Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries). Polovtsy Polovtsy from war to peace
| Between the ninth century and the sixteenth century. Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)
Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)
The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void, which sooner or later someone had to fill. From the second half of the 11th century, the Polovtsy became the new masters of the steppes. Since that time, a titanic Russian-Polovtsian struggle has unfolded, which was waged on the widest front from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in its scale, it stretched for a century and a half and had a significant impact on the fate of the Old Russian state.
Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsy did not set themselves the task of capturing Russian territories, but limited themselves to robberies and captivity. And the ratio of the population of Ancient Rus' and the steppe nomads was far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, about 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while there were several hundred thousand Polovtsians.
The Russians had to fight against the Polovtsians already in the new historical conditions of the collapse of a single state. Now the squads of individual principalities usually participated in the war with the nomads. The boyars were free to choose their place of service and could at any time go to another prince. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and armament. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsy were directly related to the internal political changes in the Old Russian state. Over a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsy became allies of the princes, leading the internecine struggle.
The Russo-Polovtsian wars can be roughly divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the XI century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century.
Wars with the Polovtsians, first stage (second half of the 11th century)
The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslav prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, a new foray was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky came out to meet him.
Battle of the Alta River (1068).
Opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsy turned out to be more successful and defeated the Russians, who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a rebellion in Kyiv, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The invasion of the Polovtsy was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who, with a small retinue, boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the XI century, chronicles are silent about major raids, but the "small war" periodically continued.
Battle on Stugna (1093).
The onslaught of the Polovtsians intensified especially in the 90s of the XI century. In 1092, the nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also ravaged many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. In the raids of the 90s, the Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous. In 1093, the Polovtsian troops besieged the city of Torchesk. The Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich came out to meet them with a retinue of 800 soldiers. Along the way, he joined the troops of the princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But having joined forces, the princes could not work out joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, referring to the lack of forces, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsy. In the end, the passionate Svyatopolk, desiring victory, won over the majority to his side. On May 24, the Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by superior Polovtsian forces. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. In the stormy waters from the rains, many died (including the Pereyaslav prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsy captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay tribute to them and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Tugorkan.
Battle of Trubezh (1096).
The marriage of Svyatopolk to the Polovtsian princess briefly moderated the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the battle on Stugna, the raids resumed with renewed vigor. Moreover, this time the southern princes did not manage to agree on joint actions at all, since the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich evaded the fight and preferred to conclude not only peace, but also an alliance with the Polovtsy. With the help of the Polovtsy, he expelled Prince Vladimir Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, who in the summer of 1095 had to alone repel the raids of nomads. The following year, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and laid siege to his army in Starodub. This strife was immediately taken advantage of by the Polovtsy, who moved to Rus' on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kyiv, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan laid siege to Pereyaslavl.
Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak at Kyiv, they crossed the Dnieper and, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians quickly forded the Trubezh River and attacked Tugorkan's army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the persecution, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (Svyatopolk's father-in-law), along with his son and other noble commanders, who died.
Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the departure of the princes beyond the Dnieper, almost captured Kyiv with an unexpected raid. The Polovtsy plundered and burned the Caves Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After the successful reflection of this raid on the service of the Russians, the Torks and other border steppe tribes begin to cross. The victory on the banks of the Trubezh was of great importance in the ascent of the commander's star Vladimir Monomakh, who became a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.
Wars with the Polovtsians, second stage (second half of the 12th century)
The external threat made it possible to temporarily slow down the process of disintegration of state unity. In 1103, Vladimir Monomakh convinced Svyatopolk to organize a large-scale campaign against the nomads. Since that time, the offensive stage of the struggle against the Polovtsy begins, inspired by Vladimir Monomakh. The campaign of 1103 was the largest military operation against the Polovtsians. It involved the armed forces of the seven princes. The united troops on boats and on foot reached the Dnieper rapids and turned from there into the depths of the steppes, to the town of Suten, where one of the large groups of nomads headed by Khan Urusoba was located. It was decided to set out in early spring, while the Polovtsian horses had not had time to gain strength after a long winter. The Russians destroyed the forward patrols of the Polovtsy, which made it possible to ensure the surprise of the attack.
Battle of Suteni (1103).
The battle between the Russians and the Polovtsy took place on April 4, 1103. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian avant-garde, led by the hero Altunopa, and completely destroyed it. Then, emboldened by their success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted a complete defeat on them. According to the chronicle, the Russians have never won such a famous victory over the Polovtsy. In the battle, almost the entire Polovtsian elite was destroyed - Urusoba and nineteen other khans. Many Russian prisoners were released. This victory marked the beginning of the offensive actions of the Russians against the Polovtsians.
Battle of Luben (1107).
Three years later, the Polovtsy, having recovered from the blow, made a new raid. They captured a lot of booty and prisoners, but on the way back they were overtaken by Svyatopolk's squads across the Sula River and defeated. In May 1107, Khan Bonyak invaded the Pereyaslav principality. He captured herds of horses and laid siege to the city of Luben. The princely coalition led by the princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came out to meet the invaders.
On August 12, they crossed the Sula River and decisively attacked the Polovtsians. They did not expect such a swift onslaught and fled from the battlefield, leaving their convoy. The Russians pursued them all the way to the Khorol River and took many prisoners. Despite the victory, the princes did not seek to continue the war, but tried to establish peaceful relations with the nomads. This, in particular, was evidenced by the fact that after the Battle of Luben, Russian princes Oleg and Vladimir Monomakh married their sons to Polovtsian princesses.
Battle of Salnitsa (1111).
However, hopes that family ties would strengthen Russian-Polovtsian ties and bring peace with the nomads did not come true. Two years later hostilities resumed. Then Monomakh again convinced the princes to unite for joint action. He again proposed a plan of offensive actions, characteristic of his military leadership strategy, and transferring the war deep into the Polovtsian steppes. Monomakh managed to achieve coordination of actions from the princes and in 1111 organized a campaign that became the pinnacle of his military successes.
The Russian army set out even in the snow. The infantry, to which Vladimir Monomakh attached special importance, rode on a sleigh. After four weeks of the campaign, Monomakh's army reached the Donets River. Never since the time of Svyatoslav have the Russians gone so far into the steppes. The two largest Polovtsian strongholds were taken - the cities of Sugrov and Sharukan. Having freed many prisoners there and captured rich booty, Monomakh's army moved back. However, the Polovtsy did not want to let the Russians out of their possessions alive. On March 24, the Polovtsian cavalry blocked the path of the Russian army. After a short fight, she was driven back. Two days later, the Polovtsians tried again.
The decisive battle took place on March 26 on the banks of the Salnica River. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir and Davyd. The Polovtsy suffered a crushing defeat. According to the legend, heavenly angels helped the Russian soldiers to smash the enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Polovtsians. It contributed to the growing popularity of Vladimir Monomakh, the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached "even Rome."
After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk in 1113, the Polovtsian khans Aepa and Bonyak made a major raid in the hope of internal unrest. The Polovtsian army besieged the fortress of Vyr. But having learned about the approach of the Russian squads, it hastily retreated, not accepting the battle. Apparently, the factor of the moral superiority of Russian soldiers had an effect.
In 1113 Vladimir Monomakh took the throne of Kiev. During his reign (1113-1125), the fight against the Polovtsians was carried out exclusively on their territory. In 1116, the Russian princes under the command of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yaropolk (an active participant in previous campaigns) moved deep into the Don steppes, again captured Sharukan and Sugrov. Another center of the Polovtsy, the town of Balin, was also taken. After this campaign, the Polovtsian dominance in the steppes came to an end. When in 1120 Yaropolk undertook another "preventive" campaign, the steppes were empty. By that time, the Polovtsians had already migrated to the North Caucasus, away from the Russian borders. The northern Black Sea region was cleared of aggressive nomads, and Russian farmers could safely harvest. It was a period of revival of state power, which brought peace and tranquility to the lands of Ancient Rus'.
Wars with the Polovtsians, third stage (second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries)
After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, Khan Atrak dared to return to the Don steppes from Georgia. But the Polovtsian raid on the southern Russian borders was repulsed by Prince Yaropolk. However, soon the descendants of Monomakh were removed from power in Kyiv by Vsevolod Olgovich, a descendant of another grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Oleg Svyatoslavovich. This prince made an alliance with the Polovtsy and used them as a military force in his campaigns against the Galician princes and Poland. After the death of Vsevolod in 1146, the struggle for the throne of Kiev broke out between the princes Izyaslav Mstislavovich and Yuri Dolgoruky. During this period, the Polovtsians began to actively participate in internecine wars.
The regiments of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa distinguished themselves here. So, Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsian troops to Kyiv, trying to capture the capital of Ancient Rus'.
Years of strife brought to naught the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh to protect the Russian borders. The weakening of the military power of the ancient Russian state allowed the Polovtsians to strengthen themselves and create a large union of tribes in the 70s of the XII century. It was headed by Khan Konchak, whose name is associated with a new surge of Russian-Polovtsian confrontation. Konchak was constantly at war with the Russian princes, plundering the southern borderlands. The most brutal raids were carried out in the vicinity of Kyiv, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. The Polovtsian onslaught intensified after the victory of Konchak over the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185.
Campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185).
The prehistory of this famous campaign, sung in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", is as follows. In the summer of 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, at the head of the princely coalition, made a campaign against the Polovtsy and inflicted a crushing defeat on them in the battle on the Aureli River on July 30. 7 thousand Polovtsians were captured, including their leader, Khan Kobyak, who was executed as punishment for previous raids. Khan Konchak decided to take revenge for the death of Kobyak. He came to the borders of Rus' in February 1185, but was defeated in the battle on March 1 on the Khorol River by the troops of Svyatoslav. It seemed that the times of Vladimir Monomakh were returning. Another joint blow was needed for the final crushing of the revived Polovtsian power.
However, this time history did not repeat itself. The reason for this was the inconsistency of the actions of the princes. Under the influence of Svyatoslav's successes, his ally, Prince Igor Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky, together with his brother Vsevolod, decided to receive the laurels of the victor without anyone's help and went on a campaign on their own. Igor's army of about 6 thousand people moved deep into the steppes and found himself face to face with all the forces of Konchak, who did not miss the chance given to him by the reckless prince.
Retreating after the vanguard battle, the Polovtsy, according to all the rules of their tactics, lured the Russian army into a trap and surrounded it with much superior forces. Igor decided to fight his way back to the Seversky Donets River. It is necessary to note the nobility of the brothers. Having cavalry to break through, they did not abandon their infantry to the mercy of fate, but ordered the cavalry soldiers to dismount and fight on foot, so that everyone could break through the encirclement together. “If we run, we kill ourselves, and leave ordinary people, then it will be a sin for us that we will give them up to enemies; we will either die or live together,” the princes decided. The battle between Igor's squad and the Polovtsy took place on May 12, 1185. Before the battle, Igor turned to the soldiers with the words: "Brothers! We were looking for this, so let's dare. Shame is worse than death!"
The fierce battle continued for three days. On the first day, the Russians repulsed the Polovtsian onslaught. But the next day one of the regiments could not stand it and ran. Igor rushed to the retreating to return them to the line, but was captured. The bloody battle continued even after the capture of the prince. Finally, the Polovtsy, due to their numbers, managed to grind the entire Russian army. The death of a large army exposed a significant line of defense and, according to Prince Svyatopolk, "opened the gates to the Russian land." The Polovtsy were not slow to take advantage of their success and made a number of raids on the Novgorod-Seversky and Pereyaslavl lands.
The exhausting struggle against the nomads, which lasted for more than one century, cost huge victims. Due to constant raids, the fertile outskirts of the southern regions of Rus' were depopulated, which contributed to their decline. Constant hostilities in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region led to the shift of the old trade routes to the Mediterranean region. Kievan Rus, which was a transit corridor from Byzantium to Northern and Central Europe, now remains aloof from new routes. Thus, the Polovtsian raids not least contributed to the decline of Southern Rus' and the movement of the center of the Old Russian state to the northeast, to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
By the beginning of the 90s of the XII century, the raids subsided, but after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav in 1194, a new streak of strife began, in which the Polovtsy were also drawn. The geography of their attacks is expanding. The Polovtsy make repeated raids on the Ryazan principality. By the way, the Ryazan prince Roman "with the brethren" organized the last major Russian campaign against the Polovtsy in April 1206. During this period, the Polovtsy are already completely moving to the second stage of nomadism - with constant winter roads and summer roads. The beginning of the 13th century is characterized by a gradual fading of their military activity. The last Polovtsian raid on Russian lands (near Pereyaslavl) is dated by the chronicle to 1210. The further development of Russian-Polovtsian relations was interrupted by a hurricane from the east, as a result of which both the Polovtsians and Kievan Rus disappeared.
According to the materials of the portal "Great wars in the history of Russia"
The history of Rus' is full of different events. Each of them leaves its mark in the memory of the whole people. Some key and turning events reach our days and remain revered and worthy in our society. Preserving your cultural heritage, remembering great victories and commanders is a very important duty of every person. The princes of Rus' were not always at their best in terms of their management of Russia, but they tried to be one family that jointly makes all decisions. At the most critical and difficult moments, a person always appeared who “took the bull by the horns” and turned the course of history in the opposite direction. One of these great people is Vladimir Monomakh, who is still considered an important figure in the history of Rus'. He achieved many of the most difficult military and political goals, while he rarely resorted to cruel methods. His methods were tactics, patience and wisdom, which allowed him to reconcile adults who hated each other for years. In addition, one cannot ignore the attention and talent of the prince to fight, because Monomakh's tactics often saved the Russian army from death. The defeat of the Polovtsians, Prince Vladimir thought out to the smallest detail and therefore "trampled" this threat to Rus'.
Polovtsy: acquaintance
Polovtsy, or Polovtsy, as historians also call them, are a people of Turkic origin who led a nomadic lifestyle. In different sources they are given different names: in Byzantine documents - Cumans, in Arab-Persian - Kypchaks. The beginning of the 11th century turned out to be very productive for the people: they ousted the Torks and Pechenegs from the Trans-Volga region and settled in these parts. However, the conquerors decided not to stop there and crossed the Dnieper River, after which they successfully descended to the banks of the Danube. Thus they became the owners of the Great Steppe, which stretched from the Danube to the Irtysh. Russian sources refer to this place as the Polovtsian field.
During the creation of the Golden Horde, the Polovtsy managed to assimilate many Mongols and successfully impose their language on them. It should be noted that later this language (Kypchak) became the basis for many languages (Tatar, Nogai, Kumyk and Bashkir).
Origin of the term
The word "Polovtsy" from the old Russian means "yellow". Many representatives of the people had blond hair, but the majority were representatives with an admixture of Mongoloid. However, some scientists say that the origin of the name of the people comes from the place where they stopped - the field. There are many versions, but none is reliable.
tribal system
The defeat of the Polovtsy was partly due to their military-democratic system. The whole nation was divided into several clans. Each clan had its own name - the name of the leader. Several clans united into tribes that created villages and winter quarters for themselves. Each tribal union had its own land on which food was cultivated. There were also smaller organizations, smoking - the union of several families. It is interesting that not only the Polovtsy could live in the kurens, but also other peoples with whom natural mixing took place.
Politic system
The kurens united into hordes, headed by the khan. The khans had supreme power in the localities. In addition to them, there were also such categories as servants and convicts. It should also be noted such a division of women, which predetermined them into servants. They were called chags. Kolodniki are prisoners of war who, in essence, were domestic slaves. They did hard work, had no rights, and were the lowest rung on the social ladder. There were also koschevye - the heads of large families. The family consisted of cats. Each kosh is a separate family and its servants.
The wealth obtained in battles was divided between the leaders of military campaigns and the nobility. An ordinary warrior received only crumbs from the master's table. In the event of an unsuccessful campaign, one could go bankrupt and become completely dependent on some noble Polovtsy.
Warfare
The military affairs of the Polovtsy were at their best, and even modern scientists recognize this. However, history has preserved to this day not too many testimonies about the Polovtsian warriors. Interestingly, any man or youth who was able to simply carry a weapon had to devote his life to military affairs. At the same time, his state of health, physique, and even more so his personal desire, were not taken into account at all. But since such a device has always existed, no one complained about it. It is worth noting that the military affairs of the Polovtsians were not well organized from the very beginning. It would be more accurate to say that it developed in stages. Byzantine historians wrote that this people fought with a bow, a curved saber and darts.
Each warrior wore special clothes that reflected his belonging to the army. It was made from and was quite dense and comfortable. It is interesting that each Polovtsian warrior had at his disposal about 10 horses.
The main strength of the Polovtsian army was the light cavalry. In addition to the weapons listed above, the warriors also fought with sabers and lassoes. Somewhat later, they had heavy artillery. Such warriors wore special helmets, armor and chain mail. At the same time, they were often made in a very intimidating form in order to further intimidate the enemy.
It is also worth mentioning the use of heavy crossbows by the Polovtsy, and they most likely learned this in those days when they lived near Altai. It was these capabilities that made the people practically invincible, for few military leaders of that time could boast of such knowledge. The use of Greek fire many times helped the Polovtsy to defeat even very fortified and protected cities.
It is worth paying tribute to the fact that the army had sufficient maneuverability. But all successes in this matter came to naught due to the low speed of movement of the troops. Like all nomads, the Polovtsy won many victories thanks to sharp and unexpected attacks on the enemy, prolonged ambushes and deceptive maneuvers. They often chose small villages as the object of attack, which could not provide the necessary resistance, much less defeat the Polovtsy. However, the army was often defeated due to the fact that there were not enough professional fighters. Not much attention was paid to the education of the younger ones. It was possible to learn any skills only during the raid, when the main occupation was the development of primitive combat techniques.
Russian-Polovtsian wars
The Russo-Polovtsian wars are a long series of serious conflicts that played out for about a century and a half. One of the reasons was the clash of the territorial interests of both sides, because the Polovtsians were a nomadic people who wanted to conquer new lands. The second reason was that Rus' was going through hard times of fragmentation, so some rulers recognized the Polovtsy as allies, causing the anger and indignation of other Russian princes.
The situation was rather sad until Vladimir Monomakh intervened, who set as his initial goal the unification of all the lands of Rus'.
Prehistory of the Battle of Salnitsa
In 1103, the Russian princes carried out the first campaign against the nomadic people in the steppe. By the way, the defeat of the Polovtsy took place after the Dolobsky Congress. In 1107, the Bonyaki and Sharukans were successfully defeated by Russian troops. Success instilled the spirit of rebellion and victory in the souls of Russian warriors, so already in 1109 the Kiev governor Dmitry Ivorovich smashed to shreds large Polovtsian villages near the Donets.
Monomakh's tactics
It is worth noting that the defeat of the Polovtsy (date - March 27, 1111) was one of the first in the modern list of Memorable dates of the military history of the Russian Federation. The victory of Vladimir Monomakh and other princes was a deliberate political victory that had far-sighted consequences. The Russians prevailed despite the fact that the advantage in quantitative terms was almost one and a half.
Today, many are interested in the amazing defeat of the Polovtsians under which prince became achievable? A huge and invaluable merit is the contribution of Vladimir Monomakh, who skillfully applied his military leadership gift. He took several important steps. Firstly, he implemented the good old principle, which says that it is necessary to destroy the enemy on his territory and with little bloodshed. Secondly, he successfully used the transport capabilities of that time, which made it possible to deliver infantry soldiers to the battlefield in a timely manner, while maintaining their strength and spirit. The third reason for Monomakh's thoughtful tactics was that he even resorted to weather conditions in order to win the desired victory - he forced the nomads to fight in such weather that did not allow them to fully use all the advantages of their cavalry.
However, this is not the only merit of the prince. Vladimir Monomakh thought out the defeat of the Polovtsy to the smallest detail, but in order to implement the plan, it was necessary to achieve the almost impossible! To begin with, let's plunge into the mood of that time: Rus' was fragmented, the princes held on to their territories with their teeth, everyone strove to act in his own way, and everyone believed that only he was right. However, Monomakh managed to gather, reconcile and unite wayward, recalcitrant or even stupid princes. It is very difficult to imagine how much wisdom, patience and courage the prince needed ... He resorted to tricks, tricks and direct persuasion that could somehow influence the princes. The result was gradually achieved, and internecine strife ceased. It was at the Dolobsky Congress that the main agreements and agreements were reached between different princes.
The defeat of the Polovtsy by Monomakh also happened due to the fact that he convinced other princes to use even smerds in order to strengthen the army. Previously, no one even thought about it, because only combatants were supposed to fight.
Defeat at Salnitsa
The campaign began on the second Sunday of Great Lent. On February 26, 111, the Russian army under the command of a whole coalition of princes (Svyatopolk, David and Vladimir) headed towards Sharukan. It is interesting that the campaign of the Russian army was accompanied by the singing of songs, accompanied by priests and crosses. From this, many researchers of the history of Rus' conclude that the campaign was a crusade. It is believed that this was a well-thought-out move by Monomakh to raise morale, but most importantly, in order to inspire the army that it can kill and must win, because God Himself commands them to do so. In fact, Vladimir Monomakh turned this great battle of the Russians against the Polovtsians into a righteous battle for the Orthodox faith.
The army reached the place of battle only after 23 days. The campaign was difficult, but thanks to the fighting spirit, songs and a sufficient amount of provisions, the army was content, which means that it was in full combat readiness. On the 23rd day, the warriors went to the shores
It is worth noting that Sharukan surrendered without a fight and rather quickly - already on the 5th day of a brutal siege. The inhabitants of the city offered wine and fish to the invaders - a seemingly insignificant fact, but it indicates that people were here. Also, the Russians burned Sugrov. Two settlements that were defeated bore the names of khans. These are exactly the two cities with which the army fought in 1107, but then Khan Sharukan fled from the battlefield, and Sugrov became a prisoner of war.
Already on March 24, the first initial battle took place, in which the Polovtsy invested all their strength. It took place near the Donets. The defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh occurred later, when a battle took place on the Salnitsa River. Interestingly, the moon was full. This was the second and most basic battle between the two sides, in which the Russians prevailed.
The largest defeat by the Russian armies of the Polovtsians, the date of which is already known, stirred up the entire Polovtsian people, because the latter had a large numerical advantage in battle. They were sure that they would win, however, they could not resist the thoughtful and direct blow of the Russian troops. For the people and soldiers, the defeat of the Polovtsy by Vladimir Monomakh was a very joyful and cheerful event, because good booty was obtained, many future slaves were captured, and most importantly, a victory was won!
Consequences
The consequences of this great event were striking. The defeat of the Polovtsy (year 1111) was a turning point in the history of the Russian-Polovtsian wars. After the battle, the Polovtsians decided only once to approach the borders of the Russian principality. It is interesting that they did this after Svyatopolk departed to another world (two years after the battle). However, the Polovtsy established contact with the new Prince Vladimir. In 1116, the Russian army made another campaign against the Polovtsy and captured three cities. The final defeat of the Polovtsy broke their morale, and soon they went to the service of the Georgian king David the Builder. The Kypchaks did not respond to the last campaign of the Russians, which confirmed their final decline.
A few years later, Monomakh sent Yaropolk in search of the Polovtsy beyond the Don, but there was no one there.
Sources
Many Russian chronicles tell about this event, which became key and significant for the whole people. The defeat of the Polovtsy by Vladimir strengthened his power, as well as the faith of the people in their strength and their prince. Despite the fact that the battle of Salnitsa is partially described in many sources, the most detailed "portrait" of the battle can only be found in
An extremely important event was the defeat of the Polovtsians. Rus', this turn of events came in very handy. And all this became possible thanks to the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh. How much strength and mind he invested in saving Rus' from this misfortune! How carefully he thought out the course of the whole operation! He knew that the Russians always acted as victims, because the Polovtsians attacked first, and the population of Rus' could only defend themselves. Monomakh realized that he should attack first, because this would create the effect of surprise, and also transfer the soldiers from the state of defenders to the state of attackers, which is more aggressive and strong in the general mass. Realizing that the nomads begin their campaigns in the spring, since they have practically no foot soldiers, he appointed the defeat of the Polovtsy at the end of winter in order to deprive them of their main strength. In addition, such a move had other advantages. They consisted in the fact that the weather deprived the Polovtsians of their maneuverability, which was simply impossible in the conditions of winter sightings. It is believed that the battle of Salnitsa and the defeat of the Polovtsy in 1111 is the first major and well-thought-out victory of Ancient Rus', which became possible thanks to the talent of Vladimir Monomakh as a commander.
At the end of the XI-XII centuries. "Polovtsian field" occupied a huge space. In the west, the Polovtsian (Kipchak) camps reached Iigults, and the bulk of the nomads were concentrated on the left bank) "of the Dnieper and along the banks of the Sivash. In the east, their camps reached the Volga, but most were on the Donets and its tributaries. The northern border came close to the border of Rus', the southern one went along the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov.
The Russo-Polovtsian wars can be divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the 11th century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, i.e. during a period of political fragmentation.
A large invasion of the Polovtsy occurred in 1068. The squads of the three brothers of Yaroslavich - Izyaslav of Kyiv, Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky - came out to meet them. In the battle on the Alta River, the Polovtsians defeated the Russian regiments and put them to flight. Then the Polovtsian horde was divided into separate detachments, which began to devastate the border lands. One of these detachments was destroyed by Prince Svyatoslav, after which the enemy left for the steppes. But in the future, the Polovtsian raids began to be repeated with frightening constancy.
More successfully than other princes, Vladimir Monomakh opposed the steppes. His actions in the mid-80s. 11th century forced the Polovtsians to stop attacking for quite a long time. They resumed only in 1092. The Polovtsy managed to capture and burn three border towns - Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, as well as destroy many villages on both sides of the Dnieper.
The biggest battle of this era was battle on the river Stugna, right tributary of the Dnieper ( 26 May 1093). The coalition of princes was headed by the new Grand Duke Svyatopolk II, who shortly before the events described, occupied the Kiev throne. The decision to give battle to the enemy, taken by him, turned out to be erroneous - the princes moved against the Polovtsians through unexplored fords. In addition, the water in Stugna stood high from the spring flood. The Polovtsians suddenly attacked the Kyiv army, when the Chernigov and Pereyaslav regiments were just crossing the river. In the battle that took place, the Russian army was defeated, and Prince Rostislav Vsevolodich, brother of Vladimir Monomakh, drowned while crossing the Stugna. Many ordinary warriors also died.
After the victory at Stugna, the Polovtsy took Torchesk. Their detachments began to ravage the Russian lands, even the outskirts of Kyiv were plundered. Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, having gathered a new army, again opposed the enemies, but on July 23, 1093 he was again defeated on the Zhelan River. To stop the Polovtsian invasion, the Grand Duke of Kyiv had to pay tribute to Khan Tugorkan and marry his daughter. However, the peace respite was short-lived. In February 1096, Vladimir Monomakh ordered the killing of khans Itlar and Kytan, who had come to Pereyaslavl for negotiations. Apparently, this action was agreed with the Kyiv prince, since immediately after this, the troops of the two princes in February - March 1096 marched across the Goltav River and ravaged the Polovtsian camps. The Goltava campaign became a turning point at this stage of the Russian-Polovtsian confrontation, although the hostilities that continued in the same year were complicated by the hostility of Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk, who supported him, with Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov, which again took an open form.
Taking advantage of the strife of the princes, in the summer of 1096 the Polovtsy of Khan Tugorkan laid siege to Pereyaslavl. Soon, the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came to the aid of the besieged, who had previously gone under Starodub, where Oleg Svyatoslavich sat down. On July 19, 1096, the Russians forded the Trubezh River and attacked the enemy army standing behind it, which did not have time to line up for battle and turned to flight. During the persecution, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, and Khan Tugorkan, Svyatopolk's father-in-law, was among the dead. Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the departure of the princes across the Dnieper, almost captured Kyiv. The Polovtsy then plundered and burned the Pechersk Monastery. However, having received news of the defeat of Tugorkan and the approach of the Russian regiments, they quickly left for the steppes.
Preparing to continue the war with the Polovtsy, Vladimir Monomakh gathered regiments of six princes under his banner. Only Oleg Svyatoslavich refused to support him. In the spring of 1103, after a council in Dolobsk near Kiev, where Monomakh and Svyatopolk determined the route of movement of their troops, they set out on a campaign. On April 4, a battle took place near the Suten River, during which several Polovtsian hordes were defeated. Khan Belduz was taken prisoner, promising a rich ransom for his release. But Vladimir Monomakh rejected the seemingly advantageous offer of the noble captive, ordering his execution.
The campaign was successful, but the Polovtsians quickly recovered and already in 1105 the army of Khan Bonyak raided the Torks and Pechenegs who had submitted to Kyiv. Capturing full, the Polovtsy took him to the steppe.
In 1107, Bonyak crossed the Dnieper and attacked the Principality of Pereyaslavl. In the summer, the khans Sharukan and Sugra joined him. Their troops laid siege to the Luben fortress on the Sula River. On August 12 of the same year, the army of Svyatopolk, Vladimir and Oleg Svyatoslavich, who supported them this time, attacked the enemy, defeating a hundred. The few surviving Polovtsians fled to the steppe. In this battle, Bonyak's brother Khan Taz was killed, Khan Sugra and his brother were captured, but Bonyak himself and Sharukan managed to escape from the Russian pursuit.
Polovtsian raids continued in the future. Having broken through to Pereyaslavl in 1110, the steppe dwellers ruined many suburban villages. They also acted near the town of Chuchin, where they also took full.
Then, in a dream in Dolobsk, the princes, assembled by Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, decided in the spring to go against the enemy with large forces.
The campaign of 1111, which began at the appointed time. became the most successful of the anti-Polovtsian operations of Vladimir Vsevolodich. On February 26, the army of Monomakh and his allies set out on a campaign. At first, the warriors moved on sledges, but when the ice began to melt on the Khorol River, they mounted horses and began to quickly move deep into the Polovtsian possessions. On March 21, Sharukan was taken, and on March 22, Sugrov. Having gathered an army, the Polovtsian khans tried to attack the princely squads, but in the battle on the Salnitsa River on March 27, 1111, they were utterly defeated by the Russians.
Suffering defeat after defeat, the Polovtsian hordes leave the borders of Rus' and resume their raids after the collapse of the Russian state in the middle of the 12th century.
Polovtsy, Komans (Western Europe and Byzantium), Kipchaks (Persian and Arabic), Qin-cha (Chinese).
Time of existence
If we take the Chinese chronicles as a basis, then the Kipchaks were known from the III-II centuries. BC. And until the XIII century, when many Kipchaks were destroyed by the Mongols. But to one degree or another, the Kipchaks became part of the Bashkir, Kazakh and other ethnic groups.
Historiography
Research begins in the 1950s. XIX century, the result was the book by P. V. Golubovsky "Pechenegs, Torks and Polovtsy before the invasion of the Tatars" (1883). At the beginning of the XX century. Markwart's book "Uber das Volkstum der Komanen" was published, which to this day has a certain scientific value. In the 30s. In the 20th century, the history of the Polovtsy was studied by D.A. Rasovsky, who wrote a monograph and several articles. In 1948, a book by V.K. Kudryashov "Polovtsian steppe", which gave little in scientific terms. Starting from 50-60 years. the history of nomads was closely studied by S.A. Pletnev and G.A. Fedorov-Davydov, with the involvement of a large number of archaeological sites, which meant the transition of research to a new, higher quality level. In 1972, an extremely useful and informative book by B. E. Kumekov “The Kimak State of the 9th-11th centuries” was published. from Arabic sources.
Story
We learn about the early history of the Kimaks mainly from Arabic, Persian and Central Asian authors.
Ibn Khordadbeh (second half of the 9th century), Al-Masudi (Xth century), Abu-Dulaf (Xth century), Gardizi (XIth century), al-Idrisi (XIIth century). In the Persian geographical treatise "Hudud-al-Alam" ("Boundaries of the World"), written in 982, whole chapters are devoted to the Kimaks and Kipchaks, and the great Central Asian writer al-Biruni mentioned them in several of his works.
7th century Kimaks roam north of Altai, in the Irtysh region and are part of the first Western Turkic Khaganate and then the Uighur.
This is how it is described in the legend - “The head of the Tatars died and left two sons; the eldest son took possession of the kingdom, the younger became jealous of his brother; the name of the younger was Shad. He made an attempt on the life of his older brother, but failed; fearing for himself, he, taking with him a slave mistress, ran away from his brother and arrived at a place where there was a large river, many trees and an abundance of game; there he pitched his tent and encamped. Every day this man and the slave went hunting, eating meat and making clothes from the fur of sables, squirrels and ermines. After that, seven people from relatives of the Tatars came to them: the first Imi, the second Imak, the third Tatar, the fourth Bayandur, the fifth Kypchak, the sixth Lanikaz, the seventh Ajlad. These people pastured the herds of their masters; in those places where (before) there were herds, there were no pastures left; looking for herbs, they came to the direction where Shad was. Seeing them, the slave said: "Irtysh", i.e. stop; from here the river got the name Irtysh. Having recognized that slave Kimaki and the Kipchaks, everyone stopped and pitched their tents. Shad, returning, brought with him a large booty from the hunt and treated them; they stayed there until the winter. When the snow fell, they could not go back; there is a lot of grass there, and they spent the whole winter there. When the earth was decorated and the snow melted, they sent one person to the Tatar camp to bring news of that tribe. When he arrived there, he saw that the whole area was devastated and devoid of population: an enemy came, robbed and killed all the people. The remnants of the tribe descended to that man from the mountains, he told his friends about the situation of Shad; they all went to the Irtysh. Arriving there, everyone greeted Shad as their boss and began to honor him. Other people, having heard this news, also began to come (here); 700 people gathered. For a long time they remained in the service of Shad; then, when they multiplied, they settled in the mountains and formed seven tribes named after the seven people named” (Kumekov, 1972, p. 35-36).
Thus, an alliance of tribes was formed, headed by the Kimaks. The Kipchaks, on the other hand, occupied a special position in this union and had their own nomadic territory to the west of the other tribes - in the southeastern part of the Southern Urals.
IX-X centuries The Kimak Khaganate and its territory were finally formed - from the Irtysh to the Caspian Sea, from the taiga to the Kazakh semi-deserts. The political center of the kaganate was in the eastern part, closer to the Irtysh in the city of Imakiya. At the same time, the process of settling of nomads on the ground takes place. There is a development of fundamental construction, agriculture and crafts. But again, this process was typical for the eastern regions of the kaganate, and in the west, where the Kipchaks roamed, this process did not receive any wide development.
The turn of the X-XI centuries. Centrifugal movements begin in the Kimak state and the Kipchaks actually become independent.
Early 11th century Extensive movements begin throughout the steppe space of Eurasia, and the Kipchaks, as well as some tribes of the Kimaks - Kai and Kuns, are included in this movement. The latter crowd on their way the Kipchaks, named in the sources - balls (yellow or "red-haired"). And the Kipchaks, in turn, pushed back the Guz and.
30s 11th century The Kipchaks occupy the spaces that previously belonged to the Guzes in the Aral steppes and on the border of Khorezm, and begin to penetrate beyond the Volga, into the southern Russian steppes.
Mid 11th century A new people is being formed, called the Russian Polovtsians.
- According to one of the hypotheses (Pletnev), the Polovtsians are a complex array of tribes and peoples, headed by the Shar tribes - the "yellow" Kipchaks, and which united the disparate tribes that lived in the Black Sea region - the Pechenegs, Guzes, the remnants of the Bulgarian and Alanian populations, living along the banks of the rivers.
- There is another hypothesis according to which two ethnic massifs were formed - the Kuns-Kumans, led by one or several Kipchak hordes, and the Polovtsy, united around the hordes of Shar-Kipchaks. The Cumans roamed west of the Polovtsy, whose territory is localized along the Seversky Donets and in the Northern Azov region.
1055 The Polovtsians for the first time approached the borders of Rus' and made peace with Vsevolod.
1060 The first attempt of the Polovtsians to raid Russian lands. The blow came from the southeast. Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Chernigov with his retinue was able to defeat four times the army of the Polovtsians. Many Polovtsian warriors were killed and sunk in the river Snovi.
1061 A new attempt by the Polovtsians led by Prince Sokal (Iskal) to plunder the Russian lands was successful.
1068 Another raid of nomads. This time, on the Alta River (in the Principality of Pereyaslav), the combined forces of the “triumvirate” met with the Polovtsy - the regiments of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich. However, they were defeated by the Polovtsy.
1071 The Polovtsians attack from the right bank of the Dnieper, from the southwest in the region of Porosye.
1078 Oleg Svyatoslavovich leads the Polovtsy to Russian lands, and they smash the regiments of Vsevolod Yaroslavich.
1088 Polovtsy, at the invitation of the Pechenegs, participate in a campaign against Byzantium. But when the booty is divided between them, a quarrel breaks out, which led to the defeat of the Pechenegs.
1090-1167 The reign of Khan Bonyak.
1091 The Battle of Lubern, in which 40,000 Polovtsy (under the leadership of the khans Bonyak and Tugorkan) sided with the Byzantines (Emperor Alexei Komnenos) against the Pechenegs. For the latter, the battle ended in failure - they were defeated, and at night all the captured Pechenegs with their wives and children were exterminated by the Byzantines. Seeing this, the Polovtsy, taking the booty, left the camp. However, returning home, on the Danube they were defeated by the Hungarians under the leadership of King Laszlo I.
1092 In the difficult dry summer for Rus', “the army was great from the Polovtsians from everywhere,” and it is specifically indicated that the Poros western towns of Priluk and Poshen were taken.
1093 The Polovtsy wanted to make peace after the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, but the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich decided to give battle to the Polovtsy. He persuaded princes Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh and Rostislav Vsevolodovich to join the campaign. The Russians advanced to the Strugna River, where they suffered a severe defeat. Then Svyatopolk once again fought with the Polovtsians at Zhelan and was again defeated. After that, the Polovtsy took Torchesk and ravaged the whole of Porosie. Later that year there was another Battle of Halep. Its outcome is unknown.
1094 After a series of defeats, Svyatopolk had to make peace with the Polovtsy and marry the daughter of Khan Tugorkan.
1095 Campaign of the Polovtsians to Byzantium. The reason was the claims of the impostor Roman-Diogenes to the Byzantine throne. More than half of the soldiers died on the campaign, and the booty was taken on the way back by the Byzantines.
While Bonyak and Tugorkan were on the campaign, Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich of Pereyaslavl killed the ambassadors who came to him and then struck at their territory, capturing a large number of Polovtsians.
1096 Khan Bonyak with many Polovtsians attacked the lands around Kyiv and burned the princely court in Berestov, Kurya burned the Mouth on the left bank of the Dnieper, then Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl on May 30. Only in the summer the princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir managed to repulse the attack, and in the battle of Trubezh Khan Tugorkan was killed along with many other Polovtsian khans. In response to this, Khan Bonyak again approached Kyiv and plundered the Stefanov, Germanov and Pechora monasteries and went into the steppe.
1097 Khan Bonyak took revenge on the Hungarians, defeating their detachment, which came out on the side of the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk.
End of the 11th century The process of formation of the Polovtsian hordes was completed. Each horde was assigned territories and a certain nomadic route. During this period, they took shape meridional nomadism. They spent the winter on the seashore, in the valleys of various rivers, where cattle could easily get food. In the spring, the period of migration up the rivers began, to the river valleys rich in grass. For the summer period, the Polovtsy stopped at summer camps. In autumn, they returned to their winter quarters by the same route. At the same time, fortified settlements - small towns - began to appear among the Polovtsians.
1103 The Dolobsky congress took place, at which the Russian princes, at the suggestion of Vladimir Monomakh, decided to strike at the Polovtsy in the depths of their territory. Vladimir accurately calculated the time of the campaign - in the spring, when the Polovtsian cattle were exhausted by meager winter food and calving, and it was actually impossible to hastily drive them to a place inaccessible to enemies. In addition, he, of course, thought out the direction of the strike: first, into the “push” (the wide right-bank valley of the middle Dnieper), expecting to capture the late Polovtsian winter roads there, and in case of failure, go along the route of this group already known in Rus' to the spring pastures on seashore.
The Polovtsy wanted to avoid a battle, but the young khans insisted on it, and the Russians defeated the nomads on the Sutin (Milk) River. 20 Polovtsian "princes" were killed - Urusoba, Kochiy, Yaroslanopa, Kitanopa, Kunam, Asup, Kurtyk, Chenegrepa, Surbar "and their other princes." As a result, a fairly large Polovtsian horde (Lukomorskaya) was completely destroyed.
1105 Khan Bonyak's raid on Zarub in Porosye.
1106 Another raid of the Polovtsians, this time unsuccessful.
1107 The combined forces of the Polovtsians (Bonyak attracted the Eastern Polovtsians led by Sharukan to the campaign) approached the city of Lubny. The regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir came out to meet them and with a powerful blow, crossing the Sula River, they defeated the nomads. Bonyak's brother Taaz was killed and Khan Sugr and his brothers were taken prisoner.
Vladimir married the son of the future Yuri Dolgoruky to a Polovtsy, and Prince Oleg also married a Polovtsy.
1111 Vladimir at the Dolby Congress again persuaded the princes to go on a campaign to the steppe. The combined forces of the Russian princes reached the "Don" (modern Seversky Donets) entered the "city of Sharukans" - apparently a small town located on the territory of Khan Sharukan and paying tribute to him. Then another fortification was captured - the "city" of Sugrov. Then two battles took place “on the Degaya channel” and on the Salnitsa River. In both cases, the Russians won and, "taking a lot of booty", returned to Rus'.
Map of the location of the Polovtsian hordes at the beginning of the 12th century, according to Pletneva S.A.
1113 An attempt by the Polovtsy to take revenge, but the Russians, coming out to meet the Polovtsy, forced them to retreat.
1116 The Russians again marched into the steppe and again captured the towns of Sharukan and Sugrov, as well as the third city - Balin.
In the same year, a two-day battle took place between the Polovtsy, on the one hand, and the Torks and Pechenegs, on the other. The Polovtsy won.
1117 The defeated horde of Torks and Pechenegs came to Prince Vladimir under his protection. There is an assumption (by Pletnev) that this horde once guarded the town of Belaya Vezha on the Don. But, as it was written above, the Russians drove out the Polovtsians, taking their towns twice (1107 and 1116), and they, in turn, migrated to the Don and drove out the Pechenegs and Torks from there. This is also evidenced by archeology, it was at this time that the desolation of Belaya Vezha falls.
Peace was concluded with the relatives of Tugorkan - Andrei, the son of Vladimir, married the granddaughter of Tugorkan.
1118 Part of the Polovtsy, under the leadership of Khan Syrchan (son of Sharukan), remains on the southern tributaries of the Seversky Donets. Several Polovtsian hordes (numbering about 230-240 thousand people) under the leadership of Khan Atrak (son of Sharukan) settled in the Ciscaucasian steppes. Also, at the invitation of the Georgian king David the Builder, several thousand Polovtsy, under the leadership of the same Atrak, moved to Georgia (Kartli region). Atrak becomes the king's favorite.
1122 The Western Cumans destroyed the city of Garvan, which was located on the left bank of the Danube.
1125 Another campaign of the Polovtsy against Rus', repelled by Russian troops.
1128 Vsevolod Olgovich, in order to fight the sons of Monomakh, Mstislav and Yaropolk, asked for help from Khan Seluk, who was not slow to come with seven thousand soldiers to the Chernigov border.
Late 1920s 12th century Atrak with a small part of the horde returned to the Donets, while most of his Polovtsy remained in Georgia.
1135 Vsevolod Olgovich called his brothers and Polovtsy for help and led them to the Principality of Pereyaslavl (the ancestral patrimony of the Monomakhoviches), “villages and cities fighting”, “people are stronger, and others are secutive”. So they reached almost to Kyiv, took and lit Gorodets.
1136 The Olgovichi and the Polovtsy crossed the ice to the right bank of the Dnieper near Trepol in winter, bypassing Chernoklobutsky Porosye, and headed for Krasn, Vasilev, and Belgorod. Then they went along the outskirts of Kyiv to Vyshgorod, firing at the people of Kiev through Lybid. Yaropolk hastened to make peace with the Olgoviches, having fulfilled all their demands. The Kiev principality was thoroughly ruined, the surroundings of all the listed towns were robbed and burned.
1139 Vsevolod Olgovich again brought the Polovtsy, and the Pereyaslav borderland - Posulye was plundered and several small towns were taken. Yaropolk, in response, gathered 30 thousand Berendeys and forced Vsevolod to make peace.
30s of the XII century. Early associations were loose, often disintegrated, re-formed in a new composition and in a different territory. These circumstances do not allow us to accurately determine the location of the possessions of each great khan, and even more so of each horde. At the same time, the formation of more or less strong associations of hordes and the appearance in the steppes of "great khans" - the heads of these associations.
1146 Vsevolod Olgovich goes to Galich and attracts the Polovtsians.
1147 Svyatoslav Olgovich with the Polovtsy plundered the Family, but after learning that Izyaslav was going against them, the Polovtsy went to the steppe.
40-60s 12th century Small associations are formed in the steppe, called by the chronicler "wild Polovtsians". These are nomads who did not belong to any of the known hordes, but were, most likely, the remnants of the hordes defeated by the Russians, or who had broken away from related hordes. The principle of their formation was not consanguineous, but "neighborhood". They always acted in internecine struggle, on the side of some prince, but they never opposed the Polovtsy.
Two such associations were formed - the western one, which acted in alliance with the Galician princes, and the eastern one - allies of the Chernigov and Pereyaslavl princes. The first, perhaps, wandered in the interfluve of the upper Bug and Dniester on the southern outskirts of the Galicia-Volyn principality. And the second, perhaps, in the steppe Podolia (between Oskol and Don or on the Don itself).
1153 Independent campaign of the Polovtsians on the Posulye.
1155 The campaign of the Polovtsy against Porosye, which was repulsed by the Berendeys, led by the young prince Vasilko Yuryevich, the son of Yuri Dolgoruky.
50s 12th century In the Polovtsian environment, 12-15 hordes developed, which had their own nomadic territory, equal to approximately 70-100 thousand square meters. km., within which they had their own migration routes. At the same time, almost the entire steppe from the Volga to the Ingulets belonged to them.
1163 Prince Rostislav Mstislavich made peace with Khan Beglyuk (Beluk) and took his daughter for his son Rurik.
1167 Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich made a campaign against the Polovtsy, apparently, then Khan Bonyak was killed.
1168 Oleg and Yaroslav Olgovichi went against the Polovtsy on the vezhi as Khan Kozl and Beglyuk.
1172 The Polovtsy approached the borders of Rus' from both banks of the Dnieper and asked for peace from the Kyiv prince Gleb Yurievich. He initially decided to make peace first with those Polovtsians who came from the right bank, and went to them. The Polovtsy, who came from the left bank, did not like this, and they attacked the outskirts of Kyiv. Taking full, they turned into the steppe, but were overtaken and defeated by Gleb's brother - Mikhail with Berendeys.
1170 Great campaign of 14 Russian princes in the Polovtsian steppe. Vessels were taken between Sula and Worksla, then on Orel and Samara. All this time, the Polovtsy retreated, but the battle took place near the Black Forest (the right bank of the Donets, opposite the mouth of the Oskol). The Polovtsy were defeated and scattered. This campaign put an end to the robbery of trade caravans.
1174 Konchak - Khan of the Don Polovtsy and Kobyak - Khan of the "Lukomor" Polovtsy made a joint campaign against Pereyaslavl. Having plundered the surroundings, they turned into the steppe, but Igor Svyatoslavich caught up with them, and a skirmish ensued, the result of which was the flight of the Polovtsy.
1179 Konchak plundered the Principality of Pereyaslavl and, having dodged the Russians, went into the steppe with rich booty.
1180 The Polovtsy Konchak and Kobyak concluded an agreement with the Olgovichi - Svyatoslav Vsevolovich and Igor Svyatoslavich against Rurik Rostislavich. A joint campaign was organized, which ended in failure for the allies. In the battle on the Chertorye River, they were defeated by Rurik, as a result many noble Polovtsy fell - “And then they killed the Polovtsian prince Kozl Sotanovich, and Eltuk, Konchakov’s brother, and two Konchakovich boxes, and Totur, and Byakoba, and rich Kunyachyuk, and Chyugay ... ". Khan Konchak himself fled with Igor Svyatoslavich.
1183 Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Rostislavich - the Grand Dukes of Kyiv - organized a campaign against the Polovtsians. Initially, the Polovtsy evaded the battle, but then themselves, under the leadership of Kobyak Krlyevich, attacked the Russians on the Orel River, but were defeated. At the same time, many khans were captured, and Khan Kobyak was executed.
1184 Konchak's attempt to organize a large campaign against Russian lands, but Svyatoslav and Rurik defeated the Polovtsy on the Khorol River with an unexpected blow, Konchak managed to escape.
1185 The princes of Kyiv began to prepare a big campaign against the pastures of Konchak. But all plans are frustrated by the Chernigov princes, who decided to organize their campaign in the steppe independently of Kyiv.
The famous campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich in the steppe, described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. In addition to Igor and Olstin, brother Vsevolod Trubchevsky, nephew Svyatoslav Olgovich Rylsky, Igor's twelve-year-old son Vladimir Putivlsky joined the campaign. They went to Konchak's tower. The Russians captured the defenseless towers, drank at night, and in the morning they found themselves surrounded by the Polovtsy, and even in a place inconvenient for protection. As a result, they suffered a crushing defeat, many of them were taken prisoner.
Later, Igor managed to escape, but his son stayed with Konchak and was married to Konchak's daughter, Konchakovna. Three years later, he returned home with his wife and child.
After this victory, Gzak (Koza Burnovich) and Konchak sent blows to the Chernigov and Pereyaslav principalities. Both trips were successful.
1187 Campaign of several Russian princes in the steppe. They reached the confluence of the Samara and Volchya rivers, to the very center of the Burchevichi horde, and made a complete rout there. At this time, apparently, the Polovtsy of this horde went on a predatory raid on the Danube.
Konchak's campaign in Porosie and Chernihiv region.
1187-1197 Two brothers Asen I and Peter IV come to power in Bulgaria - according to one version, the Polovtsian princes. Even if this is not the case, they quite often attracted the Polovtsians to fight against Byzantium.
1190 The Polovtsian Khan Torgliy and the merchant prince Kuntuvdey organized a winter campaign against Rus'. The Russians and black hoods, led by Rostislav Rurikovich, made a return campaign in the same year, and reached the Polovtsian towers near the island of Khortitsa, captured the booty and went back. The Polovtsy overtook them at the Ivly (Ingulets) river and a battle took place, in which the Russians with black hoods won.
1191 Foray into the steppe by Igor Svyatoslavich, but to no avail.
1192 The raid of the Russians, when the Dnieper Polovtsian soldiers went on a campaign to the Danube.
1193 An attempt by Svyatoslav and Rurik to make peace with two Polovtsian associations with the Lukovorians and Burcheviches. The attempt was unsuccessful.
Early 13th century Relative calm is established between the Russians and the Polovtsians. Mutual trips to each other cease. But the Western Polovtsians are becoming more active, having entered into a confrontation with the Galicia-Volyn principality. Khan Konchak dies and is replaced by his son Yuri Konchakovich.
Map of the location of the Polovtsian hordes at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, according to Pletneva S.A.
1197-1207 The reign of Tsar Kaloyan in Bulgaria, the younger brother of Asen and Peter, and also, according to one version, he was of the Polovtsian family. Continuing the policy of the brothers, he attracted the Polovtsy to the struggle against the Byzantines and the Latin Empire (1199, 1205, 1206).
1202 Hike to Galich Rurik - the Grand Duke of Kyiv. He brought with him the Polovtsy, led by Kotyan and Samogur Setovich.
1207-1217 Boril rule in Bulgaria. He himself is possibly from the Polovtsian environment and, as was customary at that time, often attracted them as mercenaries.
1217
1218-1241 The reign of Asen II in Bulgaria. The flow of Polovtsy from Hungary and those who fled from the Mongols from the Black Sea region intensified. This is evidenced by the appearance of stone statues, characteristic only of the Eastern Cumans. But at the same time, under the pressure of the Bulgarian population, the Polovtsy begin to accept Orthodoxy.
1219 Hike to the Galicia-Volyn principality with the Polovtsy.
1222-1223 The first blow of the Mongols to the Polovtsy. The campaign was led by Jebe and Subedei. They appeared here from the south, passing along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea to Azerbaijan, from there to Shirvan and further through the Shirvan gorge to the North Caucasus and the Ciscaucasian steppes. There was a battle between the Mongols, on the one hand, and the Polovtsians and Alans on the other. No one could win, then the Mongols turned to the Polovtsy with a proposal - leave the Alans alone and we will bring you money and clothes, etc. The Polovtsy agreed and left their ally. Then the Mongols defeated the Alans, went out into the steppe and defeated the Polovtsy, who were sure that they had made peace with the Mongols.
1224 The Polovtsians panicked, they began to look for allies, and found them in Kyiv. A large campaign to the steppe of the united regiments was organized. The first skirmish brought victory to the allies, and they rushed to pursue the Mongols, but after 12 days of pursuit, the allies stumbled upon the superior forces of the Mongols. Then the famous battle on the Kalka River took place, which lasted several days and led to the defeat of the Russians and Polovtsians. In fairness, it must be said that the Polovtsy left the battlefield, unable to withstand the onslaught of the Mongol troops, thereby leaving the Russian regiments to die.
After this battle, the Mongols plundered the Polovtsian towers, the Russian borderlands and went to Volga Bulgaria, where they suffered a crushing defeat. After that, they went back to the Mongolian steppes.
1226 Hike to the Galicia-Volyn principality with the Polovtsy.
1228 Daniil Galitsky's attempts to improve relations with the Polovtsy fail.
1228-1229 The second blow of the Mongols. The order was given by Ogedei, the 30,000th detachment was headed by Subedei-Bagatur and Tsarevich Kutai. Direction - Saksin on the Volga, Kipchaks, Volga Bulgarians. The eastern Polovtsy were mostly defeated, it was at this time that the reports in the sources about the Polovtsy who came to serve in Hungary, Lithuania, they settled in the Rostov-Suzdal land. The Western Cumans remained in relative safety, this is evidenced at least by the fact that Khan Kotyan continued to make campaigns against Galich.
1234 Campaign of Prince Izyaslav with the Polovtsians to Kyiv. Piglet destroyed.
1235-1242 The third campaign of the Mongols in Europe. At the head of the Mongol troops were 11 Genghisid princes, including Mengukhan and Batu, the founder of the Golden Horde. He led the troops of Subedei. Many Russian principalities and other European countries were ruined.
1237-1239 The subjugation of the Kipchak-Polovtsy was taken over by Batu, who returned to the steppes after the devastation of the Russian lands, several Polovtsian commanders (Ardzhumak, Kuranbas, Kaparan), sent to meet the Mongols by the Polovtsian Khan Berkuti, were taken prisoner. After that, the Mongols began the systematic extermination of aristocrats and the best Polovtsian warriors. Other methods were also used to bring them into submission - the resettlement of the Polovtsian hordes, their inclusion in the army.
1237 Khan Kotyan appealed to the Hungarian king Bela IV with a request to grant asylum to his 40,000th horde. The Hungarians agreed and settled the horde in the area between the Danube and the Tisza. Batu demanded that the Cumans be handed over to him, but Bela refused to do so.
1241 Several Hungarian barons infiltrated the Polovtsian camp and broke into the house where Khan Kotyan lived, his family and several noble princes. Kotyan killed his wives and himself, while the rest of the princes were killed in the fight. This infuriated the Polovtsy, they killed the militia assembled by Bishop Chanada to help the regular army, ravaged the nearest village and left for Bulgaria. The departure of the Polovtsy led to the defeat of the Hungarian king in the battle on the river Chaio.
1242 The Hungarian king Bela IV returns the Polovtsy to their lands, pretty devastated.
1250 Power in Egypt is seized by the Mamluks - captive slaves in the service of the Sultan. The Mamluks are mainly the Polovtsy and the peoples of Transcaucasia, who entered the slave markets in large numbers in the 12th-13th centuries. They managed to seize power and rise, which later allowed them to recruit their already free relatives from the steppes of the Black Sea region into the army.
At the same time, it is worth highlighting the two most significant sultans of Egypt from among the Polovtsians - Baibars I al-Bundukdari (ruled 1260-1277) and Saifuddin Qalaun (ruled 1280-1290), who did a lot to strengthen the country and repelled the Mongol attack.
We learn about their ethnic origin from Arab sources.
- The Egyptian historian of the XIV century al-Aini reports that "Baybars bin Abdullah, by nationality Kipchak, belongs to the great Turkic tribe called Bursh (Bersh)".
- According to an-Nuwayri, Baibars was a Turk and came from the Elbarly tribe.
- Mamluk chronicler of the 14th century. al-Aini notes that Baybars and Qalaun come from the Turkic tribe Burj: "Min Burj-ogly kabilatun at-Turk".
According to Pletneva S.A. here we are talking about the Burchevich horde, which we wrote about above.
1253 The marriage of the Hungarian king Stephen (Stefan) V with the daughter of Kotyan, in baptism Elizabeth, was concluded. His wife constantly intrigued against her husband, which eventually led the latter to death.
1277 Laszlo IV Kun, the son of the Polovtsy Elizabeth, ascended the Hungarian throne. He nominally united the country, having won several important victories, relying on the Cumans-Polovtsians. Among other things, he was very close to them, which later led to tragic consequences.
1279 The papal legate Philip demanded from Laszlo IV that the Polovtsians accept Christianity and settle on the ground. The king was forced to agree, in response, the Polovtsy rebelled and devastated part of the land.
1282 The Polovtsy leave Hungary for Transnistria to join the Mongols. From there they marched on Hungary and ravaged the country. But a little later, Laszlo IV manages to defeat the Polovtsy, and some of them go to Bulgaria. At the same time, the king understands that he will not be able to retain power and retires, leaving the country in the hands of the struggling magnates.
1289 A new attempt by Laszlo IV to return to power, but unsuccessful. And a year later, his own noble Polovtsians kill him. After that, although the Polovtsians play a significant role in Hungarian society, they gradually merge into it, and after about a hundred years, a complete merger occurs.
Second half of the 13th century As we have seen, with the arrival of the Mongols, the steppe and the surrounding countries were shaken by horrific events. But life didn't stop. Radical changes took place in the Polovtsian society - the Mongols destroyed the dissenters or drove them to neighboring countries (Hungary, Bulgaria, Rus', Lithuania), the aristocracy was also either destroyed or tried to be removed from their native steppes. Their place at the head of the Polovtsian associations was taken by Mongolian aristocrats. But for the most part, the Polovtsians, as a people, remained in place, only changed their name to Tatars. As we know, the Tatars are a Mongol tribe that were guilty before Genghis Khan, and therefore, after their defeat, the remnants of the tribe were used as a punishment in the most difficult and dangerous campaigns. And it was they who first appeared in the Russian steppes and brought with them their name, which subsequently begins to be applied to all nomadic, and not only, peoples.
The Mongols themselves were not numerous, especially since most of them, after the campaigns, returned back to Mongolia. And those that remained literally two centuries later have already dissolved in the Polovtsian environment, giving them a new name, their own laws and customs.
social organization
During the resettlement of the Polovtsy in the XI century. in the Black Sea region, their main economic and social unit was the so-called kurens - combinations of several, mostly patriarchal, kindred families, essentially close to large family communities of agricultural peoples. Russian chronicles call such kurens genera. The horde included many kurens, and they could belong to several ethnic groups: from Bulgarians to Kipchaks and Kimaks, although the Russians called them all together Polovtsy.
Khan was at the head of the horde. The khans also led the kurens, then the Polovtsian warriors (free) followed in the social, and starting from the 12th century. Two more categories of the population were recorded - “servants” and “kolodniks”. The first are free, but very poor members of the kurens, and the second are prisoners of war who were used as slaves.
In the XII century, as Russian chronicles note, a social transformation takes place. Nomadism by tribal kurens was replaced by ail, i.e., family. True, the villages of the rich were sometimes as large as the kurens before, but the village did not consist of several more or less economically equal families, but of one family (two or three generations) and its numerous “servants”, which included poor relatives. , and ruined fellow tribesmen, and prisoners of war - domestic slaves. In the Russian chronicle, such large families were called children, and the nomads themselves probably defined it with the word "kosh" - "koch" (nomadic). In the XII century. ail-"kosh" became the main cell of the Polovtsian society. The villages were not equal in size, and their heads were not equal in rights. Depending on economic and non-economic reasons (in particular, the belonging of families to a tribal aristocracy), they all stood at different levels of the hierarchical ladder. One of the notable external attributes of the Koschevoi's power in the family was a cauldron (cauldron).
But it should also be borne in mind that, despite the feudal hierarchy, the concept of clan (kuren) did not disappear either from social institutions or from economic gradations. In nomadic societies of all times, the so-called veil of patriarchy was very strong, so kurens - tribal organizations - were preserved as an anachronism in Polovtsian society. Koshevoi of the richest, and therefore influential family, was the head of the clan, that is, several large families.
However, the genus-kuren was an "intermediate" unit; The horde was the unifying organization of the villages. The fact is that even a large kuren or ail could not roam in the steppes in complete safety. Often villages clashed over pastures, even more often there was a theft of livestock (baramta), and even the capture of vezh and captives by those who were thirsty for quick and easy enrichment. Some sort of regulatory authority was needed. It was handed over by election to the head of the richest, strongest and most influential family (along with the kuren to which she belonged) at the congress of koschevoi. So the villages united into hordes. Obviously, the head of the horde received the highest title - Khan. In the Russian chronicle, this corresponded to the title of prince.
From the 12th century There is also a process of organizing larger associations - unions of hordes, headed by "great princes" - khans of khans - kaans. They had virtually unlimited power, could declare war and make peace.
It can be assumed that some khans also performed the functions of priests. This is evidenced by the chronicle that before one of the battles, Khan Bonyak was engaged in shamanism. But in the Polovtsian society there was a special priestly layer - shamans. The Polovtsians called the shaman "kam", hence the word "kamlanie" came from. The main functions of shamans were divination (prediction of the future) and healing based on direct communication with good and evil spirits.
It should be said that women in Polovtsian society enjoyed great freedom and were revered on an equal basis with men. Sanctuaries were built for female ancestors. Many women were forced, in the absence of their husbands, who constantly went on distant campaigns (and died there), to take care of the complex economy of nomads and their defense. This is how the institute of “Amazons” arose in the steppes, female warriors, first depicted in the steppe epic, songs and fine arts, and from there they passed into Russian folklore.
Burials
In most male burials, a horse with a harness and weapons were placed along with the dead. Usually only the metal parts of these objects reach us: iron bits and stirrups, girth buckles, iron arrowheads, saber blades. In addition, in almost every burial we find small iron knives and steel. All of these objects are distinguished by an extraordinary uniformity in size and shape. This standardization is characteristic of the nomads throughout the European steppe up to the Urals. In addition to iron things, the remains of birch bark and leather quivers (the latter with iron “brackets”), bone linings for birch bark quivers, bone linings for bows and bone “loops” for horse fetters are constantly found in the burials of the steppes. For all these things and individual details, uniformity is also characteristic.
In the steppe women's burials, a wide variety of decorations come across. It is possible that some of them were brought from neighboring countries, but the Polovtsy women wore a kind of headdress, characteristic earrings and breast decorations. They are not known either in Rus', or in Georgia, or in Byzantium, or in the Crimean cities. Obviously, it should be recognized that they were made by master jewelers from the steppe. The main part of the headdress was the "horns" made of silver convex stamped half-rings sewn onto felt rollers. The vast majority of stone female statues were depicted with such "horns". True, sometimes these horn-shaped "structures" were also used as breast decorations - a kind of "hryvnia". In addition to them, Polovtsian women also wore more complex breast pendants, which, perhaps, played the role of amulets. We can judge them only by the images on female stone statues. Of particular originality are, apparently, very fashionable in the steppes silver earrings with exaggerated biconical or "horned" (with spikes) pendants. They were worn not only by Polovtsy women, but also by Chernoklobutsky women. Sometimes, obviously, together with women, they penetrated from the steppe to Rus' - the Polovtsian wife did not want to give up her favorite decoration.
The end of the XI - the middle of the XIII centuries. |
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Mostly Southern Rus' and the steppes of the northern Black Sea region |
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Moving the struggle to the Polovtsian steppe (except for the participation of the Polovtsians in civil strife in Rus') |
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Territorial changes: |
Capture of the Tmutarakan Principality and Belaya Vezha by the Polovtsians |
Opponents |
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Kievan Rus and Russian principalities |
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Commanders |
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Khans Tugorkan†, Bonyak, Sharukan, Konchak and others. |
Russian princes: Izyaslav Yaroslavich†, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Roman Mstislavich and others. |
A series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between Kievan Rus and the Polovtsian tribes. It was another clash of interests between the ancient Russian state and the nomads of the Black Sea steppes. Another side of this war was the intensification of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, whose rulers often made the Polovtsy their allies.
As a rule, three stages of hostilities are distinguished: the initial (second half of the 11th century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military figure Vladimir Monomakh (the first quarter of the 12th century), and the final period (until the middle of the 13th century) (it was part the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign).
The situation in Rus' and in the steppes of the northern Black Sea region at the beginning of the clashes
By the middle of the XI century. A number of important changes have taken place in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torks, who ruled for a century in the "Wild Steppe", weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, failed to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by newcomers from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsy, also called Cumans. The new masters of the steppes defeated the enemies and occupied their camps. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of being close to neighboring countries. For many years of clashes between the Eastern Slavs and the steppe nomads, they developed a certain model of relations, into which the Polovtsians were forced to fit in.
Meanwhile, the process of disintegration started in Rus' - the princes began to wage an active and ruthless struggle for inheritances and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Rus'.
The balance of forces and the military organization of the parties
Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but contemporaries considered their military organization to be quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe dwellers, were detachments of light cavalry armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lassoes and spears. Wealthy warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (since the second half of the 12th century) that the Polovtsians used heavy crossbows and “liquid fire”, borrowed, perhaps, from China since their time in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire). The Polovtsy used the tactics of surprise attacks. They operated mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In the field battle, the Polovtsian khans competently divided forces, used flying detachments in the forefront to start a battle, which were then reinforced by an attack by the main forces. Thus, in the face of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. No wonder the old enemy of Rus' - the Pechenegs were utterly defeated by the Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.
Nevertheless, Rus' had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century was already over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The successes of the Polovtsy were due, first of all, to the disunity and contradictions in the camp of their opponents.
The structure of the Old Russian army in the era of fragmentation changed significantly compared to the earlier period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. The military art of the Russians was at a fairly high level.
The first period of wars (second half of the 11th century)
Immediately after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), the Polovtsy invaded the Principality of Pereyaslav, but made peace with Vsevolod Yaroslavich. In 1059, Vsevolod, and in 1060, all three senior Yaroslavichs, in alliance with Vseslav of Polotsk, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Torks in the steppes. The first clash between Russians and Polovtsians dates back to 1061. The Pereyaslav Principality became a victim of the nomads. Since then, the nomads began to make frequent raids within the borders of Rus'.
One of the largest Polovtsian invasions of Rus' took place in 1068. The Polovtsy were opposed by the forces of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who together owned all of Russia at that time. However, this army suffered a crushing defeat on the Alta River. Izyaslav Yaroslavich refused to give the people of Kiev horses and weapons from his arsenal for the second time in order to fight the Polovtsy, and on the left side of the Dnieper, Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Chernigov on November 1, with 3,000 soldiers, was able to stop the advance of 12,000 Polovtsy in the battle on the Snova River, and the Novgorod First Chronicle reports the capture Sharukan is captured. An uprising took place in Kyiv, forcing Izyaslav to flee to Poland.
For the first time, the Polovtsians were used in Russian civil strife not against the central government, but by the central government:
After the death of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in the reign of Kiev in 1076, Izyaslav Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv, and Vsevolod Yaroslavich kept Chernigov. The Svyatoslavichs Roman and Oleg, in alliance with the Polovtsy, began a struggle for the former possessions of their father, which led to the death in 1078 in the battle on Nezhatinnaya Niva of Izyaslav Yaroslavich and Oleg's ally Boris Vyacheslavich. In 1079, Roman Svyatoslavich was also killed by the Polovtsy.
In 1078, Vsevolod Yaroslavich reigned in Kyiv and left his son Vladimir as governor in Chernigov. A new powerful onslaught on the Russian lands, led by khans Bonyak and Tugorkan, was timed to coincide with the illness of Vsevolod of Kyiv in 1092. The following year, Vsevolod died, and Tugorkan laid siege to the city of Torchesk. The united Kiev-Chernigov-Pereyaslav army, headed by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir and Rostislav Vsevolodovichi, respectively, came to the aid of the defenders, as well as 25 years before, but was defeated in the battle on the Stugna River, and Rostislav died during the retreat in stormy from the rain waters of the river. Torchesk fell, and Svyatopolk was forced to make peace with Tugorkan by marrying his daughter.
In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsians laid siege to Vladimir Vsevolodovich in Chernigov. After a long siege, Vladimir openly left the city ( do not brag about the wicked), having passed between the enemy forces without a fight, but the strife continued in the northeastern lands - Rostov and Murom, during which Monomakh's son Izyaslav (1096) died. Taking advantage of the absence of the forces of Svyatopolk and Monomakh in southern Rus', two Polovtsian armies attacked the Russian principalities on both banks of the Dnieper. Khan Bonyak appeared near Kiev itself, and Tugorkan and Khan Kurya laid siege to Pereyaslavl. The last and waited for the first major defeat from the Russians. On July 19, 1096, on the Trubezh River, the army of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh defeated the enemy. Upon learning of the defeat of Tugorkan, Bonyak, who had already managed to plunder the environs of Kyiv and burned the Caves Monastery, hastily left for the steppe. A year earlier, Monomakh killed two khans, Itlar and Kitan, during negotiations in Pereyaslavl.
Second period of wars (first quarter of the 12th century)
The blow inflicted on the Polovtsy at Trubezh was very painful for the nomads. The largest Polovtsian commander Tugorkan died in the battle. But the power of the steppes was still great. In 1097, at the Lyubech Congress of Princes, a decision was made let each one keep his own(The Svyatoslavichi received their father's inheritance), and Monomakh managed to convince the Russian princes of the need for retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsy and the transfer of the fight against them deep into the steppes.
In 1103, in early spring, the allied army of Russian princes moved into the steppes. The calculation was made to weaken the Polovtsian cavalry. After a long winter, the horses had not yet had time to gain strength, while the Russian army included, in addition to the princely squads, large forces of "pedestrians" - infantrymen. The foot army moved along the Dnieper on boats, the cavalry marched in parallel. Then the army turned deep into the steppes. The decisive battle of the campaign took place on April 4 near the town of Suten. Monomakh and Svyatopolk defeated the Polovtsy, Khan Urusoba and 19 other princes were killed in this battle.
Four years later, the nomads went on the offensive again. In May, Khan Bonyak with his horsemen invaded the Pereyaslav principality and laid siege to the city of Luben. Monomakh was again forced to defend his patrimony. Together with Svyatopolk, he came to the aid of the besieged and attacked the Polovtsians. This time, Bonyak and his soldiers did not resist for long: they fled, leaving the convoy and booty. Once again, peace was concluded, sealed by two dynastic marriages: the daughters of Khan Aepa were married to the son of Vladimir Yuri and the son of Oleg Svyatoslavich Svyatoslav.
The truce did not last long. The Polovtsians were preparing a new attack on Rus', but this time Monomakh forestalled them. Thanks to a sortie to the steppe under the command of governor Dmitry, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers on a big campaign against Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince suggested that the allies attack the enemy themselves. This time they performed in the winter. On February 26, 1111, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, at the head of a large army, moved deep into the Polovtsian pastures. The army of princes penetrated as far into the steppes as never before - all the way to the Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But the main forces of Khan Sharukan brought out from under the blow. On March 26, hoping for the fatigue of the Russian soldiers after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, the victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the prince's army returned home without hindrance.
After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kiev, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsians (1116). In the last years of his life, Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army beyond the Don against the Polovtsy, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsy migrated away from the borders of Rus', to the Caucasian foothills.
The third period of wars (until the middle of the XIII century)
With the death of Monomakh's heir Mstislav, the Russian princes returned to the practice of using the Polovtsy in civil strife. One by one, the Polovtsian khans returned to the Don nomad camps. So, Yuri Dolgoruky five times brought the Polovtsy under the walls of Kyiv during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. Other princes did the same.
The resumption of campaigns of Russian princes in the steppe (to ensure the security of trade) is associated with the great Kievan reign of Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).
In the 70s of the XII century, in the steppe expanses from the Don to the southern borderlands of Rus', a large association of Polovtsian tribes arose, headed by Khan Konchak. The environs of Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl again became victims of more frequent raids by newcomers from the steppes. In 1177, the Polovtsians defeated the Russian troops near Rostovets.
In 1183, the forces of the coalition of South Russian princes, led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kyiv, moved into the nomads of the Polovtsians. A strong Russian army defeated near the river. Aurely a large detachment of Polovtsian horsemen, capturing 7 thousand people, including Khan Kobyak, who then died in a Kyiv prison. On March 1, 1185, Konchak himself was defeated on the Khorol River. After that, Svyatoslav left for the northeastern lands of the Chernigov principality, gathering go to the Don on the Polovtsians for the whole summer, and Prince Igor Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky undertook a separate campaign in the steppe (this time unsuccessful, unlike the campaign of the previous year).
The army of the Seversk prince set out on a campaign on April 23, 1185. On the way to Igor, his son Vladimir Putivl, his nephew Svyatoslav Rylsky, Igor's brother, Prince Vsevolod of Chernigov and the Chernigov kovui joined with squads: a total of 5 regiments. Also in this campaign, the sixth regiment, consisting of archers from all regiments. The first meeting with the Polovtsy took place on the banks of the river. Syuurli was successful for the Russians. Rich booty was captured, part of the Russian forces (except for the regiments of Igor and Vsevolod) participated in the pursuit of the defeated enemy. The next day, the princely regiments clashed with the main forces of Khan Konchak. On the banks of the river Kayala broke out into a bloody battle. The cavalry squads could have fled, but chose not to black people, dismounted and began to make their way to the Donets. Having been wounded, Igor got back on his horse. The whole day Igor's warriors held back the onslaught of superior enemy forces, but at the dawn of the next day they faltered. The prince's army was defeated, Igor himself and his son Vladimir were captured.
The Polovtsy invaded Rus', laid siege to Pereyaslavl, took Rome. Svyatoslav of Kyiv and his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich managed to build a defense, and when they learned that they had crossed the Dnieper, Konchak lifted the siege from Pereyaslavl and went into the steppe. Novgorod-Seversky prince, who later escaped from the Polovtsian captivity, managed to take revenge on the enemies: he made several victorious campaigns against the nomads. After 1185, the Polovtsy invaded Rus' only as allies of one of the coalitions of Russian princes fighting each other. At the same time, the largest campaigns in the steppe were undertaken by Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1198 (the Polovtsy migrated south to avoid a collision), Roman Mstislavich in 1202 (for which he was awarded a comparison by the chronicler with his great ancestor Monomakh) and 1203.
In the first half of the 13th century, both Russians and Polovtsy became victims of the Mongol conquests. At the first appearance of the Mongols in Europe in 1222-1223, the Russian princes joined forces with the Polovtsian khans, although the Mongol ambassadors suggested that the Russian princes act together against the Polovtsians. The battle on the Kalka River ended unsuccessfully for the allies, but the Mongols were forced to postpone the conquest of Eastern Europe for 13 years. Western campaign of the Mongols 1236-1242, also referred to in Eastern sources Kipchak, that is, Polovtsian, did not meet the joint resistance of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans.
The results of the wars
The result of the Russian-Polovtsian wars was the loss by the Russian princes of control over the Tmutarakan principality and Belaya Vezha, as well as the cessation of the Polovtsian invasions of Rus' outside the framework of alliances with some Russian princes against others. At the same time, the strongest Russian princes began to undertake campaigns deep into the steppes, but even in these cases, the Polovtsy preferred to retreat, avoiding a collision.
The Ruriks intermarried with many Polovtsian khans. Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Prince of Chernigov), Rurik Rostislavich, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (Prince of Vladimir) were married to Polovtsian women at different times. Christianity became widespread in the Polovtsian elite: for example, of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned by Russian chronicles under 1223, two had Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint campaign against the Mongols.
