the House of Austria - the Habsburg dynasty. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Spanish branch of the house, in addition to Spain, also owned Portugal, the Southern Netherlands, the states of Southern Italy and, in addition to these lands, had at its disposal a huge Spanish-Portuguese colonial empire. The German branch - the Austrian Habsburgs - secured the crown of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, were the kings of the Czech Republic, Hungary, Croatia. While the Habsburgs tried to further expand their control over Europe, other major European powers sought to prevent this. Among the latter, the leading position was occupied by Catholic France, which was the largest of the European nation-states of that time.

The Habsburgs were supported by: Austria, most of the Catholic principalities of the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, united with Portugal, the Holy See of Poland. On the side of the “anti-Habsburg coalition: the Protestant principalities of the Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, Sweden, Denmark, France, were supported by England, Scotland and the Moscow kingdom.

The Peace of Augsburg in 1555, signed by Charles V, temporarily ended the open rivalry between Lutherans and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, and in particular in Germany. Under the terms of the peace, the German princes could choose a religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) for their principalities at their discretion, according to the principle: "Whose power, that is faith" (lat. Cuius regio, eius religio). However, by the beginning of the 17th century, the Catholic Church, relying on the support of the Habsbug dynasty, was regaining its influence and waged an active struggle against the Protestants.

To repel Catholic pressure, the Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire united in 1608 in the Evangelical Union. Union sought support from states hostile to the Habsburg dynasty. In response, the Catholics united in 1609 in the Catholic League of Maximilian I of Bavaria.

In 1617, the ruling emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and King of the Czech Republic Matthew, who had no direct heirs, forced the Czech Sejm to recognize his cousin Ferdinand of Styria as the heir. Ferdinand was an ardent Catholic, a Jesuit alumnus, and extremely unpopular in the largely Protestant Bohemia. Against this background, a conflict broke out in Prague between representatives of the Czech aristocracy and the royal governors.

Periods: The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Outside of Germany, there were several separate conflicts: the War of Spain with Holland, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Russian-Polish War, the Polish-Swedish War, etc.

Members: On the side of the Habsburgs were: Austria, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, Spain, united with Portugal, the Holy See, Poland. On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition - France, Sweden, Denmark, the Protestant principalities of Germany, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, provided support: England, Scotland and Russia. In general, the war turned out to be a clash of traditional conservative forces with growing nation-states. The Habsburg bloc was more monolithic, the Austrian and Spanish houses kept in touch with each other, often conducting joint military operations. Wealthier Spain provided financial support to the emperor.

1. Czech period: 1618-25

In June 1617, the childless Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Matthew (King of the Czech Republic under the name Matthias II) passed through the General Sejm a decision to declare his nephew Archduke Ferdinand of Styria the heir to the Czech throne. Raised by the Jesuits, Ferdinand was a fanatical adherent of the Catholic Church and was famous for intolerance towards Protestants. In the Czech Republic, most of whose population was Protestant, unrest intensified. Archbishop Jan III Logel forced the entire population to convert to Catholicism and ordered the destruction of the newly built Protestant church. In March 1618, burghers and opposition Protestant nobles, at the call of Count Turnom, gathered in Prague and appealed to the emperor, who had left for Vienna, demanding the release of prisoners and an end to the violation of the religious rights of Protestants. In addition, another, more representative congress was punished for May. The emperor in response forbade the holding of this congress and announced that he was going to punish the instigators. On May 23, 1618, the participants of the meeting, despite the resistance of the Catholics, threw the congress from the windows of the Czech Chancellery into the moat of the royal governors Vilem Slavat and Yaroslav from Martinice and their scribe Philip Fabricius. Although all three survived, the attack on the emperor's representatives was seen as a symbolic attack on the emperor himself.

In the autumn of the same year, the 15,000-strong imperial army, led by Count Buqua and Count Dampier, entered the Czech Republic. The Czech directory formed an army led by Count Turn. In response to the appeal of the Czechs to the Evangelical Union, Elector of the Palatinate Frederick V and Duke of Savoy Charles Emmanuel I sent a 20,000-strong mercenary army under the command of Count Mansfeld to help them. Under the onslaught of Turn, the Catholic troops were forced to retreat to Ceska Budejovice, and Mansfeld laid siege to the largest and richest Catholic city of Pilsen.

In the meantime, after the victory at the Battle of Sablat, the Habsburgs achieved some diplomatic successes. Ferdinand was supported by the Catholic League, and the King of France promised to facilitate the election of Ferdinand as emperors, using his influence on the Elector of Trier. On August 19, Bohemia, Lusiatia, Silesia and Moravia refused to recognize Ferdinand as their king. On August 26, Frederick V was elected king of the Czech Republic. On August 28, 1619, in Frankfurt, where news from Bohemia had not yet reached, Ferdinand was elected emperor. On October 31, Frederick arrived in Prague and on November 4 was crowned in St. Vitus Cathedral. The emperor put forward an ultimatum to the newly-made king of the Czech Republic: before June 1, 1620, he had to leave the Czech Republic. As a result, the battle took place on the White Mountain of Prague on November 8, 1620. The 15,000 Protestant army suffered a crushing defeat from the 20,000 Catholic. Prague capitulated without firing a shot. Friedrich fled to Brandenburg.

The defeat caused the collapse of the Evangelical Union and the loss of Frederick V of all his possessions and title.

On April 9, 1621, the truce between Spain and the United Provinces expired. The Dutch Republic granted Frederick V asylum and financial assistance. in the spring of 1622, three armies were ready to fight against the emperor - Mansfeld in Alsace, Christian of Brunswick in Westphalia and Georg Friedrich in Baden.

The first period of the war ended with a convincing victory for the Habsburgs. Bohemia fell, Bavaria gained the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Electoral Palatinate, securing a springboard for another war with the Netherlands. This served as an impetus for closer rallying of the anti-Habsburg coalition. June 10, 1624 France and Holland signed the Treaty of Compiègne. It was joined by England (June 15), Sweden and Denmark (July 9), Savoy and Venice (July 11).

2. Danish period: 1625-29.

Tilly's army was advancing into the north of Germany and began to cause growing concern among the Scandinavian countries as well. German princes and cities, which had previously seen Denmark as a threat to their influence in the North and Baltic Seas, as Tilly approached, began to treat the Lutheran king of Denmark, Christian IV, more as a patron. England, France and Holland promised to support him financially. Upon learning that a longtime enemy of Denmark, King Gustavus Adolf of Sweden, was going to help the Protestants in Germany, Christian IV decided to act quickly and in the spring of 1625 opposed Tilly at the head of a mercenary army of 20 thousand soldiers.

To fight Christian, Ferdinand II invited the Czech nobleman Albrecht von Wallenstein. Wallenstein proposed to the emperor a new principle for the formation of troops - to recruit a large army and not spend money on its maintenance, but to feed it at the expense of the population of the theater of operations. On April 25, 1625, Ferdinand appointed Wallenstein commander-in-chief of all imperial troops. Wallenstein's army became a formidable force, and at different times its number ranged from 30 to 100 thousand soldiers.

Wallenstein's army occupied Mecklenburg and Pomerania. The commander received the title of admiral, which testified to the emperor's big plans for the Baltic. However, without a fleet, Wallenstein could not capture the capital of Denmark on the island of Zeeland. Wallenstein organized the siege of Stralsund, a large free port with military shipyards, but failed. This led to the signing of a peace treaty in Lübeck in 1629. Another period of the war ended, but the Catholic League sought to return the Catholic possessions lost in the Peace of Augsburg.

3. Swedish period: 1530-35

Both Catholic and Protestant princes, as well as very many of the emperor's entourage, believed that Wallenstein wanted to seize power in Germany himself. Perhaps that is why in 1630 it was decided to refuse the services of Wallenstein.

At that time, Sweden remained the last major state capable of changing the balance of power. Gustav II Adolf, King of Sweden, like Christian IV, sought to stop the Catholic expansion, as well as to establish his control over the Baltic coast of northern Germany. Like Christian IV, he was generously subsidized by Cardinal Richelieu, first minister of Louis XIII, King of France. Prior to this, Sweden was kept from the war by the war with Poland in the struggle for the Baltic coast. By 1630, Sweden ended the war and enlisted the support of Russia (Smolensk War). The Swedish army was armed with advanced small arms and artillery.

Ferdinand II had been dependent on the Catholic League ever since he disbanded Wallenstein's army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus defeated the army of the Catholic League under the command of Tilly. A year later, they met again, and again the Swedes won, and Tilly died (1632). With the death of Tilly, Ferdinand II turned his attention back to Wallenstein.

Wallenstein and Gustav Adolf clashed at the fierce Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes narrowly won, but Gustav Adolf died. April 23, 1633 Sweden, France and the German Protestant principalities formed the Heilbronn League; all military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by the Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna.

Ferdinand II's suspicions again got the better of him when Wallenstein began to conduct his own negotiations with the Protestant princes, the leaders of the Catholic League and the Swedes (1633). In addition, he forced his officers to take a personal oath to him. On suspicion of treason, Wallenstein was removed from command, a decree was issued on the confiscation of all his estates.

After that, the princes and the emperor began negotiations that ended the Swedish period of the war with the Peace of Prague (1635). Its terms provided for:

Annulment of the "Edict of Restitution" and the return of possessions to the framework of the Peace of Augsburg

The unification of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into one army of the "Holy Roman Empire"

The ban on the formation of coalitions between princes

Legalization of Calvinism.

This peace, however, did not suit France, as the Habsburgs grew stronger as a result.

4. Franco-Swedish period 1635-48

Having exhausted all diplomatic reserves, France entered the war itself (on May 21, 1635, war was declared on Spain). With her intervention, the conflict finally lost its religious overtones, since the French were Catholics. France involved in the conflict its allies in Italy - the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic. The French attacked Lombardy and the Spanish Netherlands. In response, in 1636 the Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Spain crossed the Somme and entered Compiègne.

In the summer of 1636, the Saxons and other states that had signed the Peace of Prague turned their troops against the Swedes. Together with the imperial forces, they pushed the Swedish commander Banner to the north, but were defeated at the battle of Wittstock.

The last period of the war proceeded in conditions of exhaustion of both opposing camps, caused by colossal tension and overexpenditure of financial resources. Maneuvering actions and small battles prevailed.

In 1642, Cardinal Richelieu died, and a year later, King Louis XIII of France also died. Five-year-old Louis XIV became king. His minister, Cardinal Mazarin, began peace negotiations.

In 1648, the Swedes (Marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel) and the French (Turenne and Condé) defeated the Imperial-Bavarian army at the Battle of Zusmarhausen and Lans. Only the imperial territories and Austria proper remained in the hands of the Habsburgs.

Peace of Westphalia: As early as 1638, the Pope and the Danish king called for an end to the war. Two years later, the idea was supported by the German Reichstag, which met for the first time after a long break.

the congress turned out to be the most representative meeting in the history of Europe: it was attended by delegations from 140 subjects of the empire and 38 other participants. Emperor Ferdinand III was ready to make large territorial concessions (more than he had to give in the end), but France demanded a concession that he had not originally thought of. The emperor had to refuse to support Spain and not even interfere in the affairs of Burgundy, which was formally part of the empire. National interests took precedence over dynastic ones. The emperor signed all the conditions in fact separately, without the Spanish cousin.

The peace treaty concluded on October 24, 1648 simultaneously in Münster and Osnabrück went down in history under the name of Westphalia.

The United Provinces, as well as Switzerland, were recognized as independent states. Only the war between Spain and France remained unsettled, which lasted until 1659.

Under the terms of the peace, France received South Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million thalers. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Bavarian Duke became Elector.

Consequences:

The greatest damage was done to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died. Many regions of the country were devastated and remained deserted for a long time. A crushing blow was dealt to the productive forces of Germany. The Swedes burned and destroyed almost all metallurgical and foundry plants, ore mines, as well as a third of German cities. In the armies of the opposing sides, epidemics raged - the constant companions of the war. The constant movement of soldiers, as well as the flight of the civilian population, led to the fact that diseases spread far from the foci of the disease.

Another result of the war was that over 300 small German states received de facto sovereignty, while nominally subject to the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806.

The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power for a period of about half a century, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic.

Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests.

Meaning: The Thirty Years' War was a reflection in the international sphere of the deep processes of the genesis of capitalism in the depths of feudal Europe; it turned out to be closely connected with the socio-political crises and revolutionary movements of this transitional era from the Middle Ages to the modern times.