What happened in the Far East in the first half of the 20th century?

Muscovites will not understand this right away. Their brains are on different settings and in their own orbits.

And the residents of the Urals do not need to explain that to the west of the Urals there are inhabitants, roads, cities and factories - an order of magnitude less than east of the Urals. It gets ridiculous: to get from Perm to the south, somewhere in the Ufa region, you need cross the ridge twice. The circular road turns out to be three times longer than the straight one. Because beyond the Urals there are roads from north to south, but in front of the Urals, it turns out, there are very few of them... Not because in the west there are steeper mountains and wider rivers... Just the opposite.

When you explain to residents of other regions that The Urals were settled from the east, he has a different “non-Moscow” path, it’s just that a “bloody mess” took place here in Grazhdanskaya, which is why the region was repopulated again - they are stuck.

You are talking about the Central Asian camel on the coats of arms of Chelyabinsk and the Chelyabinsk region. You show maps: here is the steppe, here are forests, rivers, roads. Then there is nowhere to go - they agree.

However, this is an amazing paradox when the history of a region has been rewritten to such an extent that a normal person confidently argues with what he finds obvious after a couple of minutes.

But that's not what we're talking about here. There are several amazing questions in the history and geography of the Urals that will be of interest not only to residents of the Urals - but also far beyond its borders.

In the history of the Urals there are episodes, in order to understand which you need to “attach” Kazakhstan in your mind, remember the forgotten history of Turkestan. And even connect the history of this region with Central Asia and even with... China.

The Urals are the edge of the Russian cultural ecumene, in contact with foreign worlds - Finnish and Asian. Here the edges of east and west intersect and mix. Pasternak perceives the landscapes of the Kama region as “semi-Asian”; his depiction of the Urals includes Tatar motifs and Chinese population , but here among the characters we meet the French, English and Belgians (in “Childhood Grommets,” for example).

After World War II, several independent states ceased to exist in the Far East. The circumstances surrounding the end of their story are strange. Stalin gave several independent states (East Turkestan, Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Port Arthur) to China practically for nothing.

Western Turkestan (aka-Kazakhstan) was torn apart so that its former capital ( Orenburg) ended up in Russia. The new capital, Alma-ata, turned out to be at a completely different end of the former country. More than 95% of the territory was divided between all five states of the region. And in order to hide this story, the nomadic Kyrgyz were urgently renamed Kazakhs. And changing the name from kaza TO camp - on Kaza X Stan - passed through history almost without comment.

Along the way told other regions of the country. Through famine, through repression, the state elite and new national elites of the countries of the region were completely renewed - they were assembled from scratch.

In 1949, under strange circumstances, during a flight from Alma-Ata to Beijing (via Irkutsk), the entire leadership of East Turkestan died. And the once strong independent state that owned all of China became part of China as a conquered province.

Six months earlier, on February 14, 1950, a Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance was concluded between the USSR and the PRC, providing for the transfer of the CER (Chinese Eastern Railway, built by Russia and maintained by it) after the entry into force of the peace treaty between China and Japan (concluded by the PRC only in 1978), but not later than 1952.

On December 31, 1952, an agreement was signed on the free transfer of the CER to China. In 1953, the process of transferring the road to the PRC was completed.

At the same time, in the fall of 1950, a free port, formally leased by the USSR, Port Arthur and Dalian were free of charge transferred by the USSR government to China. Territories with a unique climate and valuable mineral resources.

Then, at the end of 1949, the territory of Manchukuo became part of the People's Republic of China.

Why, for what purposes, did the Soviet government “strengthen” the young Chinese state? Or was the distribution of power in the world (and in History) different then than it is today? And the then leaders of the USSR, China (and the world) knew and understood more than us?

The PRC was created to erase from memory and politics other powers, including those that worked within the framework of the "Far Eastern Republic", the independent republic of "Manzhu Guo" and the state of Menjiang, Inner Mongolia. "Golden State". remnants of the "Golden Horde"- in the Far East...

Moreover, the USSR covered up the expansion of China - also in Tibet, the rights to which the USSR actually also completely transferred to China. That is, instead of its own territorial acquisitions, the USSR was engaged in the creation of China and the expansion of Chinese territories.

The circumstances of the Korean War are extremely curious and are also not covered. In particular, the Koreans themselves (SELF + SOMEONE) practically united their country in 1950, and if not for the external intervention of “UN troops”, the USSR and China would not have had to get involved. And the regime and system that exists in North Korea still bears that strange "spirit" of uniting the people, which we today disdainfully call “feudal,” but which led a very small country to an independent nuclear program and an economy almost self-sufficient for the modern world...

At the same time, the fact is ignored that for a long time in the Far East there existed a curious subject of international law - Far Eastern Republic. The meaning of which is completely unclear. From the territory of which Japanese troops left in 1920 - ... either on their own, or under the influence of the United States, or under the influence of some third factor...

What is it about?

About existence A single (“Jesuit”) state from the Urals - across the steppe - to the Far East.

From the movies, everyone knows that it was the Jesuits who actually ruled China, and it was the Jesuit missions in Japan that determined the (foreign and internal) policy of this country.

Traces of the Jesuits are lost at the beginning of the 20th century. But they are lost so strangely, with a large number of omissions, omissions, references to opium and degradation - that this raises a large number of questions.

Finally, the personalities of some figures of the Civil War go far beyond the meaning of the events of this war - in particular, Baron Ungern, Ataman Semenov, Blucher (not translated -!!)

I'll continue with geography.

Anyone familiar with Chinese and Japanese will notice that the title Tokyo- this is the "eastern capital"

Beijing- northern,

Nanjing- South Capital.

And here three questions arise:

1) what IS it that unites these different countries so closely? That is, there was a relatively recent general tradition - ?

2) where is " western capital" - ?

3) does the main exist // central capital - ?

There are two important "former Russian cities" - Port Arthur and Dalniy. Which have very strange meanings in the same eastern languages, but for some reason their meaning and name are not analyzed: “Port Orda” and “Big Way”.

In fact, these two cities, conquered during the Russian-Japanese War, have capital names and capital functions and the climate that distinguishes them favorably from the surrounding area...

Retreat.

On the road through Tura, which, when place names are transferred to Europe, will begin to be read as “Tver”.

In the history of Yekaterinburg, the main place belongs to its founder and first governor, the most famous Russian historian, industrialist, economist and politician Vasily Tatishchev. However, real information about him is practically cleared. So much so that no one realizes that there are no original documents of Vasily Nikitich left at all. historians mention the “History” of Lomonosov, Miller, not paying attention to the fact that the First Russian History is from Tatishchev - disappeared without a trace.

And Yekaterinburg is founded on seven hills. The Moscow highway from it does not go to Moscow, but to the south, through Chelyabinsk. And the Semipalatinka river suggests that part of the history of this city could have “migrated” to other places.

In the history of the small year of the Perm region of Kungur, a curious episode with the name of this city is still preserved "tea" capital of Russia. Historians come up with theories that merchants stupidly packaged tea here. And numerous huge temples of Kungur were either destroyed or transferred to numerous concentration camps, historically located in Kungur.

Although Kungur still has a unique microclimate. Thanks to which this city has 60 more sunny days a year than around it. This is actually why you can still find wild hemp around the city. "Tea" of nomadic peoples. The decoction of which gave a characteristic green color, fogged the brain. And it could be much more logical to be called " green serpent".

During the years of the civil war, there are numerous references to certain Chinese revolutionaries. Numerous, disciplined, extremely cruel. The names of these Ural workers: "Votkinsk", Lysvensky, Tagil - remained among the names of the Bolshevik party leaders - throughout Russia. By the way, Votkinsk and Vyatka - which is also a way to read "China" - in reverse. And “Lysva” is a form of pronunciation of the Arabic words “Asian” and “Jesuit”. NOT in the sense of modern "Arabs", but in the sense of "Arab nomads" who were the local population until the mid-19th century.

A huge, powerful empire went to the East, entered the phase of oligarchy, aristocracy, went through a stage of complete degeneration, collapsed, and despite the fact that the last emperor existed, he had a purely ceremonial meaning.

It was the last Emperor Pu Yi who “unified” the country in the 1950s, the name “China” surfaced on the outskirts of the once global Empire.

And the fact that now Chinese historians “remember” the Chinese fleet and Chinese ships... it’s good that at least they remember. This Not part of the history of today's Chinese, who were for the most part simple peasants. This is part of the history of the conquerors, which China translated into its own language, inserted into the national scenery - and privatized.

The right seeds, brought to fertile soil, give a good harvest. It’s a pity that it’s not in the real homeland of “China”.

Great Tartaria – Rus Empire

The “Opium” Wars as a Frontier of the “Modern Time” in China. The course of the Anglo-Chinese war of 1839-1842. and its results. The Treaty of Nanjing of 1842 was the first in a series of unequal treaties. "Opening" of China to foreign powers and foreign capital.

Stage-by-stage characteristics of Chinese society in the second half of the 19th century: signs of the “decline” phase during the dynastic cycle, interaction of elements of the traditional structure with foreign capital. Signs of modifications during the dynastic cycle. Taiping uprising: traditional cyclical explosion under new slogans. The policy of “self-strengthening”, a combination of traditional and modernization elements.

The deepening of crisis phenomena by the end of the 19th century. The Second Opium War, the Japanese-Chinese War and new unequal treaties. “100 days of reform” 1898. The rebellion of the Yihetuan. "New Politics" 1900-1906 Development of the ideology of modernization by representatives of the opposition: liberal (Kang Yuwei, Liang Qichao) and revolutionary (Sun Yat-sen) movements.

The staged dead end of Chinese society as a result of the interaction of traditional structure and foreign capital. Failure of reforms as a prerequisite for entering an era of revolutionary upheavals.

Required literature:

Vasiliev L.S. History of the East. T. 2. M.: Higher School, 1998. Part 3, chapter. 13.

History of China. Ed. A.V. Meliksetova. M.: MSU - Onyx, 2007. Ch. 11, 12.

Additional literature:

Mugruzin A.S. The agrarian-peasant problem in China in the first half of the 20th century. M.: Eastern literature, 1994.

Nepomnin O.E. History of China: Qing era. M.: Eastern literature, 2005.

Nepomnin O.E., Menshikov V.B. Synthesis in a transitional society: China on the brink of eras. M.: Eastern literature, 1999.

Socio-economic and political problems of China in modern and contemporary times. M.: Nauka, 1991.

Zhongguo tongshi. The Concise Handbook of Chinese History. Beijing: Zhongguo shuji chubanshe, 2004.

Topic 33. Latin American countries in 1870 – 1918.

Main trends in socio-economic development of Latin American countries. Acceleration of capitalist development. Formation of national industrial capital. The role of latifundism.

Imperialist expansion in Latin America, its forms and methods, increasing economic and financial dependence of Latin American states. Features of dependent, “peripheral” capitalism. The main directions and forms of US expansion in the region. US interventionist policy in Central and Caribbean America. "Backyard". Intensification of Anglo-American rivalry. "Pan-Americanism". Resistance of Latin American countries to US expansionist policies.

Development of the industrial proletariat in Latin American countries. Agricultural proletariat. The origins of the labor movement, workers and socialist organizations. The main trends in the Latin American labor movement at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Peasantry and peasant movements. Activation of the middle layers.

Socio-political development of Latin American republics at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Typology of political regimes in the region. Features of the formation of political parties, their nature and role. Conservatives and liberals at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries.

Problems of historical development of Latin American countries in 1870-1918. in domestic historiography.

Cuba in 1868-1918 Prerequisites and beginning of the Ten Years' War. Her character and stages. Sanhon peace and “Protest in Baragua”. Results and historical significance of the Ten Years' War. Abolition of slavery. Socio-economic and political development of Cuba in 1878-1895. Expansion of North American capital. The beginning of the formation of the industrial and agricultural proletariat, the birth of the labor movement. Development of the liberation struggle after the Ten Years' War. Socio-political views and activities of H. Marti. Creation of the Cuban Revolutionary Party. Second War of Independence. The Spanish-American War and the first American occupation. American military governors of Cuba John R. Brooke and Leonard Wood.

Constituent Assembly. Adoption of the first Constitution of the Republic of Cuba. "Platt Amendment". Presidential elections. Proclamation of the Cuban Republic on May 20, 1902. End of the first American occupation. The transformation of Cuba into a semi-colony of the United States.

Mexico. Mexican Revolution 1910-1917 The dictatorship of P. Diaz, its politics and social orientation. The penetration of foreign capital and Anglo-American rivalry in Mexico. The development of capitalism and the beginning of the formation of the industrial proletariat. Agrarian relations. Prerequisites for the revolution of 1910-1917, its nature and driving forces. Stages of the revolution. The role and features of the peasant movement during the revolution. US intervention. Constitution of 1917. Results and significance of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1917.

Brazil. The abolition of slavery and the fall of the empire. Revolution 1889-1891 Establishment of the dominance of the coffee oligarchy. Socio-economic development of Brazil at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Expansion of foreign capital. The development of capitalism and the beginning of the formation of the industrial proletariat. The origins of the labor movement, its characteristic features in Brazil. Peasant movement. Features of the political regime in the country.

Argentina. Socio-economic development of Argentina at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Argentine latifundism. The role of foreign capital. European immigration with a significant Italian component. The development of capitalism, the formation of industrial capital and the national bourgeoisie. Consolidation of the regime of “elite democracy” in the 1880s and its character. The policy of the ruling elite at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Labor movement. The spread of Marxism and the formation of the socialist party. Currents in the labor movement and its development at the beginning of the 20th century. Radical uprisings. Creation and activities of the Radical Civil Union party. Electoral law of 1912. The rise of radicals to power and its reasons.

Chile. Prerequisites and beginning of the Pacific War, its course and results. Consequences of the war for Chile. Development of capitalism. Expansion of foreign capital. The civil war of 1991 and its results. Socio-economic and political development of Chile at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. The emergence of the organized labor movement on the political stage of the country. The creation of the Socialist Workers' Party of Chile led by L.E. Recabarren.

Required reading:

History of Latin America. 70s of the XIX century - 1918. M. 1993.

Prygov D.D. History of Latin American countries. Tutorial. M. 1981.

Magidovich I.P. History of the discovery and exploration of Central and South America. M. 1965.

500th anniversary of the discovery of the New World. Historical destinies of Latin America. M. 1992.

Latin America in historical retrospect. XVI-XIX centuries M. 1994.

Selivanov V.N. Latin America: from conquistadors to independence. M. 1984.

Topic 34. The system of international relations at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries.

The Vienna system of international relations: essence and characteristic features. The crisis of the Vienna system and the formation of a bloc system of international relations. Stage I (1870s). The Alliance of the Three Emperors, the Balkan crisis of the mid-1870s, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, the Berlin Congress and the formation of the Austro-German military-political alliance.

The struggle of France and Italy in North Africa and the formation of the Triple Alliance. Franco-Russian rapprochement. The Entente begins to form. The English policy of "brilliant isolation". The struggle for influence in the Balkans. General militarization. Stage III (turn of the 19th-20th centuries). The struggle for the redivision of the world and the first imperialist wars. American-Spanish War 1898 Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 Far Eastern policy of the great powers. Intervention in China 1900-1901 Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 The final folding of the Entente. Formation of preconditions for the First World War. Results of the First World War.

Required reading:

Yemets V.A. Essays on Russian foreign policy during the First World War. Relations with allies on issues of warfare. M. 1997.

World War I. Discussive problems of history. M. 1994.

Utkin A.I. World War I. M.: World in the twentieth century. 2004.

The century was young, and the first thing it saw was a great war(With)

The 19th century ended with a powerful scientific and technological revolution. The means of production have increased significantly. Internal combustion engines were added to steam engines. Electricity has created a new niche in economies.

Due to the rapid growth of economies, the 20th century began with a crisis and a change in world economic systems.
Imperialism as an economic model fell into stagnation, and in some places into recession. There is a need to move to another, more advanced one.

I will call those countries that had colonies imperialist economies. This is not entirely correct, if you tell me what to call it correctly, I will be glad.

Those who were not empires - the Central European countries - were able to quickly rebuild their economies on a new, capitalist market model. (I will call them capitalist. Again, conditionally)
And in a short period of time, the capitalist countries achieved such rapid economic growth that they threatened to oust the imperialist countries - Britain and France - from all markets.

The imperialists acted proactively and started a war with the capitalists. First World War. As a result, it was a military draw over 4 years and 2 revolutions in European countries, Germany and Russia. In both cases, the imperialists introduced new economic models for the sake of experiment. In addition, under the guise of total wartime mobilization, they partially reformed their economies, which before the war operated according to the old style.

As a result, half-hearted reforms in Britain and France led to the fact that economies began to produce more, but the old, imperialist distribution system could not cope with the dramatically changed production. And the Great Depression of the 20s happened - a crisis of overproduction.

The crisis led to economies mobilizing again and hastily reforming. The old empires did not give up trying to find a new recipe and carefully watched everything where something new was born. In Spain, they tried experimental communism mixed with multi-party democracy and pitted it against National Socialism as interpreted by Franco. We looked at what would happen and drew conclusions. They also watched China and its endless civil war. This is where the experiments were in full swing - oh, how many models have been created since the 1911 revolution! Plus, the British protectorate of Japan was working on a version of a total economy (as I call it. What the Japanese had by WWII I really want to call “war communism” or a similar form of a totally mobilized planned economy). So we looked at what would happen.

But time passed, depression blazed across the world. And again, the winners were those who did not have colonies, who were not shackled by the old imperialist system. It turned out to be a repetition of the events of the beginning of the century - the rapid growth of all non-imperialist economies and a big war.

A war in which the old empires were again in the position of winning back.

The Americans have mixed up the cards. They also calmly observed all the experiments on the planet. And no wars stopped them from introducing what the British and French decided to consider a good model. And in 1942 they came to Britain, to the most important island of the empire. And there was no way to get them out of there. The Americans set things up in such a way that without their military presence the risk of military defeat for Britain was almost absolute.

Nicholas II – last Russian emperor from the Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Russia was an agrarian country, a multinational empire.

The reign of Nicholas II was distinguished by a high rate of economic growth, rapid construction of railways, progressive agrarian reform, but also disasters (hundreds of people died in a stampede on the day of the Tsar’s coronation), unsuccessful wars, the activities of terrorist groups, and revolutions.
The king received the nickname at one time Nicholas the Bloody(after the coronation, Bloody Sunday, the Russo-Japanese and the First World War), but today, due to the violent death of him and his family, this man is also recognized Nicholas the Martyr(in 2000 he and his family were canonized as the Holy New Martyrs of Russia).

Personality of Nicholas II

Nicholas II was a soft, indecisive man, distinguished by lack of will and a tendency to fall under the influence of mysticism. His personal desire was not to rule an empire, but to spend time with his family (his wife is a German princess, 4 daughters and one son suffering from hemophilia). The Tsar and his wife felt that they were present at the crisis and decline of the autocracy. Russia was actually ruled by the Tsar's assistants.

The king's main employees

P.A. Stolypin

Prime Minister of the Tsarist Government. Stolypin tried to restore order in the country, to stem the tide of the revolutionary movement with the help of terror and repression (“Stolypin’s tie” = noose). Stolypin introduced speedy emergency trials and executed many people). An assassination attempt was made on Stolypin (in 1911), and the tsar at that moment knew that the last person who could save the empire had died.

G.E. Rasputin

G.E. Rasputin was a Siberian man who mastered the art of hypnosis, who acquired great influence over the imperial family. Empress Alexandra Feodorovna was confident that he was able to cure the prince. Some considered Rasputin a prophet (“he contains everything that the Russian people are gifted with”), others considered him a symbol of the fall of Russia. Finally Rasputin was also killed.

War with Japan (1904-1905)

Russia started a war against Japan with the goal of establishing control over Manchuria and Korea. With the planned “small” war, Russia wanted to raise the international prestige of the monarchy, but it suffered a humiliating defeat. The defeat undermined the authority of the authorities within the country, weakened Russia's position in the world and became one of the reasons for the First Russian Revolution.

Revolution of 1905

The revolution began with Bloody Sunday - the shooting by tsarist troops of a workers' demonstration in St. Petersburg. Strikes and barricade battles followed. The Tsar was forced to issue a manifesto legalizing the activities of political parties (the main ones: social revolutionaries - Social Revolutionaries, Social Democrats - Mensheviks and Bolsheviks). Has been installed The State Duma(The king hated her and did not obey her).

Russia in the First World War

Russia entered the war in 1914 as an ally of Serbia and fought on the side of Great Britain and France against Austria-Hungary and Germany.
Half of Russian men were forced to join the army. The Russian army lagged far behind other armies: there were not enough guns, soldiers often surrendered, and discipline in the army fell sharply. The war caused decomposition in the country, mass unrest, and the February Revolution.

February Revolution of 1917

At the end of February 1917, almost half of the workers in Petrograd went on strike. On February 27, the strike developed into an armed uprising.
Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne. He and his family were first under arrest at home in Tsarskoe Selo, but in 1918 everyone was transported to Yekaterinburg and shot there.

Power in the country passed to Provisional Government(its second chairman is ). The government's powers were very limited and its activities were hampered by other forces. The provisional government failed to end the war; it did not carry out democratic reforms decisively enough.
In the fall of 1917, there was actually a dual power in Russia - the Provisional Government and the Soviets (organizations that included representatives of left-wing parties, soldiers and workers). The influence of the Bolsheviks (one of the leaders and close collaborators of Lenin -) increased with radical slogans and the goal of curtailing the work of the Provisional Government, organizing military revolutionary committees and preparing for an uprising.

October revolution 25.10. (7.11.) 1917

After the signal from the cruiser Aurora (historians have doubts that it was the cruiser that gave the signal), the assault on the Winter Palace began. Members of the Provisional Government were arrested here. The Bolsheviks and their followers captured bridges and the telegraph. The goal of the Bolsheviks was to end the war, distribute land to the peasants, establish socialist dictatorship of the proletariat.

The leader of the revolution was V.I.Lenin(1870-1924), professional revolutionary. Lenin's aggressive program consisted of the elimination of all classes except the proletariat, intolerance of any dissent, and the use of violence. His ideal was the worldwide spread of communism, the “world revolution” (the first attempt to export communism was the Soviet-Polish War of 1920).

The new government (Council of People's Commissars) proclaimed Russia the first in the world socialist republic. The most important economic sectors were immediately nationalized.

The October coup and regime change caused first wave of emigration From Russia. The authorities evicted people by force. The so-called “Ship of Philosophers” - Lenin sent his opponents from the sphere of scientists and thinkers away from the state on a ship.

Civil War

It seemed that the coup went smoothly, but already in the summer of 1918 the Civil War (1918-1921) began - the struggle white(opposed the Soviet regime, wanting to return the pre-revolutionary system) against red(pro-Bolshevik forces represented by the Red Army).
White Guard governments arose in Siberia (including with the support of Czech legionnaires), and most of the country found itself in the hands of opponents of the Bolshevik regime and the foreign interventionists who helped them.
However, the anti-Bolshevik uprisings were gradually suppressed, and pockets of White Guard resistance were eliminated. The war ended in victory for the Reds.

The war caused a state catastrophe of unprecedented proportions, aggravated by terror and mass death of people.

The consequences of the war were:

• chaos and complete devastation, economic crisis, the rise of the “black market”
• transport crisis
• huge inflation (citizens received their salaries in household items)
• famine (food was forcibly taken away from villagers, city dwellers moved to villages). The Bolsheviks did not recognize the famine and refused help from other countries (the USA).
• Jewish pogroms
• It became dangerous to live in the country; deserters and orphans walked through the cities in droves and robbed citizens.
• millions of people died; Russia lost 10% of its population.

The USSR comes into being in 1922.

The flag of the USSR was red and in its upper left corner there was a sickle, a hammer and a five-pointed star above them.

After the Civil War, Lenin takes some measures to boost the economy:
NEP(New Economic Policy) – a reform that legalizes market relations. Some workshops and shops again passed into private hands.
GOELRO- electrification of the country.

In 1924 Lenin died.

He became the head of the USSR I.V.Stalin (1878–1953).
Relations between Lenin and Stalin in the early 1920s were far from friendly. In his Letter to the Congress Lenin called Stalin “too rude,” “disloyal,” and a “capricious” man who concentrated “immense power in his hands,” which he may not always use “carefully enough,” and recommended Stalin’s removal from the post of General Secretary.

Stalin is one of the most brutal dictators in human history. Stalin's real surname is Dzhugashvili (“Stalin” means man of steel; another nickname for Stalin is “Koba”, named after the beloved hero of Georgian myths). Stalin concentrated all power in his hands and mercilessly dealt with his opponents and possible competitors (Trotsky).
Before his elevation to the post of General Secretary, Stalin worked as Commissioner for National Affairs - he decided the fate of non-Russian peoples in the USSR. Later he deported entire Caucasian peoples to Siberia or Central Asia, and expelled the Tatars from Crimea.

Stalinism (1924-1953)

The foundation of the Stalinist dictatorship:

Great terror, repression

• The NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) kept files on almost half of the adult residents of Russian cities. All segments of the population were subjected to repression. The Enkavedeshniks usually arrived around 11 pm in black cars - “funnels” - and arrested people.
• The most widespread purges occurred in 1937–1938. Many fabricated trials were organized against old cadres from the country's leadership. Leading cadres of the party, the army were destroyed (45% of the military command staff were put in camps and liquidated, which later became the reason for the failures of the Red Army at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War), law enforcement agencies, the Komsomol, diplomatic services and even intelligence.
• Temples were closed and destroyed, the clergy were persecuted.
• Dissenters in the social sciences, humanities, literature and art were completely suppressed and forced underground.
• Internal passports were introduced, and travel around the country was possible only with the permission of the authorities.
• People's relationships and the atmosphere in society were poisoned for a long time by continuous denunciation and fear.

Gulag

(Main Directorate of Forced Labor Camps)
The Gulag operated as part of the NKVD from 1930 to 1960.
The first camps on the Solovetsky Islands appeared already in the early 20s. under Lenin.
At the end of 1920, the scale of repression increased sharply, and the need arose to increase the number of places of detention, as well as to attract convicts to participate in industrial construction and the development of sparsely populated and economically undeveloped areas of the country. Stalin all the time saw the Gulag mainly as a powerful support for the state economy. Prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals (Belomorkanal), roads (Baikal-Amur Mainline), factories and new cities (Magadan).
The most difficult living and working conditions were created in the camps, and basic human rights were not respected. The mortality rate was high. The barracks had soldier-type bunks and usually only one stove.
Prisoners – "prisoners": political prisoners, kulaks, intelligentsia, clergy, prisoners of war, murderers, thieves.
In total, the number of camps was 243. In 1938, the number of prisoners exceeded 2 million, the absolute maximum was reached in 1950 - 2.6 million.
The main centers of the Gulag: Kolyma (in the Far East), Solovetsky Islands, the Komi Republic and the Perm region, Yakutia, Novosibirsk, Central Asia and other remote areas of the country. After Stalin's death, the camp system was gradually eliminated.

Camp literature: A. Solzhenitsyn: One day of Ivan Denisovich , Gulag Archipelago, V. Shalamov: Kolyma stories. G. Vladimov: Verny Ruslan, V. Grossman: Panta rhea, A. Marchenko: Live like everyone else, A. Zhigulin: Black stones, S. Dovlatov: Zone .

Collectivization of agriculture

Collectivization is the darkest era for the countryside (in the 30s, 80% of the USSR population lived in villages), the creation of collective farms (collective farms uniting peasants for joint farming, based on socialized means of production).
Almost only poor or landless peasants (7% of the total number of all peasant families) entered the collective farms; collectivization caused mass resistance among the middle peasants and kulaks.
The leading slogan of collectivization was the words “We will destroy the kulaks as a class!” New Gulag camps were opened for the kulaks, and 40,000 families were evicted to the outskirts of the country.

Holodomor

During the era of the global economic crisis that began in 1929, large quantities of industrial equipment had to be imported into the Soviet Union. To pay for imports, it was necessary to export grain in huge quantities.
The result of the export of grain and collectivization was famine, which reached especially terrible proportions in 1932 in Ukraine (in 2002 it was officially recognized as genocide against the Ukrainian people).

Industrialization

Slogan: “We are 100 years behind America and Western Europe.” We have to catch up with them in 10 years!“

• The construction of a new society in the USSR, the enthusiasm of many millions of people, especially the generation that grew up after the revolution. With the help of mobilization of the masses (ideological propaganda), rapid industrial growth was achieved.
• Focus on heavy industry. Giant factories arose (such as the metallurgical plant in Magnitogorsk) and other large structures (Belomorkanal).
• Five-year plans - economic planning (“Five-year plan in four years!”, the calendar was even changed for a short time - instead of the names of days, only numbers 1-5 were introduced, all days were working days)
• Stakhanov movement (Alexey Stakhanov is a worker fulfilling the plan 200%)
• literacy

Propaganda

The socialist leaders accompanied all reforms with powerful propaganda. The population was convinced by all means of the correctness of the chosen socialist path, of the omnipresence of the enemies of the USSR, of the infallibility of Lenin and Stalin (“cult of personality”).
On the basis of propaganda, a different, ideal, mythical world of socialism was formed, different from the actual Soviet reality.
Freedom of speech was completely suppressed, many facts were hidden from the population. The only recognized artistic method was socialist realism.

Russia in World War II

Russians call the Second World War on the territory of the USSR Great Patriotic War (WWII)(June 22, 1941 – May 9, 1945)
On August 23, 1939, the USSR and Germany signed nonaggression pact(Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact).

The beginning of the Second World War

At the beginning of the Second World War in 1939, Soviet troops entered Polish territory. The USSR waged a “winter” war with Finland. The huge losses of Soviet troops convinced Hitler that the Red Army was significantly weakened.
June 22, 1941 The German army, violating the treaty, crossed the Soviet border (Operation Barbarossa). The Soviet Union was not prepared for the possibility of an attack; Stalin ignored all warnings and did not take into account numerous signals about preparations for an invasion. In the first weeks of the war, the USSR suffered heavy losses, especially on the western borders.

The most important events of the Second World War

• battles for Smolensk and Kyiv
• The Battle of Stalingrad (July 1942 - February 1943), which ended with the first German surrender. The Germans suffered heavy losses in the harsh winter
• Leningrad blockade
• battle for Moscow (General Zhukov)

Leningrad blockade

In September 1942, Leningrad was encircled and surrounded. The siege of the city lasted almost 900 days.
Although many residents were evacuated, an estimated 900,000 died from starvation, epidemics and bombing. The “Road of Life” was laid along Lake Ladoga, along which the city was supplied and people were taken to the “Mainland”. The road was very dangerous because it was shelled and sometimes the ice fell through. Although Leningraders went through terrible times (it was no longer possible to bury the dead, and they lay in houses or on the streets), many city residents retained their courage.
D. Shostakovich became famous for the 7th symphony, which he composed in a besieged city, where it was performed.

Victory

Soldiers of the Red Army liberated most of Eastern Europe (including Prague) and reached Berlin (inscriptions of Russian soldiers on the walls of the Reichstag). In Russia, Victory Day in the Second World War is celebrated on May 9. This is the most important Russian holiday

Russian losses

In 1946 it was announced that 7 million people had become victims of the war, in 1960 - 20 million, in 1990 - 27 million.

The border with Tibet is approx. 800 km, was the subject of disputes until 1961, when, according to an agreement between China and Nepal, a territory with an area of ​​​​approx. 780 sq. km. The demarcation line was drawn along the crest of the Main Himalayan Range with such peaks as Chomolungma (Everest) and Makalu; Accordingly, the Nepal-China border is considered the highest in the world. The border with India was fixed by the Treaty of Segauli, the signing of which on March 4, 1816 ended the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–1816. In 1961, the previously vassal principality of Mustang, located on the border with China, was included in Nepal.

Area 147,181 sq. km. (according to other sources - 140.8 thousand sq. km.). Population 26.4 million people (2003).

Remote from the sea coast and cut off from the rest of the world by high mountains, the country was isolated for many centuries, and its rulers actively opposed the penetration of foreigners and external influences into Nepal. Before 1951, probably only a few hundred Europeans visited the capital of this country, Kathmandu (620 thousand inhabitants in 1997), and only a few were able to see the interior. Nepal's isolation was overcome only in the second half of the 20th century.

NATURE

Terrain.

On the territory of Nepal there are two main parts: the Himalayas and the foothill plains bordering them from the south - the Terai.

Himalayas.

The most elevated part of the country is formed by the Greater Himalayas, where the eight-thousander peaks Chomolungma (8848 m), Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri and Annapurna are located. The Greater Himalayas are sparsely populated except for scattered villages in the valleys. The mountain tribes of Nepal and Tibet have long maintained trade links through the passes in the Himalayas. One of these passes was used to build the Kathmandu-Lhasa highway, built by the Chinese in the mid-1970s. Increased demand for fuelwood and overgrazing, coupled with the development of mountaineering and tourism, have contributed to deforestation and grassland degradation in many of Nepal's highlands. Tourism created a demand for labor and raw materials, which gradually affected the geoecology and economy of the Himalayan region.

To the south of the Greater Himalayas there is a zone of medium-high mountains of the Lesser Himalayas, which are represented by separate multidirectional spurs of more powerful ridges. One of the main ranges, the Mahabharat, with heights up to 3000 m, has a latitudinal strike. The Lesser Himalaya ranges are dissected by numerous rivers, including the Karnali, Narayani, Gandak and Kosi, which cut deep gorges in the Mahabharata and flow south to the plains along the Ganges in Indian territory. Almost 45% of Nepal's population is concentrated in the valleys of the Lesser Himalayas. Several large fertile valleys (Kathmandu, Pokhara, etc.) are especially densely populated. Forests in the mid-mountain zone have suffered greatly due to their reduction to arable land, uncontrolled grazing and fuel procurement. Environmental degradation has caused migration of the local population to the cities and foothill plains, as well as to the cities of India, where approx. 10 million people from Nepal and their descendants.

To the south of the Lesser Himalayas there is a low-mountain zone - the Outer Himalayas (Pre-Himalayas), known as the Siwalik Mountains, or Churiyaghati, with average altitudes from 900 to 1800 m. In this zone, flat-bottomed valleys - dunes - are common, which are important for agriculture. The settlement of these areas began 300–400 years ago, when migrants from India began to arrive. Programs for further development of the area led in the 1960s to massive deforestation in order to provide land for settlers. As a result, only isolated small groves remained from the once vast forest areas. Reforestation work has been carried out in many villages and in some areas the forested area has even increased compared to the 1950s.

Terai.

This area, reaching its greatest width of approx. 30 km, is a fertile alluvial plain located at low altitudes. It is rightly considered the northern continuation of the Gangetic Plain. The Terai can be traced over a large area along almost the entire southern border of Nepal. Their southern part, width approx. 16 km, heavily plowed. To the north, at the junction with the forest belt of the Outer Himalayas, the Terai are heavily swamped, and there have long been foci of malaria there. Over the past decades, significant progress has been made in the fight against this disease, and many outbreaks of malaria mosquitoes have been completely eradicated. A green ribbon of timber forests runs parallel to the mountain ranges, but even more typical is the savannah or dense thickets of elephant grass up to 4.5 m high.

Climate

diverse. In mountain valleys at altitudes of approx. 1500 m above sea level The climate is temperate. In other parts of the country it is either hot, as in the Terai, or cold, as in the mountains in the north. The Himalayas present a spectrum of local climates, depending primarily on the absolute altitude, as well as on the exposure of the slopes. Average temperatures in the Kathmandu Valley are 10°C in January and 25°C in July. It receives an average of 1470 mm of precipitation per year. They occur mainly from June to September. The dry season lasts from November to January.

Water resources.

Nepal is well endowed with water resources. The main rivers - Arun, Bheri, Kali Gandak, Karnali, Sun Kosi - flow from north to south and empty into the Ganges River. There are no large lakes.

Natural resources.

Mineral deposits are practically undeveloped. There are deposits of limestone, iron ore, shale, copper, lead, mica, magnesite, talc, ocher and cobalt.

Animal world

diverse. OK. 800 species of birds and mammals. In the jungle there are elephants, deer, monkeys, wild boars, leopards, tigers, jackals; Birds include parrots and peacocks. Lots of poisonous snakes. Rhinoceroses once lived here, but are now almost completely exterminated. The mountains are home to the Himalayan black bear, musk deer, snow leopard, mountain sheep, wild goats, Tibetan fox and Tibetan wolf. Among the predators listed in the Red Book, there is a snow leopard (irbis).

There are 12 protected areas in the country, occupying 7.8% of the area (1997). This is the tropical fauna and flora in the Chitauen reserve (on the border with India). The high-mountain national parks Langtang, Sagarmatha, Magaraj and others are famous.

POPULATION

Population distribution.

The population of Nepal is 27,070 thousand people. (estimated as of 2004). Growth – 2.26% per year. In the 1930s, its population was about 5.6 million people, according to the 1961 census - 9.4 million people, according to the 1971 census - 11.56 million people, according to the 1991 census - 18.5 million people . Government-sponsored family planning programs since the 1950s have had little impact on population growth. Life expectancy – 59 years (2003).

The majority of the population is concentrated in the Kathmandu region (population density is more than 1000 people/sq. km.) and the Terai zone (200 people/sq. km.). The mountainous regions in the north are sparsely populated; there are no permanent settlements above 4000 m above sea level. Throughout the 20th century. There is a significant relocation of Nepalese from the western mountainous regions to the eastern and the Terai region. Hindi-speaking migrants from India are also sent to the latter, and now they constitute the majority of the population there, against the backdrop of several small indigenous peoples.

The country has a predominantly rural population; only about 12% live in cities. Average density is about 180 people/sq. km. Kathmandu has a population of 1,230 thousand. (2003). The largest city in the foothills, near the border with India, is Biratnagar (174 thousand). Most of the large cities are located near Kathmandu and in the Terai zone: Lalitpur (Patan) (169 thousand) and Bhaktapur (61 thousand). The city of Pokhara (130 thousand) is located in the central part of the country.

Approximately up to 10 million natives of Nepal and their descendants settled in India, especially in its northeastern mountainous regions and Sikkim, as well as in Bhutan and Myanmar.

Ethnic composition.

The territory of Nepal has been settled through large-scale migrations from neighboring regions over many centuries. The inhabitants of the country do not have a homogeneous ethnic composition, since within its borders there was a mixture of Mongoloid peoples from Tibet and Aryans from northern India. Some differences between population groups depend on the initial centers of migration and the degree of communication and mixing of different groups of migrants. The Mongolian substrate predominates in the Greater Himalaya zone, and the Indo-Aryan one in the south of Nepal, while the intermediate territory was an arena of close interaction between different ethnic groups. The country also has a small community of relatively short, dark-skinned people who may be descendants of ancient Nepalese with Dravidian roots.

Racial features can be traced in the current social structure of the population: the presence of Indo-Aryan ancestors in the family has been considered prestigious for centuries in Nepal, and Hinduism gradually became the dominant religion.

More than 60 ethnic groups live in Nepal. Half of the country's population are Nepalis, who have long inhabited the Kathmandu Valley. Nepali traders are scattered in other areas. This ethnic group made a great contribution to the development of art (metal art, painting, sculpture, architecture) and literature in the 13th–19th centuries. Nepalis are divided into Hindus and Buddhists and have a complex social organization. Other relatively numerous nationalities of the country are the Gurungs (1.5%) and Magars (2.2%) in the west, Newari (3.4%), limbu (2.4%), rai (2%), Sunwari and Tamang (4.9%) in the east. A number of ethnic groups in the north and northeast of the country are grouped under the name Bhotiya; Of these, the best known are the Sherpas, who often serve as porters in mountaineering teams and are relatively recent migrants from Tibet. The Tharu are settled in the Terai (4.8%), who are considered to be the aborigines of these places, having Dravidian origin. The southern part of Nepal is inhabited by Indo-Aryan peoples: Maithili (11.5%) and Bhojpuri (7%) (Biharis), as well as Hindustani and Bengalis.

Nepal is the homeland of the Gurkhas. This is a segment of the country's Hindu population for which military service is a traditional occupation. Being fearless and fierce fighters, Gurkhas are considered to be good soldiers in the world. Since 1815, when the Gurkhas were first recruited by the British East India Company to perform military duties in Bengal, the outflow of young men became an important source of replenishment of the Nepalese treasury through remittances home and pensions from the British government.

Language.

The official language is Nepali (Gurkhali, Gorkhali or Khaskura), native to almost half of the country's inhabitants. Nepali developed from Sanskrit and is quite close to Hindi, belonging to the North Indian group of the Indo-European family of languages; Nepali was also influenced by several mountain languages. Writing based on the Devanagari alphabet.

There are another 120 different languages ​​and dialects spoken in Nepal. In the Terai and Siwalik Mountains, residents most often speak one of the dialects of Hindi. Indo-European languages ​​are also common among people from India, including Bengali, Maithili and Bhojputri (the languages ​​of the Biharis), Tharu, Urdu, etc. In the Greater Himalayas, Tibeto-Burman languages ​​predominate (at least 100 languages ​​and dialects). Some of them are considered dialects of the Tibetan language (Bhotiv language - Kham and Sherpa language - Kangba). English is often used in business practice.

According to the constitution, in areas where Nepali is not the main language of the local residents, local languages ​​are declared national. However, by decision of the Supreme Court, other languages ​​cannot be used as official languages ​​by local authorities.

Religion.

The most widespread religion in the country is Hinduism, declared the state religion and practiced by 86.2% of the population. The Hinduism practiced by the Nepalese is presented in the form of Shaivism and also includes elements of Buddhism. A significant part of the population, incl. Gurungs and Sherpas, adheres to Buddhism (7.8%). Most Buddhists are adherents of the Lamaist variety of Mahayana (the northern branch of Buddhism). There are 3.8% Muslims in the country, they are concentrated mainly in the Terai zone. There are also followers of Christianity (2%). Among the peoples of the Tibetan-Himalayan group, traditional beliefs are preserved.

Indian Brahmin monks are very influential in Nepalese society, but clergy from other religious communities also enjoy authority among their flocks.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

State structure.

Until 1951 Nepal was an autocratic state where the king was greatly influenced by the feudal nobility. From about 1850 to 1951, real power belonged entirely to the Rana family, whose hereditary monopoly became the post of prime minister. Only as a result of a palace coup in 1950 did the Nepalese monarch manage to restore his rights and establish a rule that was supported by the population of the country.

In 1959, King Mahendra promulgated a constitution that declared Nepal a constitutional monarchy. The first parliamentary elections in the country's history were held. They were won by the Nepali Congress party, whose leader B.P. Koirala became prime minister. However, in 1960, King Mahendra restored direct rule of the country. He created a new cabinet of ministers, entrusting himself with the functions of its head. The parliamentary system was replaced by a four-tier pyramid of panchayats (councils), with only at the lowest, village level their members being directly elected by the population. Political parties were banned, and the Prime Minister and ministers, selected from the members of the National Panchayat, were responsible only to the king. The system was formalized in the 1962 constitution.

King Birendra ascended the throne in 1972, after the death of his father. In 1990, the main parties - the Nepalese Congress and the Communist Party - organized street demonstrations, which forced the king to lift a 29-year ban on political organizations. The king approved a new government, which included representatives of the Nepalese Congress and the communists. On November 9, 1990, a new constitution was promulgated, which significantly limited royal rights. According to the current constitution, Nepal is a constitutional monarchy. The form of government is parliamentary democracy. Executive power was vested in the prime minister and his cabinet, who were accountable to the directly elected lower house of parliament.

The Constitution can be amended or repealed by a two-thirds majority of each House of Parliament. The preamble of the constitution, which recognizes the Nepali people as the source of supreme power, is not subject to any amendment. After passing through both houses of Parliament, the constitutional amendment bill must receive royal assent.

Executive power.

The head of state and executive power of Nepal is the king (maharajadhiraja). The Constitution declares it a symbol of the nation and the unity of its people; the king is considered to be the living incarnation of Vishnu. Parliamentary debates surrounding the identity of the monarch or his family are prohibited.

Despite the change in the political system, the king, as before, has enormous powers. All bills adopted require his consent before they are submitted to parliament for consideration. The king has the right not to sign laws adopted by parliament, but parliament can override the king's veto by a majority vote. As in previous constitutions, the monarch is the formal supreme commander of the armed forces, and also approves the immediate commander-in-chief of the army, who is responsible directly to him. The King has the power to declare a state of emergency in the event of a threat to the sovereignty or security of the country, foreign aggression, armed insurrection or severe economic depression. During a state of emergency - which must be approved by the House of Representatives within 3 months and remains in force for 6 months from its declaration - fundamental rights and freedoms, with the exception of criminal law, may be suspended. The king also has the right to pardon; he can suspend the execution of the sentence, reduce the punishment or cancel the judgment; in his exclusive jurisdiction to bestow honours, titles and insignia of the kingdom; appointment of ambassadors and diplomatic representatives of the Kingdom of Nepal. In addition, the king appoints members of the Raj Parishad (Royal Council), the body that determines the accession of the heir to the throne.

According to the constitution, the king appoints the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Representatives as prime minister. If during the general elections no party receives an absolute majority in parliament, the leader of the coalition of parties with a relative majority of seats is appointed prime minister. If such a coalition does not exist, the king may entrust the formation of a government to the leader of the party that received the largest number of seats, although it did not win a decisive majority. In this case, the prime minister must receive a vote of confidence in parliament within 30 days of appointment. If the majority of deputies express no confidence in him during the vote, then the king must dissolve parliament and call new elections within six months. The Council of Ministers (a total of 35 ministers in the cabinet, including 15 state ministers) is formed by the Prime Minister from among the deputies of the House of Representatives and is appointed on his recommendation by the monarch. The Prime Minister simultaneously combines the functions of Minister of Palace Affairs, Defense and Foreign Affairs. The Council of Ministers is accountable to the lower house of parliament.

After the resignation of the prime minister elected at the end of 2002, the king independently appointed prime ministers of the “transitional government” twice. The head of government is Surya Bahadur Thapa (since June 4, 2003).

Legislature

belongs to the monarch and a bicameral parliament consisting of the National Assembly (Rastriya Sabha) and the House of Representatives (Pratiniddhi Sabha).

The upper house consists of 60 members, of which 10 are appointed by the king, 35 are elected by the lower house, and the remaining 15 are elected by the electoral college of the 5 economic zones. The term of office of the National Assembly is 6 years; its composition is subject to renewal by one third every two years, its dissolution is not allowed. Chairman – Mohammad Mohsin (PDP).

The Lower House consists of 205 deputies elected by universal, direct, free and secret suffrage for a period of 5 years. All Nepalese citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote. The constitution obliges political parties participating in parliamentary elections to nominate at least five percent of candidates who are women.

The Constitution provides that bills other than financial bills may be introduced in either House of Parliament. For a bill to become law, it must be passed by both houses and approved by the king. In financial matters, the House of Representatives has the final say. The king can send the bill back for further revision, but cannot reject it.

Formal matters of defence, strategic alliances, border security, peace and friendship agreements, and treaties relating to the use and distribution of natural resources require the approval of a two-thirds majority of the members of both houses in a joint session of parliament.

The King has the power to dissolve the House of Representatives on the recommendation of the Prime Minister and announce the date of new elections, which must take place within six months of the date of dissolution. In accordance with the constitution, on May 22, 2002, King Gyanendra declared the lower house of parliament dissolved. The elections scheduled for November 13, 2002 were postponed indefinitely due to the aggravation of the internal political situation. With the dissolution of Parliament in May 2002 and the expiration of local government terms in July 2002, the country currently does not have any legally elected representative authorities at the national or local level.

The upper house no longer exists, since the necessary by-elections of one third of its deputies every two years due to the dissolution of the House of Representatives are no longer carried out. Due to criticism of the king's policies, on June 6, 2003, the meeting of the National Assembly was interrupted by force.

Judicial branch

legally separate from the executive and legislative branches of government. At the head of the judicial system is the Supreme Court (SC), which has 75 district and 11 appellate courts. In addition to the above-mentioned courts, special courts or tribunals may be created for special cases.

The Supreme Court oversees compliance with constitutional norms in legislation and is the highest court of appeal. The Supreme Court consists of 15 judges, including the Chief Justice, who serve until the age of 65. The Chief Justice is appointed by the monarch for a term of 7 years on the recommendation of the Constitutional Council, the remaining members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. Any judge of the Supreme Court can be recalled from office for incompetence, committing a crime or failing to perform his duties, subject to the decision of a majority of the members of the House of Representatives and subsequent approval of the king.

The composition of the judiciary is appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. Appellate and district court judges remain in office until age 63. Any decisions of lower courts can be appealed to higher courts.

In several areas (districts), mainly in the west of the country, the judicial system established by the constitution is currently not in effect. The Maoists here have formed their own so-called "People's Courts". In many areas, due to the threat of terrorism, criminal prosecutions are increasingly taking on an extrajudicial nature and falling outside the control of the judiciary.

Local control.

Administratively, Nepal is divided into 5 development regions, 14 zones (anchols) and 75 districts (districts), which are given some degree of autonomy in dealing with local affairs. The modern local government structure emerged after the restoration of democracy in 1990 and includes village development committees, city municipalities (nagarpalikas) and district development committees. Village development committees are further divided into chambers (wards). Usually, up to 9 wards are formed in village committees; in cities, their number depends on the population. The executive body of the wards is a committee of five elected members, one of whom must be a woman. The chairmen, vice-chairmen, chamber members of the village development committees and six nominated members representing women and lower castes form the village councils. Municipal councils have a similar structure, but the number of members appointed to them cannot exceed twenty. Village and municipal councils meet twice a year to adopt development programs and budgets. From among the members elected to the village development committees and municipalities, district development committees are also formed.

There are a total of 3,913 village committees, 58 municipalities and 75 district committees in the country. Free and general elections to local authorities must be held every 5 years. With the expiration of the powers of local authorities in July 2002, new elections were no longer held. Instead of elected authorities, officials were appointed by the government. The Thapa government, appointed in June 2003, tried to create all-party committees at the local level, but again encountered opposition from the parties.

In areas controlled by Maoist rebels, “people's governments” have been formed since December 2000, exercising local government functions. In January 2004, elections to village and district “people's governments” were held in the Maoist-controlled villages of Achham, Kalikot and Bajura districts. Along with this, in the area inhabited by the Magar people in the west of the country, in early January 2004, the creation of the “Magar Autonomous Region” and the formation of a “revolutionary autonomous regional government” was announced.

Political parties.

The first political parties in Nepal were formed in the 1930s. For a long time they operated in illegal conditions and were persecuted. After Rana was removed from power in 1951, the activities of most parties were allowed. During this period, dozens of organizations emerged to serve the ambitions of their leaders. After the ban on political parties in 1961, various factions of the Nepalese Congress and the Communist Party continued their illegal activities. The success of the democratic movement in 1990 led to significant changes in the country's social life. The activities of political parties were legalized. In 1991 alone, 47 parties were registered by the Election Commission, of which 19 took part in the parliamentary elections. By the parliamentary elections of 1994, the number of registered parties had grown to 65. 24 parties nominated their candidates. The main parties have participated in several coalition governments. In 1997–1998, four such governments functioned, with different party compositions, and another included only members of the Nepalese Congress, but did not have a majority in parliament and did not last long.

Party life is characterized by constant splits, which are not based on ideological contradictions, but rather on the personal struggle for power of party leaders. This confrontation seems most chaotic within the Nepali Congress, which has experienced dozens of splits throughout its history. At the 1999 elections, there were about 100 political parties operating in the country. 35 parties took part in the election campaign. After the end of the elections, the process of party building continued. In 2002, 26 new political associations submitted documents to the Election Commission, of which 16 were registered.

Despite the ideological and personal differences existing between the parties, in May 2003 a broad democratic front was formed against the monarchy and for the restoration of democracy. This coalition includes the largest parties previously represented in parliament: the Nepalese Congress, the Communist Party of Nepal (United Marxist-Leninist), the People's Front of Nepal, the Nepalese Workers' and Peasants' Party, the Goodwill Party (Ananda Devi). Since the end of May 2003, the alliance of five parties has been organizing continuous demonstrations and street protests against the policies of King Gyanendra, while at the same time refusing to participate in dialogue with both the Maoists and cooperation with the royal government. In March 2004, former members of parliament from these parties held an informal meeting of the dissolved parliament, at which they sharply criticized King Gyanendra and his government.

Nepali Congress (NK) is a centrist social democratic party. Member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1947 as the Nepalese National Congress. It has had its current name since 1950. NK declared its initial goal to be the overthrow of the Rana regime and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in the country. Representatives of the Congress were part of the coalition government of 1951. In 1956, the party adopted a program of social reconstruction, declaring its goal to build a democratic socialist society. In the first parliamentary elections of 1959, NK received 37.7% of the votes and 74 of 109 seats. The NK government formed as a result made a largely unsuccessful attempt to carry out overdue socio-economic reforms. In 1960, almost all ministers and other NK figures were thrown into prison; many party members fled to India. During the period of emigration, the party was weakened by factional struggle. During these years, the party's main emphasis was on the destruction of feudal remnants and building the foundation for the future development of the country. She proposed nationalizing major industries and introducing progressive taxes on land, urban housing, wages, profits and foreign investment. In the 1980s, the NK abandoned many provisions of its socialist economic program in favor of a mixed economy, privatization and market reforms. After the restoration of democracy, NK became the main political force in the country. In the 1991 elections, NK received 37.7% of the vote and 110 seats out of 205 seats. Congressists formed governments in 1990-1991 (K.P. Bhattarai) and 1991-1994 (G.P. Koirala). In their program they declared their commitment to the ideals of nationalism, multi-party democracy, socialism and civil liberties. The party believes that the economic prosperity of society can only be achieved through fair distribution based on equality and social justice. In the field of foreign policy, the party remains a supporter of non-alignment and maintaining good relations with India. NK's neoliberal economic and pro-Indian foreign policy caused the loss of its parliamentary majority in the 1994 elections (33.4% of the vote and 83 seats). The party formed coalition governments in 1995–1997 (S.B. Deuba) and 1998–1999 (G.P. Koirala). In the 1999 elections, NK received 37.17% of the votes, winning 111 seats in parliament, which allowed the formation of a one-party government: in 1999–2000 (K.P. Bhattarai), 2000–2001 (G.P. Koirala), 2001–2002 ( Sh.B.Deuba). However, the internal party struggle, which unfolded with renewed vigor in the 1990s, caused numerous splits and led to the fall of most congress governments. In 1994, there were eight parties in the country that claimed the name Nepali Congress. In 2002, the most serious split occurred, caused by the refusal of the NK parliamentary majority to support the actions of the Deuba congress government. The party split into two groups led by G.P.Koirala and S.B.Deuba. In September 2002, Deub's supporters created a new party called Nepali Congress(democratic). In March 2004, a possible unification was discussed between the two NKs, but the parties could not come to an agreement.

In addition to the Nepali Congress Party, after 1990 several dozen more left-of-center parties appeared. Most of these parties were founded by former NK members.

National Democratic Party– conservative, founded in 1990 by figures of the former “panchayat system”. Initially, it consisted of two parties of the same name, headed by S.B. Thapa and L.B. Chand, respectively. Both parties advocated strengthening Nepalese sovereignty and stated their commitment to constitutional monarchy, multi-party democracy, human rights and nationalism. In the economic field, both parties followed the policies of neoliberalism, carrying out the privatization of state property and the reduction of social subsidies. In the 1991 parliamentary elections, the PDP (Chand) received 6.6% of the votes and 3 seats in parliament, the PDP (Thapa) - 5.4% and 1 seat. This defeat forced both parties to hold a unification congress in 1993. In the parliamentary elections in 1994, the party won 20 seats, receiving 17.9% of the vote. However, the unity between the “nationalist” L.B. Chand and the “democrat” S.B. Thapa did not last long. The cause of new disagreements was the refusal of S.B. Thapa to accept the proposal of the CPN (UML) to form a coalition government. In 1997, the party again split into two factions - the main current (led by S.B. Thapa) and a breakaway group (led by L.B. Chand). In the 1999 parliamentary elections, the PDP (Thapa) received 10.4% of the vote and 11 seats. The Chand faction secured the support of 3.4% of voters, but did not enter parliament. A new unification was achieved in 2001, but did not last long. After Kamal Thapa was removed from the post of general secretary by PDP chairman Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana in early 2004, a split was brewing in the party again.

(united Marxist-Leninist ) (CPN-UML) is one of the largest Maoist parties in the world. Considers itself the heir of the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN), formed on April 22, 1949. In the 1959 parliamentary elections, the CPN won 7.21% of the vote, receiving 4 seats out of 109. A year later it was banned along with other political parties. In the 1960s, under the influence of the conflict between the USSR and China, it split into many factions. The unification process began in 1978 with the creation of the CPN (Marxist-Leninist). In the 1986 National Panchayat elections, the CPN (ML) got 15 of its members elected as independent candidates. In 1986, the CPN (Marxist) was created by more moderate communists. In January 1990, both parties formed the United Left Front (ULF), which played a decisive role in the movement to restore democracy. In January 1991, the unification of the two parties, as well as the CPN (Manandhar), into the CPN (UML) was finally formalized. The party shares moderate leftist views, which in essence differ little from the NK program. It is often accused by other communist parties of pursuing a “revisionist line.” The CPN (UML) characterizes Nepal as a semi-feudal and semi-colonial country in which the key issues are revolutionary land reform and the abolition of feudal relations. In 1993, the CPN (UML) congress abandoned the Maoist tactics of guerrilla warfare and adopted a program of “people's multi-party democracy.” The party stands for national independence, coexistence with the institution of monarchy, the elimination of poverty and inequality, and the provision of land to peasants. In the 1991 elections, the party received 30% of the vote, winning 69 of the 205 seats in the House of Representatives and 16 of the 60 seats in the National Assembly. As a result of the 1994 elections, in which the communists received 30.8% of the votes and 88 seats, the CPN (UML) formed a minority government in 1994–1995 (Prime Minister - Man Mohan Adhikari); the party participated in two coalition governments in 1997 and 1998–1999. Local elections in 1997 reflected a significant increase in support for the CPN(UML). It won 51.2% of seats in village, town and district development committees (compared to 26.28% in 1992). The party suffered a severe split in 1998 when 46 MPs left to form the CPN(ML). In the 1999 parliamentary elections, the CPN (UML) received 31.61% of the vote and 71 seats in the lower house of parliament and 17 out of 60 seats in the upper house. The CPN(ML) achieved 6.56% of the votes but did not win a single seat. The unity of the Communist Party was restored in March 2002. CPN (OML) has more than 81 thousand organized and 400 thousand collective members (2000). General Secretary - Madhav Kumar Nepal.

Communist Party of Nepal(), Popular Front, Nepal is a Maoist party founded in 2002 as a result of the merger of the CPN (Burning Torch) and the CPN (Unity Center). Both parties have their origins in the CPN (Fourth Congress), created in 1974. After the split of the CPN (Fourth Congress) in 1983, M.B. Singh created the CPN (“Masal”, i.e. “torch”), from which in 1986 The CPN (Mashal) broke away, led by Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Comrade Prachanda). In 1990, as a result of the merger of the CPN (Mashal) with the remnants of the CPN (fourth congress), the CPN (CE) was formed. According to its ideology Unity Center – Burning Torch not much different from the CPN (Maoist). While not rejecting armed struggle in principle, the party believes that at the present stage there is no “revolutionary situation” in the country and the Maoist armed movement “plays into the hands of the king and royalist forces advocating the abolition of parliamentary democracy.” He sees the main goal of participating in parliamentary elections as “exposing the bourgeois parliamentary system” and “preparing the ground for its fall.” In the future, he advocates the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic with a one-party system of government and “people's democracy.” In the 1999 parliamentary elections United People's Front(political wing Unity Center) received 0.86% of the vote and 1 seat in parliament (in the 1994 elections - 1.3%). National Popular Front– political wing Mashal- in the same elections, he achieved the support of 1.4% of voters and received 5 seats in parliament. After the parties merged, their political representations also merged into Popular Front, Nepal. Chairman – Chitra Bahadur K.C.

The rather complex ethnic situation in the country determines the existence of many regional parties that reflect the interests of national and religious minorities.

Nepal Goodwill Party(NPDV) is one of several regional parties, was founded by G. N. Singh in April 1990. Its ideology is based on the principles of democratic socialism, multi-party democracy and non-violence. The NAPW draws its support mainly from Indian migrants (Madhesis) and agricultural workers from the Terai region. The party advocates the transformation of Nepal into a federal state, the redistribution of government powers in favor of the regions, and the implementation of constitutional reforms that would provide equal rights to all residents of the country, regardless of nationality and religion. As a party with influence among Indian migrants, it advocates solving the citizenship problem, giving Hindi the status of a second national language, and protecting the economic and national interests of the Terai people. The party participated in three coalition governments (1995–1998). In the 1999 parliamentary elections, she received 3.2% of the vote and 5 seats in parliament (in the 1994 elections - 3.5% and 3 seats). After its congress in April 2003, it split into two factions - the pro-government one, led by Badri Prasad Mandal, and the opposition one, led by the wife of the late party founder Anandi Devi Singh.

National People's Liberation Party– left ethno-regionalist party, formed in 1992 on the basis of several groups, incl. National People's Liberation Front. Defends the rights of backward and “oppressed ethnic groups”, advocates the transformation of Nepal into a secular federal state with broad local autonomy, political representation of all ethnic groups according to their numbers, recognition of the equality of all languages, religions and cultures. Ideologically, it is based on the principles of democratic socialism, “ethnic harmony” and “racial liberation”. In the parliamentary elections of 1999 she received 1.10% of the vote (in the elections of 1991 - 0.5%, 1994 - 1.1%). Chairman - Malbir Singh Thapa Magar, General Secretary - Gore Bahadur Khapangi.

Armed opposition.

Since 1996, an armed conflict with the Maoists has continued in the country. Despite attempts at negotiations that took place in 2001 and 2003, the warring parties have been unable to find a peaceful solution.

Communist Party of Nepal(Maoist) - founded in 1994 on the basis of one of the factions of the CPN (Unity Center). Member of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement (Maoist International) and the Coordinating Committee of Maoist Parties and Organizations of South Asia (CCOMPOSA). The CPN (Maoist) has its origins in the CPN (Burning Torch), which split in 1986 into two parties of the same name. In November 1990, it merged with a number of other Maoist groups to form the CPN (Unity Center), of which Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) was elected general secretary. Despite the legalization of all parties, the Unity Center remained underground and continued to advocate armed struggle against the monarchy. To participate in the parliamentary elections in early 1991, the party was formed United People's Front(ONF), which also included the Marxist-Leninist Party of Nepal, the People's Front, the Nepal Workers' and Peasants' Association and the independent left. The ONF was led by Baburam Bhattarai. Speaking under the slogans of fighting corruption and distributing the country's wealth among the poor, the ONF became the third most powerful parliamentary force, winning 4.83% of the vote and 9 seats in the House of Representatives. At the 1st Congress, held in December 1991, Marxism-Leninism-Maoism was declared the ideological basis of the party. At the same time, the congress adopted Prachanda’s proposal to start a long “people’s war” as the only path to a “new democratic revolution.” In May 1994, shortly before parliamentary elections, the party split into two groups over the issue of the acceptability of violence, of which Prachanda was a supporter. At the same time, a split occurred in the ONF. The group that supported Prachanda was led by B. Bhattarai, who called for a boycott of the elections. In March 1995, the Prachanda faction organized the 3rd plenum of the CPN (CE), at which it was decided to launch an armed struggle. It was during this meeting that the CPN (Unity Center) was renamed CPN (Maoist). In September of that year, the Central Committee of the CPN(M) approved the "people's war" plan, which stipulated that "a long people's war [will be] based on the strategy of encircling the city with the countryside." According to the CPN (Maoist), the "people's war", declared on February 13, 1996, seeks to establish a "new democracy" and is defined as a "historic uprising against feudalism, imperialism and the so-called reformers."

Among the main Maoist demands of the moment: the convening of a round table, the formation of an interim government and elections to a constituent assembly that should prepare a new constitution. Along with this, the party advocates turning Nepal into a “people's republic”, the right of ethnic minorities to regional autonomy, recognition of the equality of all languages, “adequate” representation of Dalits and women in government, and an end to any kind of exploitation based on caste. In the economic field, she speaks out for a “revolutionary” program of land reforms (confiscation of landowners’ farms) and a self-reliant national economy.

In February 2001, the Maoists adopted a new doctrine, the "Prachanda Way", advocating a strategy of simultaneous armed conflict and urban mass uprising led by student, women's, peasant and trade union organizations.

According to some reports, Maoists operate in 68 of the 75 districts, controlling about a third of the country. The party relies primarily on residents of the western-central and eastern mountainous districts, students, schoolchildren and a number of categories of employees. Its number is estimated at 5–8 thousand “career members” and several tens of thousands of sympathizers. Military wing - People's Liberation Army (PLA). The Chairman of the CPN (Maoist) and the Supreme Commander of the NAD is Pushpa Kamal Dahal, better known as “Comrade Prachanda” (in Nepali - “The Intimidating One”).

The political wing is the United People's Front (UNF), which includes 15 independent groups. Among them, various indigenous organizations dominate, such as: Khambuwan Liberation Front, Madhesi Liberation Front, Magarata National Liberation Front, Newar National Liberation Front,Seti-Mahakali National Liberation Front,Tamang Saling Liberation Front, Tharuvan Liberation Front. In July 2003, as a result of the merger Limbuwan Liberation Front And Workers' Party of Kirat was educated National Front of Kyrat. Its chairman is Bhaktarai Kandangwa, both a member of the United Revolutionary People's Council (Maoist parallel government) and the head of the Tehrathum People's Government. The goal of all these organizations is the creation of a federal socialist state and the formation of autonomous regions or states in the areas of traditional settlement of ethnic groups.

The Maoists also control the organization of the lower castes - Dalit Liberation Front. The JMM demands the provision of declaration of Nepal as a secular state, end of caste discrimination of "special rights" for Dalits, inclusion of Dalit community in the existing society, provision of land to landless Dalits, free higher education for Dalit children, modernization and preservation of Dalit professions. Chairman - Tilak Pariyar. In November 2006, a truce was reached between the government and the Maoists. After the adoption of the interim constitution, the Maoists were able to enter parliament in January 2007. To draft a new constitution, a Constitutional Assembly was established, which will also serve as the parliament of Nepal for the next two years. Elections to it took place only in April 2008. The Maoist Communist Party received 30% of the votes, approximately 220 of the 601 seats in parliament. They are followed by the Nepali Congress (21.3%) and the United Marxist-Leninist Communist Party (20.7%).

Communist center of Nepal(Maoist) – founded in 2001. Advocates organizing armed struggle and accuses the CPN (Maoist) of following the wrong path and being bogged down by “individualistic tendencies.” The new party calls on all communists to “move forward along the path of armed uprising.”

Public organizations.

There are dozens of non-governmental youth, women's and trade union organizations operating in the country.

Nepal Trade Union Congress(NCP) is a trade union association close to the Nepalese Congress, founded in 1947 with the aim of fighting for workers' rights. The ideology of the NKP was based on the principles of democracy, nationalism and socialism. After being banned in 1960, the NCP organizations were restored only in 1990. The NCP enjoys the greatest influence among white collar workers - financial officers, journalists and corporate employees. Includes 20 industry trade unions. Number of members: 200 thousand. The Trade Union Congress is part of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.

General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions(UNFNP) was founded on July 20, 1989 by four trade unions close to the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist): Nepal Independent Workers' Union (NIWU), Independent Transport Workers' Association of Nepal (ITWAN), Independent Hotel Workers' Union of Nepal (NIHWU) and the Association Trekking Workers of Nepal (TWAN). On March 14, 1998, a small faction broke away from GEFONT to form the Independent Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions (ICONT). This association was associated with the CPN (ML). He enjoys the greatest influence among agricultural workers, workers in the textile industry, transport, tourism and service industries. Includes 16 industry trade unions. Number of members: 310.5 thousand.

Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Unions(DNUC) was founded on August 14, 1997 as a result of a breakaway from the Nepal Trade Union Congress. Works closely with the Nepali Congress (Democratic). It is most influential among workers in the transport and service sectors. Includes 18 industry trade unions. Number of members: 50 thousand.

In addition to the three main confederations, there are other trade unions associated with minor political parties, but not registered by the Department of Labor: All Nepal Trade Union Congress, controlled by the Nepal Communist Party (Unity Center - Torch); Nepal Federation of Trade Unions(NTUF), affiliated with the Nepal Communist Party (Democratic); Nepal Trade Union Center(NTUC), close to the Nepal Communist Party (Marxist); All Nepal Democratic Free Trade Union(ANDFTU), affiliated with the National Democratic Party; Nepal Revolutionary Workers' Union(NRWU), led by the Nepal Workers' and Peasants' Party.

There are also a number of public associations influenced by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), including: All Nepal Peasants' Association(revolutionary), All Nepal Women's Association(revolutionary), All Nepal Students Association(revolutionary), All Nepal Teachers Association(revolutionary) And All Nepal Federation of Trade Unions(revolutionary). Nepalis in India have created the pro-Maoist All India Nepalese Unity Society, the All India Nepalese Students Association, the All India Nepalese Transport Workers Association and the All India Nepalese Youth Association.

Foreign policy.

Until the 19th century the ruling dynasty adhered to the policy of isolating the country from the main political forces in the region - British India and China. However, after the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–1816, Kathmandu began to focus on establishing unofficial good neighborly relations with the colonial authorities of India. Thus, Nepal took the side of Great Britain during the suppression of the sepoy uprising in 1854–1856 and in two world wars of the 20th century. The state sovereignty of Nepal was recognized by the Anglo-Nepalese Treaty of 1923, although diplomatic relations with Great Britain, the United States and India were established after the latter gained independence. In the 1950s, embassies were exchanged with China, the USSR, and after Nepal joined the UN in 1955 - with many other countries of the world.

Nepal usually considers itself a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and in external contacts strives not to give preference to any one country. In reality, however, the historical significance of Nepal's political, economic and strategic ties with India continues to be acutely felt. This became evident in 1988 when Nepal and China agreed to a commercial military deal. India's dissatisfaction manifested itself in the closure of the border with Nepal, which entailed severe economic consequences for it. China expressed cautious criticism of the Indian side, but did not make efforts to intensify economic ties with Nepal. In mid-1988, right at the height of the conflict, China appreciated its currency against the Nepalese rupee, which affected the prices of Chinese goods delivered through the passes in the Himalayas.

In 2001, the Joint State Border Committee was created together with India to resolve the issue of 53 disputed sections of the border, covering an area of ​​720 square kilometers. km; approximately 100,000 Bhutanese refugees live in Nepal, 90% of them living in seven UNHCR camps.

Armed forces.

The Royal Nepalese Army consists of the ground forces and the air force (Air Force). The Supreme Commander is the King, who exercises leadership on the advice of the National Defense Council, headed by the Prime Ministers. General leadership of the army is carried out by the Minister of Defense, direct leadership is by the Commander-in-Chief, appointed on the proposal of the Prime Minister.

According to the 1991 constitution, the army is prohibited from intervening in internal conflicts within the country except by order of the National Security Council (NSC), appointed by the government. The first permission to use individual military units in operations against the Maoists was given in April 2000. After the declaration of a “state of emergency” in November 2001, the entire Royal Nepalese Army was deployed against the Maoists.

The total number of armed forces is (2001) about 46 thousand people. The ground forces (46 thousand people) include 11 brigades (7 infantry, royal guard, special forces, artillery, engineering), 44 separate infantry companies, as well as an air wing. It is armed with combat reconnaissance vehicles, field artillery pieces, mortars, and anti-aircraft artillery installations. The Nepalese Air Force (215 people) became formally independent from the ground forces in 1979, but in fact remains under their control and does not play a significant role. There are no combat aircraft or helicopters. The army is staffed by recruiting volunteers.

Nepalese army units are part of the UN peacekeeping forces in Bosnia, Haiti, Lebanon, Sierra Leone, Somalia and Croatia. Tens of thousands of Nepalese serve in the armed forces of Britain and India.

In addition, there are paramilitary police forces (about 40 thousand people). In March 2000, the Armed Security Forces were formed as part of the police forces to fight the Maoists.

Foreign-made weapons and military equipment. The main military supplier is India and Western countries. Military budget $29 million (2000).

ECONOMY

General characteristics.

According to the UN classification, Nepal is one of the least economically developed countries in the world; almost half of its population lives below the poverty line. The low level of development is determined by the country's isolation, multi-structured economy, feudal remnants, lack of financial resources and natural conditions.

In 2003, Nepal's GDP was $5.85 billion, or $242 per capita. Annual GDP growth rates are low: in 1990–1999 they were less than 5%, in 1999/2000 – 6.5%. Under the influence of the slowdown in global economic growth, the rate of economic growth in 2000 fell to 3.7%. Real GDP growth in 2001/2002 was just 0.8%, the lowest level in 20 years. Although the situation was stabilized the following year, real GDP growth did not exceed 2.4%.

Nepal is predominantly an agricultural country. Agriculture plays an important role in the economy, as does foreign trade and tourism. The share of agriculture in GDP is 40%, industry – 22%, service sector (tourism, trade, transport, etc.) – 37% (2002).

The economic development of the country since 1955 has been carried out on the basis of state plans. During this period, 9 state plans were adopted. The Tenth Plan (2002-2007) is currently being implemented. The focus of the first four plans was on infrastructure development, especially transport and energy. However, many of the tasks set then were not realized. Subsequently, the emphasis of government plans shifted to the development of agriculture and industry, as well as the fight against poverty. Until the mid-1970s, primary attention was paid to the development of the public sector of the economy. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, state industrial production began to sharply decline, private entrepreneurship and foreign investment were encouraged. Beginning in May 1991, the government set a course for liberalizing the economy, encouraging foreign investment. The government has cut public spending by cutting subsidies, reducing the number of civil servants, privatizing industrial enterprises and freezing unpromising development projects. The most promising sectors: manufacturing, tourism, energy, services, forestry and agriculture.

The economically active population is more than 10 million people (1996). Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services – 16%, industry – 3%. Unemployment rate 47% (2001).

Agriculture.

Agricultural production is geographically confined primarily to the Terai belt, wide river valleys and flat areas of mountain slopes. Arable lands occupy 21% of the territory. More than half of the cultivable area remains in the hands of just 9% of large landowners. Primarily rice is cultivated (50% of the sown area), grain legume mixtures, wheat, corn and barley. The average yield is low - 18.5 c/ha. Jute (for sale), tobacco, potatoes, sugar cane, indigo and opium poppy are grown in significant quantities. Vegetables, oats, spices and a number of fruit crops are also cultivated. Among the intermountain basins, the valleys of Kathmandu and Pokhara stand out for the most developed agriculture. The production of grain crops has declined slightly across the country, including the Terai region, resulting in the need to increase imports of grains from India. Although the 1998 harvest was higher than in 1997 and amounted to approx. 6.9 million tons of grain is not enough to meet domestic needs. The population of the Greater Himalayas especially suffers from food shortages.

Agriculture in Nepal is poorly mechanized. On the lower slopes of ridges and in valleys, terracing is actively practiced in order to expand the arable area.

Livestock

In importance it is inferior to agriculture. In the highlands of northern Nepal, transhumance is developed. Almost everywhere they keep cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. The oxen population is concentrated in the lower intermountain valleys, while yaks and zuo (a cross between a yak and a cow) are bred high in the mountains.

Forestry.

A shortage of cultivable land, forcing farmers to move higher into the mountains to clear trees, combined with commercial logging, caused Nepal to lose up to half its forest cover between 1950 and 1980. Currently the forests occupy approx. 33% of the country's territory (2003). At the end of the 1990s, 19.5 million cubic meters were harvested from forests. m of wood, of which 19 million cubic meters. m was used for fuel needs. In 2001, timber harvesting decreased to 13.4 million cubic meters. m. In the jungle, hardwood trees, as well as bamboo and rattan palm, are of economic interest. Nepal ranks 1st in South Asia in terms of deforestation rate (4% per year). The destruction of forests contributes to soil erosion and landslides, as a result of which the country annually loses up to 66 thousand hectares of fertile soil; The risk of flooding in the lower, most populated parts of the valleys is growing.

Manufacturing industry

poorly developed. In the 1990s and early 2000s, approx. 10% of GDP. Agricultural raw materials are mainly processed in small and semi-handicraft enterprises. With the assistance of the USSR, India and China, a sugar factory, a cigarette factory, an agricultural implements factory, a rosin and turpentine plant, cement production plants, etc. were built. Products include cotton, jute and other textile products, sugar, matches, tobacco products , carpets and shoes. Weaving, pottery, blacksmithing, and jewelry crafts are widespread. The main industrial centers of the country are Biratnagar and Birganj. In both cities, which grew up in the Terai belt, production is largely focused on sales to neighboring regions of India and Bangladesh. A large share of goods cross the state border by smuggling and are therefore not taken into account in foreign trade statistics.

There is also a mining industry, deposits of iron, copper, lead-zinc ores, mica, marble, gold, dolomite and limestone are being developed. However, the mining sector faces difficulties due to poor transport infrastructure and artisanal mode of production.

Energy.

The government gives priority to energy development. Nepal has a huge hydropower potential - 83 thousand MW, which is still very poorly used. However, Nepal-India joint projects since the mid-1960s have contributed to the growth of agricultural output and electricity exports to India. The Kathmandu Valley hydroelectric power plant meets the needs of the capital and its environs, while smaller hydroelectric works serve the cities of Pokhara, Biratnagar and Birgunj. The most satisfactory energy supply in recent times has been only in the Terai belt, connected by power lines to the territory of India.

In the late 1980s, several hydropower projects were completed in Kulekhani and Marsyangdi. The mid-1990s saw great changes in the industrial sector, primarily due to planned hydroelectric development in the central mountainous region. Opportunities have emerged for reliably providing mountainous areas with their own cheap electricity; The construction of relatively large industrial facilities has begun in Kathmandu, Pokhara and other mountain settlements. Selling excess energy from the project was expected to provide Nepal with hundreds of millions of dollars in annual revenue. However, high construction costs and the risks associated with the civil war put many initiatives in doubt. The most significant hydropower projects currently financed by private investors are Khimti Khola (60 MW) and Bhote Koshi (36 MW). Private investment in the hydropower sector over the past 8 years has exceeded $360 million.

Electricity production is approx. 1.8 billion kWh (2001), incl. at hydroelectric power stations – 91.5%. Consumption: 1764 billion kWh (2001). Currently, domestic energy needs are increasing by 8–10% per year. Electricity exports amount to 95 million kWh (2001); import: 227 men kWh (2001).

Tourism.

Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Foreigners are drawn primarily to Hindu and Buddhist places of worship (including Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, and several Hindu temples in and around the capital). Serving Western climbers has also become a source of steady employment for residents of the Himalayan alpine villages, especially the Sherpas. In the 1990s, the development of the tourism industry contributed to a construction boom in the Kathmandu Valley, Pokhara and the foothills. Approximately 363 thousand tourists visited Nepal in 2001, which generated $78 million for the country. However, due to the deteriorating domestic political situation, the tourism sector has recently experienced a severe decline. The flow of tourists in 2002 decreased by 34% (compared to 2001). The level of foreign exchange earnings from tourism has decreased by almost 3 times.

Transport

poorly developed, many goods are still carried by porters and pack animals. The development of transport infrastructure is carried out mainly thanks to foreign investment. In 1991, with the support of Great Britain and Switzerland, the construction of highways began linking the center of Nepal with remote areas. The length of roads is 13,223 km, with hard surfaces – 4,070 km (as of 1999). The main highway, the East-West Highway, runs along the terai. The construction of the North-South road from Kathmandu to Tibet has been completed. The Kathmandu-Birganj highway connecting Nepal with India is of great economic importance.

As of 1998, 21 of the 75 administrative centers of the districts remained not covered by the national transport network.

There are three short railway lines between Nepal and India, but none of them reach the mountainous regions. The main line of the railway runs from Birganj to Kathmandu. The total length of railways is 59 km (2002). The Kathmandu-Hitaura cargo ropeway (42 km) is built across the Mahabharat ridge.

Airways, many of which are operated by private companies, connect Kathmandu with several cities in different parts of the country. Several airlines, including Royal Nepal Airlines, connect Kathmandu with India, Bangladesh, Germany, China, the United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, Russia, Singapore, Thailand and Sri Lanka. At the end of 1987, the Kathmandu – Lhasa (Tibet) airline began operating. There are 45 airfields in the country, 9 of which are asphalt. The main international airport is Tribhuvan near Kathmandu.

International trade

from the beginning of the 19th century. was focused on India. Trade links with Tibet through the Himalayas, primarily limited to the exchange of rice and salt, were always of secondary importance, although for some sparsely populated village communities in the highlands of the Himalayas this trade played an important role. Trade relations with other countries in Asia, Europe and the United States were virtually non-existent. This slowly began to change after World War II, when Nepal dramatically expanded its export and import operations with countries such as Japan, Germany, the UK and the US. According to official statistics, India's share in Nepalese exports was only approx. 50%, but in fact a significant part of it was smuggled goods, including those previously imported from third countries.

Under the 1996 trade agreement, India began to liberalize imports from Nepal and smuggling of Nepalese goods became unprofitable. Accordingly, India's share of Nepal's exports increased to 75% in 1997–1998.

In the second half of the 1990s, international agreements were concluded to promote the development of Nepal's foreign trade: a quadripartite agreement between states with interests in northeast South Asia - Nepal, India, Bangladesh and Bhutan (1995); between Nepal and Bangladesh (1998), providing for direct communication through the territory of India, which previously strictly regulated it; between Nepal and India in the field of hydropower and irrigation construction (1997).

Trade relations with China are considered a top priority in Kathmandu, but are complicated by the high cost of transporting goods through Tibet and the inaccessible passes in the Himalayas. In many cases, China prefers to send its goods to Nepal by sea through the port of Kolkata and then by Indian roads. A significant share of these exports is smuggled into India and Bhutan, where there is high demand for many goods from China, with which direct trade is limited.

Handmade carpets occupy an important place in exports (about 40% of total exports). Other export items are ready-made garments, leather, jute fiber and jute products, food grains, oilseeds, medicinal herbs, spices, handicrafts. Main exporting countries: India (47.5%), USA (27.6%), Germany (7.5%) (2002).

Imports: gold, petroleum products, mineral fertilizers, pharmaceutical products, transport equipment, machine tools, building materials, wool, cotton threads and cotton fabrics, electrical equipment, food products. Industrial products account for more than 70% of imports. Main trading partners: India (21.2%), China (13%), UAE (11.1%), Singapore (8.5%), Hong Kong (5.9%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%) , Kuwait (4.1%) (2002).

The trade balance is negative. The volume of imports increased from 1352 million dollars in 1996 to 1.6 billion dollars in 2001, exports - from 350 million dollars in 1996 to 720 million dollars in 2001. The government is committed to expanding the range of foreign trade. A search is underway for new export goods, which helps reduce foreign trade imbalances. Export-import procedures are being simplified.

Nepal's external debt reaches $2.55 billion (2001). Annual debt payments amount to more than $70 million.

Foreign investment plays an important role in the Nepalese economy. Thanks to them, up to 70% of budget allocations for development purposes are covered. Foreign aid accounts for 30 to 35% of budget expenditures. The main donors are Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, India, USA, Switzerland, Finland, Japan. as well as international financial organizations. Assistance also comes from several international financial institutions, such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the United Nations Development Program. The main areas of investment in Nepal are hydropower and tourism, although political instability has reduced investment flows in recent years. In September 2003, Nepal joined the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The country also receives remittances and pensions from Gurkhas who serve or have served in the British and Indian armed forces.

Currency unit– Nepalese rupee = 100 paisam. (1 US dollar = approx. 78 rupees)

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Lifestyle.

Nepalese society is predominantly rural. Social life in villages revolves around the family, which is headed by the father. As the family grows, sons tend to separate from their parents in search of additional land. When dividing the family's property, it is divided into equal parts among the sons. Therefore, each family's land holdings are extremely fragmented. Often, villagers pool their resources and strength to create irrigation canals. The staple foods in most parts of the country are rice, barley, millet and potatoes.

Nepali women are universally dependent on men and have little access to education, economic resources and political power. Their plight, however, varies from one ethnic group to another. Among the peoples of the Sino-Tibetan family, the status of women is relatively higher than in the Indo-Nepalese communities. In general, women's work is harder and longer than that of men. They are forced to take care of the household, carry water, feed animals and work in the fields. Women in upper class families have housekeepers.

A revival of artistic and intellectual life in Nepal occurred after the overthrow of the Rana regime. Nepali works of poetry and literature emphasize patriotism and national pride. Nepali artists are inspired by Hindu and Buddhist religious values. The lives of gods, saints and heroes, the relationship of the individual with society and the universe are reflected in sculpture, architecture and drama. The Kathmandu Valley is home to numerous temples and shrines. Folk music and dance are widespread. Religious ceremonies take place to the accompaniment of drums and musical instruments. In rural areas, religious songs are an important part of cultural life. Radio Nepal programs broadcast folk music to help preserve the country's traditional culture.

Standard of living.

Nepal is one of the least economically developed countries and ranks one of the last in the world in terms of living standards. The annual per capita income is $220. Almost half the population is below the poverty line. The social security system is poorly developed.

Healthcare.

The health care structure is poorly developed. Among the diseases, especially in rural areas, endemic goiter, which is associated with iodine deficiency, otitis, poliomyelitis, typhus, tuberculosis and dysentery, predominate. In some areas, especially in the highlands, cases of leprosy occur. Thanks to special programs, the incidence of smallpox and malaria has been significantly reduced, especially in the Terai region. Malnutrition remains a serious problem, especially in mountainous and foothill areas, where people often experience food shortages. Infant mortality is 71 per 1,000 live births (2003).

In 1990, Nepal had 123 hospitals with 3,600 beds (1 bed per 4,283 people). Out-of-hospital care was provided by 18 medical centers and 816 medical posts.

Education.

Under the rule of the Rana family, only the upper class had access to education. A system of free and compulsory primary education for all children has existed since 1975.

All children between 6 and 10 years old are required to attend primary school. In 1994–1995 academic year. year their number reached 3.2 million (or about 80% of the corresponding age group). After graduation, they can enter secondary school, which consists of two levels (3 and 2 years of study). In 1994–1995 academic year. 944 thousand students attended secondary schools in 2014, which is only 37% of children aged 11 to 15 years (48.7% of all boys and 25% of girls, respectively). Economic and cultural factors remain barriers to continued education, such as prejudice against girls' education and the high use of child labor.

The largest scientific and educational center is the University named after. Tribhuvana in Kathmandu (founded in 1958 on the basis of Trichandra College). It includes 69 colleges. The main higher educational institutions of the country are Sankrit University. Mahendra University (Kathmandu, founded in 1986), Kathmandu University (founded in 1991), Pokhara University (founded in 1966) and Purbanchal University (Biratnagar, founded in 1995). In the capital's Tribhuvan University in 1990 there were 71 thousand students.

In 1990, Nepal began a 12-year literacy program aimed at educating 8 million people. aged from 6 to 45 years. As a result, the literacy rate among the population over 15 years of age increased from 25% in 1991 to 45.2% in 2003. However, there is a large gap between the literacy rate among men (62.7%) and women (27.6%). The literacy rate of urban residents is much higher than that of rural residents.

The largest libraries are located in Kathmandu - the National Library (35 thousand volumes and 7500 ancient manuscripts), the University Library. Tribhuvana (40 thousand volumes), Central Library, National Museum of Nizhny Novgorod (founded in 1938).

Mass media.

According to official data, by the end of 2000, 1,536 daily, weekly and fortnightly newspapers were registered throughout the country, representing various political movements, topics, cultures, ethnic groups and interests. Most newspapers are published in Kathmandu, the largest among them are Gorkhapatra (Gurkha Newspaper, since 1901, circulation 75 thousand copies), Nepali (Nepali, since 1958, circulation 43 thousand copies). There are three main English-language daily newspapers: Kathmandu Post, Space Time Today and Rising Nepal. The total circulation of all newspapers is over 250 thousand copies. Kathmandu is home to the pro-government National News Agency (Rashtriya Samachar Samiti - RSS).

The government owns Radio Nepal (founded in 1951) and National Television of Nepal. Radio Nepal covers the entire country with its broadcasts on short and medium waves; The programs are conducted in Nepali and English. There are 43 registered private FM radio stations (HBC 94 FM, Radio Sagarmatha, Kantipur FM, etc.) broadcasting their own news broadcasts. The state-owned National Television of Nepal has been operating since 1986. There are also five private television channels broadcasting mainly entertainment programs. There are almost 200 cable television operators in cities, and satellite dishes are common. About 840,000 radio and 170,000 television receivers are registered (1997). Per 1 thousand inhabitants there are an average of 39 radios and 7 televisions.

The use of computer technology and the Internet is rapidly increasing in cities. Access to the Internet is provided by six Internet Providers (ISPs). In general, per 1 thousand inhabitants. accounting for 11.6 telephones, 2.7 computers and 0.05 Internet access. The number of Internet users is more than 60 thousand (as of 2002).

Since the declaration of a state of emergency (2001), freedom of the press has been somewhat limited. The law strictly prohibits the media from criticizing or ridiculing the king or any member of the royal family. Since the state of emergency was declared, more than 100 journalists have been arrested by security forces and some have been tortured, according to the group Reporters Without Borders.

STORY

The history of the main valley of Nepal and the districts of Palpa and Butawal dates back in legend to 500 BC. Until relatively recently, it was reduced to civil strife between noble clans, the consolidation of territory within a single kingdom and the transformation of the country into a haven for refugees forced to leave the plains of India. From 8th to 11th centuries. Buddhists are flocking to Nepal to escape forced Hinduization. A similar flow was formed from the 14th to the 17th centuries. High caste Hindus from the North Indian provinces. All these newcomers occupied prominent social positions in several small principalities that existed in the Lesser Himalayas. Among them, the most powerful was Gorkha, located immediately to the west of the Kathmandu Valley. From this humble mountainous region, the established Shah dynasty, which was descended from the Hindu warrior caste, undertook territorial expansion in different directions. She established intensive trade, religious and political ties with the new Tibetan dynasty that reigned in Lhasa. Around 639, the Tibetan monarch married the daughter of the Nepalese sovereign Bri-Tstun. This marriage contributed to the spread of Buddhism in northern Nepal and Tibet and strengthened economic relations between the countries.

Rule of the Shah family.

In the second half of the 18th century. The ruler of the principality of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan Shah, using the internecine feuds of the rulers of the Kathmandu Valley, managed to capture it. The Gurkha army conquered territory extending far beyond the borders of modern Nepal. However, its invasion of Tibet was stopped by Tibetan and Chinese troops in 1792, and its advance to the south by the armed forces of the British East India Company in 1816. Under the Treaty of Segauli, Nepal was forced to cede to the British its western lands, the Terai region and part of Sikkim, which the Nepalese took possession earlier. The agreement also provided for the permanent residence of the English resident in Kathmandu.

Rule of the Rana family.

First half of the 19th century was marked by rivalry between the leading feudal families. It culminated in the rise of the Rana family in the 1840s, whose powerful representative, Jang Bahadur Rana, supported by the army, was declared prime minister. Under him, Nepalese troops made a successful foray into Tibet, which, according to the agreement of 1854, agreed to pay an annual tribute to Nepal. In 1857–1858, Jang Bahadur led the Nepalese military contingent that took part in suppressing the sepoy uprising in India. As a reward, part of the territories lost in 1816, including the Terai region, was returned to Nepal. Under Jang Bahadur, the king transferred to him all rights to govern the state and granted him the title of Maharaja. Jang Bahadur also managed to make the post of prime minister hereditary, and the elders of the Rana family subsequently occupied it for almost a hundred years, turning the king into a purely figurehead. The Rana deliberately sought to isolate Nepal from the rest of the world, but strengthened relations with the British authorities in India and the Dalai Lama in Tibet.

Nepal in the first half of the 20th century.

Nepal supported the British during the First World War. Under the terms of an agreement concluded in 1923, the British government recognized Nepal as an independent state.

During the reign (1901–1929) of Chandra Shamsher, opposition to the Rana regime began to form. In the beginning these were the weekly newspapers Tarun Gorkha (Young Gurkhas) and Gorkha Samsar (World of the Gurkhas). In 1916, the weekly Gorkhali was founded in Banaras (India), which until its ban in 1922 campaigned for the overthrow of the Rana regime. The result of this struggle was the abolition of slavery in Nepal on November 28, 1924. Among Nepalese emigrants in India, and then in Nepal itself, the first Nepalese political parties were formed - “Prachanda Gorkha” (Gurkha League, 1931) and “Nepal Praja Parishad” (Nepal People's Council, 1936). The Janata (People) magazine was published in Bihar, advocating a multi-caste, democratic government and the overthrow of the Rana regime. In 1937, a religious discussion society called Nagrik Adhikar Samiti (Civil Rights Committee) arose in Kathmandu, which was soon banned by the authorities. All these organizations, which called for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and respect for the rule of law, were destroyed, hundreds of their members were persecuted, and the surviving members fled again to the territory of neighboring India, where they continued their activities.

Opposition to the Rana family's rule grew in the 1940s as the democratic movement in independent India began to affect Nepal. In 1947, the Nepal National Congress (NNC) party was founded in Calcutta, advocating the overthrow of the Rana regime and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Nepal. The strike organized by the Congressists in the spring of 1947 in Biratnagar and satyagraha(Civil Disobedience Campaign) forced the government of Padma Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana to make concessions. On May 16, 1947, a number of upcoming reforms were announced, incl. adoption of a constitution, creation of an independent judiciary, holding elections to municipal and district committees, etc. Promulgated in January 1948, the draft constitution provided for a bicameral parliament, an independent Supreme Court and an executive branch of government represented by a prime minister, who was to be assisted by a five-member Council of Ministers. The constitution preserved almost all the powers of the executive branch of government, including the role of the Rana family in governing the country. However, after the resignation of Padma Shamsher in April 1948, all hopes for a constitution were dispelled by Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, who took over as prime minister.

In the late 1940s, the hereditary Rana regime came under increasing criticism, especially from its opponents based in India. In August 1948, representatives of the progressive wing of the Rana aristocracy united into the Nepal Democratic Congress (NDC), which called for the overthrow of the Rana regime by any means, including an armed uprising. In January 1949 and January 1950, the NDC tried to organize a coup, but both times failed. In March 1950, the NNC and the NDC united into the Nepali Congress (NC) party, which decided to launch an armed struggle against the Rana regime. In September 1950, detachments of the Liberation Army began to concentrate in the regions of India bordering Nepal.

In the field of foreign policy, the government of Mohan Shamsher succeeded in strengthening Nepal's position as an independent state. According to Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed between India and Nepal in July 1950, the complete independence and sovereignty of Nepal was proclaimed. Similar agreement About permanent peace and friendship was concluded in October 1950 between Nepal and England.

Revolution of 1950.

The political reform movement, which was supported by the Indian government and led by the NC party, found an influential ally in King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah Dev (throne 1911–1955), who, like his predecessors, had purely nominal powers. On November 6, 1950, the king, along with part of his family, left the palace, first taking refuge in the Indian Embassy, ​​and then moving to its territory. Maharaja Mohan Shumsher Rana demanded the extradition of the king, but having been refused, on November 7, 1950, he enthroned Tribhuvan’s three-year-old grandson, Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva. The international community, especially Britain and India, refused to recognize the new monarch. In Nepal itself, the removal of the king caused widespread outrage. Mass demonstrations began in the Kathmandu Valley demanding the return of the king. In less than a month, rebels from the Liberation Army occupied most of the Terai region and penetrated into the mountainous regions in the west and east, where military operations were difficult. A Provisional Government was formed in the town of Birganj, bordering India. Part of the government troops went over to the side of the congressist units.

Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru refused to accept the removal of King Tribhuvana and demanded the reorganization of the Nepalese government in accordance with democratic principles, as well as elections to a constituent assembly. Negotiations between the Indian government and the Rana began on December 24, 1950 in Delhi. Two weeks later, both sides accepted India's proposed settlement plan. The Rana government agreed to recognize the king as head of state. It guaranteed the freedom of activity of political parties, promised an amnesty for all political prisoners and the holding of general elections to the legislative assembly no later than 1952. In addition, it was supposed to reorganize the cabinet of ministers, retaining half of the seats for the Rana family, including the prime minister. A few days later the king accepted these proposals. The fighting was stopped.

Constitution 1951.

Returning to Kathmandu on February 18, 1951, King Tribhuvan announced the abolition of the institution of hereditary prime ministers and the creation of a coalition government. Further negotiations between the Rana, the king and the Nepalese Congress led to the formation of an interim government with the participation of five members of the Rana family and five members of the Nepalese Congress. The cabinet was again headed by Mohan Shamsher. The Interim Constitution of Nepal, promulgated by the king on April 10, 1951, established a constitutional monarchy. The head of state was declared to be the king, who received limited powers in the areas of executive and legislative power. The Constitution abolished the privileges enjoyed by the Rana family, proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, the independence of the judiciary, and declared civil rights and freedoms (the right to create political parties and organizations, universal suffrage, freedom of conscience, etc.).

The coalition government planned to carry out some socio-economic reforms, including measures to eliminate the system birta(tax-free lands in Rana use) and infrastructure development. However, the main problem was the issue of security. Despite the adoption of the ceasefire law, many congressional units refused to lay down their arms and continued to fight. At the same time, Rana supporters became more active, openly calling for the overthrow of the coalition government and the restoration of Rana power. The issuance of the public safety law only led to more violence and repression against the democratic movement. Under these conditions, various public groups, including the Communist Party and the Praja Parishad, formed the People's National United Front, which led to protest demonstrations against police repression in cities. The police shooting of a student demonstration in Kathmandu (November 7, 1951), which left one student dead and several others wounded, caused a political crisis and the fall of the government. As a sign of protest, on November 10, the congressmen left it, which allowed the king to independently appoint the composition of the government for the first time since the 19th century. On November 16, the cabinet was headed by Matrika Prasad Koirala, Chairman of the NC. The Rana family was removed from the helm of power, and the king became a full-fledged monarch.

The government of M.P. Koirala had to prepare the necessary conditions for elections to the constitutional assembly. However, a split soon developed in the Nepali Congress. At the end of July 1952, the head of the cabinet, M.P. Koirala, was released from the post of chairman of the NK party, and then expelled from its ranks. Taking advantage of these circumstances, Tribhuvan dissolved the government on August 10, 1952 and introduced a regime of direct rule in the country. An advisory council of five people was created as an advisory body. In September 1952, the king published an act on the right to suspend the provisions of the provisional constitution and exercise direct rule. In May 1953, the king again ordered the formation of the government of M.P. Koirala, who became the head of the National People's Party. Disagreeing with this, the League of Democrats, formed by the Nepali Congress, the Nepalese National Congress and the Nepal Prada Parishad, demanded that the Koirala government be replaced by a coalition government. At the beginning of 1954, the king again promised to convene a deliberative assembly. On February 14, 1954, a royal proclamation was issued About constitutional changes, which expanded the king’s executive functions. The king's decree prohibited rallies and demonstrations.

Nepal under King Mahendra.

After the death of King Tribhuvan on March 13, 1955, his son Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva ascended the throne. Under him, the direct rule of the king was restored. The deteriorating economic situation in the country and food riots in the western regions forced the monarch to make some concessions to the opposition, which demanded the abolition of direct rule, the holding of general elections and the creation of a coalition government. In August 1955, the king announced that elections to the legislative assembly would be held in October 1957. Negotiations with the opposition that lasted several months ended with the formation of the government of T.P. Acharya (Praja Parishad) on January 27, 1956. Over the next two years, several more governments changed.

In the field of foreign policy, Nepal has developed relations with neighboring countries. The 1956 agreement with China recognized Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. Nepal officially renounced the tribute Tibet was paying to Nepal; all Nepalese troops left Tibet in 1957. The China-Nepal border agreement (1961) established Nepal's border in the Himalayas.

Under pressure from a large-scale civil disobedience campaign launched in December 1957, the king finally announced the exact date of the upcoming parliamentary elections. In February 1959, a constitution was promulgated, democratic in form, which, however, retained all the basic privileges of the head of state, incl. the right to repeal the constitution and dissolve parliament. According to the constitution, the upper house of parliament consisted of 32 people, half of whom were elected and the other half appointed by the king. Elections to the lower house were to be held on the basis of universal suffrage. On February 18, 1959, the first elections to the newly formed National Assembly took place; 11 parties nominated their candidates. The Nepali Congress Party won the majority of parliamentary seats. On May 27, 1959, the NK government was sworn in, headed by Prime Minister B.P. Koirala. After months of silence, King Mahendra again went on the offensive, increasingly criticizing the government's moves. The Koirala cabinet has managed to deliver on some of its major promises. In October 1959 the possessions were finally abolished birta and autonomy of principalities in the western regions of the country. In 1960, the government revised the trade and transit agreement with India. Diplomatic relations were established with the USA, USSR, China, France and Pakistan. In 1960, a treaty of peace and friendship with China was signed. In the economic field, the actions of the new government were again ineffective. Feudal lords resisted reforms in agriculture. Instead of abolishing privileged land ownership, additional taxes were introduced in September 1960, hitting primarily the peasants. In some areas, a spontaneous movement has developed against the removal of tenants from their land. In October 1960, bloody clashes occurred in the Gorkha and West 1 districts.

Panchayat system.

At the end of 1960, Mahendra expressed his dissatisfaction with the political and economic activities of the government. Declaring that the regime was corrupt and ineffective, King Mahendra dissolved parliament and government on December 15, 1960, assuming full legislative and executive powers. All members of the previous government, including B.P. Koirala were arrested. Soon, on January 5, 1961, a decree was issued banning the activities of all political parties and organizations. The authorities announced the dissolution of various parties and trade unions. Instead of the banned parties, the so-called parties operating under the control of the government were formed. “class organizations” – peasant, workers, youth, women’s, former military personnel, children’s. The parliament was replaced by a system of local government bodies - panchayats (councils). The Nepalese Congress tried to forcefully restore the previous state of affairs, but many of its leaders were imprisoned and most had to flee to India. There they began to reorganize party structures, drawing on the large communities of ethnic Nepalese in the states of West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

Constitution 1962.

Considering the parliamentary system as inappropriate to Nepalese conditions, the king announced a new constitution on December 15, 1962. According to the provisions of the 1962 constitution, all power in the state - executive, legislative and judicial - belonged to and emanated from the king; the king was the chairman of the Council of Ministers and could appoint members of the cabinet at his discretion. The Constitution also established panchayat system management (panchayat is the name of self-government bodies in South Asian countries). In accordance with the Basic Law, a multi-level panchayat system was created in the country, which included village, city, district and zonal panchayats. The constitution did not establish their rights and responsibilities. In place of the dissolved parliament, a National Panchayat was created, some of whose deputies were elected by members of lower panchayats, and some were appointed by Mahendra himself. No bill or amendment to it could acquire the force of law without the approval of the king, just as bills could not be discussed at a session of the National Panchayat without the prior sanction of the king.

In the 1960s, King Mahendra put forward several programs for social and economic change, strengthened the autonomy of local governments and granted amnesty to political prisoners in 1968. However, the activities of political parties were prohibited, and all decisions were made in an authoritarian manner. A new set of laws adopted in 1963 eliminated the most odious feudal remnants in the field of social relations (prohibited various labor obligations and unpaid forced labor, early marriages, abolished caste restrictions, unified structures and management systems). The Agrarian Reform Law of 1963 and subsequent acts were aimed at eliminating large landownership. However, the agrarian reform undertaken in the mid-1960s in practice covered a very small part of the territories. All this did not contribute to the popularity of the panchayat system among the population of the country. In 1971, the Nepal Communist Party launched a peasant uprising in the Jhapa district.

Nepal under Birendra.

Mahendra died in 1972, and the throne was inherited by his eldest son Bir Bikram Birendra, who was formally crowned in 1975. He initially took measures to democratize the government of the country, but without any noticeable redistribution of power. The slowdown in development, growing corruption among officials and rising prices again led to popular unrest. Under pressure from student protests and urban street demonstrations that occurred in 1979, Birendra called a referendum in 1980 on the future of the panchayat system. According to official data, 55% of the electorate were in favor of maintaining it, 45% were against it, but in reality the vote ratio was almost equal. The king restored parliament, but did not allow the activities of political parties. The king reserved the right to directly appoint 20% of the legislative body; all candidates had to be members of one of six government-approved organizations, and after election they must speak on their own behalf, and not on behalf of any organization. Elections, according to the new conditions, were held in 1981 and 1986. The largest opposition party, the Nepali Congress, boycotted these elections. In 1985, the NK Party launched a civil disobedience campaign to restore the multi-party system.

Restoring democracy.

After almost a decade of relative stability, the socio-economic situation of the population deteriorated sharply in the late 1980s, caused by the deterioration of Nepal-India relations. In February 1990, the Nepali Congress and the United Left Front launched a political campaign against the panchayat system, drawing on the support of the people of the Kathmandu Valley and many localities in the Terai and Lesser Himalayas. Despite the ban on the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy, which united the main parties, protest demonstrations continued for two months. On April 1, after months of bloody clashes, during which about 500 people died and thousands were arrested, King Birendra agreed to the creation of a new government, the head of which was appointed four days later by the moderate monarchist L.B. Chand. However, the opposition demanded radical reforms and changes to the system.

On April 6, the bloodiest clashes took place in front of the royal palace, in which between 200 and 300 people died. On the evening of April 8, 1990, King Birendra announced the lifting of the ban on the activities of political parties. Eight days later, on April 16, under pressure from opposition parties and ongoing popular protests, the king dissolved the National Panchayat and renounced his right to unlimited power. On April 19, an interim government was formed headed by the chairman of the Nepalese Congress (NC) K. P. Bhattarai, which also included representatives of the NC, the NLF and human rights organizations. Two members of the cabinet were named by the king. The transitional government promised to develop a new constitution and hold general, free parliamentary elections within a year.

In June 1990, India ended its 15-month conflict with Nepal, which resulted in the closure of 13 of 15 border crossing posts. In November 1990, a new constitution was approved, which provided for the limitation of the power of the monarch, the establishment of parliamentary democracy, the accountability of the government to parliament and respect for human rights.

In the parliamentary elections held on May 12, 1991, the center-left Nepali Congress party won. She received 37.7% of the vote and 110 of the 205 seats in the House of Representatives. The elections demonstrated a significant increase in the influence of the communists, who became the second most important political force in the country. The Nepal Communist Party (United Marxist-Leninist) received 28% of the vote and 69 seats. In total, 36.5% of the votes were given to left parties, which allowed them to win 82 seats. Two factions of the conservative National Democratic Party (NDP) and the Goodwill Party (FDP) were also represented in parliament. All the other 12 parties that took part in the elections failed to enter parliament.

As a result of the 1991 elections, the cabinet of ministers was formed from members of the NC, headed by G.P. Koirala. Liberal reforms in the economy, rising prices for basic food products, and the unresolved agrarian problem caused serious discontent among broad sections of the population and disappointment with government policies. In April 1992, a general strike resulted in street clashes between protesters and police, resulting in many deaths.

The disagreements that arose in 1994 between Prime Minister G.P. Koirala and NC leader G.M.S. Shreshtha led to a split in the ranks of NC and made the government ineffective. In July 1994, Koirala resigned, after which parliament was dissolved. As a result of the general elections held on November 15, 1994, no party received a majority sufficient to form a government. As a result, a minority government was formed, headed by Nepal Communist Party (NCP) leader Man Mohan Adhikari. It lasted from December 1994 to September 1995, when a vote of no confidence was passed against it. Sher Bahadur Deuba, one of the leaders of the NK, was appointed as the new prime minister, who formed a coalition government consisting of the NK, PDP and PDV.

Maoist uprising.

In 1992, an anti-landowner peasant movement began in a number of regions of the country, the suppression of which caused an even greater alienation of the peasantry from the official government. The Maoists began their armed struggle in the winter of 1995. On February 4, 1996, the leader of the United People's Front, Baburam Bhattarai, presented a list of “40 demands” to Prime Minister Sh. B. Deub, proposing a meeting before February 17. The memorandum included 40 demands, among which were: the abolition of the monarchy, the announcement of a new constitution and the creation of the People's Republic of Nepal, the abolition of royal privileges, the abolition of peace and friendship agreements with India (1950) and the Mahakal Agreement on the distribution of water and electricity. But four days before the appointed date, the Maoists, without waiting for a response, attacked police stations in Rukum, Rolpa, Gorkha and Sindhuli, declaring the start of a “people's war”.

At first, the war was limited to small clashes between the Maoists and the police, demonstrations, attacks on banks, village development committees, local landowners and political figures. As Maoist influence continued to spread, the police launched a special operation in October 1997, but the situation improved only temporarily. Strengthening the police force had little effect. On the contrary, the actions of the police, who, according to human rights organizations, practiced extrajudicial executions, kidnappings, torture and arbitrary arrests, only led to the expansion of the zone of uprising. Reports of human rights violations increased sharply after the government undertook increased mobilization in various areas of western and central Nepal in May 1998. Between May 28 and November 7, 1998, 1,659 people were arrested as suspected rebel supporters. Half of them were later released. As it turned out, among those detained were not only supporters of the rebels, but also active members of leading parliamentary parties. During the same period, 227 people were killed as “terrorists” during police actions. Some are believed to have been summarily executed after arrest. By mid-1999, the number of victims of the “people's war” reached 900 people. During the same period, 4,884 people were detained on suspicion of membership in Maoist organizations, of whom 3,338 were later released and the rest were charged.

In the second half of the 1990s, coalition governments replaced each other with incredible speed. In March 1997, a government consisting of the PDP (Chanda), NC, CPN (UML) and the NSP came to power and lasted only a few months. In October 1997, Surya Bahadur Thapa, leader of another faction of the PDP, was sworn in as prime minister. In August 1998, the cabinet of ministers was again headed by G.P. Koirala. Along with representatives of the NK, it also included communists from the CPN (UML) and the breakaway CPN (ML). This coalition collapsed after the ministers from the CPN (ML) resigned on December 10, 1998. In the same month, the king appointed a new coalition government of congressists and communists led by G. P. Koirala.

Nepal at the beginning of the 21st century.

After the parliamentary elections in May 1999, in which the Nepali Congress Party won (113 out of 205 seats), a majority government was formed on May 31. New Prime Minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, the old NK leader, promised to normalize Nepal's relations with China and India, and to address domestic problems such as poverty, illiteracy and unemployment. However, the government proved unable to fulfill its election promises. On March 17, 2000, KP Bhattarai resigned after a majority of parliamentarians from the ruling NC passed a vote of no confidence in him. G.P. Koirala became Prime Minister, holding this post for the fourth time.

The general strike called by the Maoists in April 2001 paralyzed life throughout almost the entire country; In Kathmandu, police arrested a number of anti-government demonstrators, including some opposition leaders.

Amid the deteriorating political situation, on June 1, 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra executed almost the entire royal family, including his father King Birendra, mother Queen Aishwarya and eight other family members. After that, he shot himself and died two days later without regaining consciousness. It is believed that the incident was the result of a family quarrel, which was caused by the disagreement of the royal family with the choice of the future bride of the crown prince. Despite everything that happened, Dipendra was crowned while in a coma. One of the few surviving family members, Prince Gyanendra, Birendra's younger brother, was appointed regent under him; On June 4, after the death of Dipendra, Gyanendra succeeded to the throne. In October of that year, Gyanendra announced his son, Prince Paras, as the new crown prince.

The death of the royal family sparked rumors of a palace coup. For several days, unrest continued in the country, leading to the death of several people and many wounded. In these circumstances, the Maoists called on June 11 for the formation of a provisional government, which should "... play a historical role in the establishment of a republican system." On June 29, 2001, B. Bhattarai announced the birth of the so-called. "People's Republic of Nepal". At the same time, the Maoists intensified their activities in and around the capital. At the end of June and beginning of July 2001, several bombs were exploded in the center of Kathmandu, incl. near the official residence of G.P. Koirala - the first attack of this kind since the declaration of the “people's war”. Although no one was injured from the explosions, they caused panic.

In July 2001, after allegations of corruption, G. P. Koirala resigned. The Congressman Sh.B. Deuba became Prime Minister, who announced the beginning of some reforms, including land reforms, and presented plans to overcome the caste system and discrimination against Dalits (“untouchables”).

On July 23, 2001, the Maoists agreed to a truce proposed by the new government. On August 30, 2001, the first round of peace negotiations took place, accompanied by an exchange of prisoners. In early September 2001, an alliance of 10 left-wing political parties came up with a proposal to create a unified government of all political forces, including the rebels, and change the constitution. Negotiations continued until November, but were unsuccessful. On November 21, 2001, the Maoists refused to continue the dialogue, saying that the government did not agree with their main demand - the adoption of a new constitution and the convening of a Constituent Assembly. On November 23, 2001, the rebels announced the formation of the United People's Revolutionary Council, a parallel Maoist government of the People's Republic of Nepal. Deputy Chairman of the Central Committee of the CPN (Maoist) and Chairman of the United People's Front B. Bhattarai was appointed its head. At the same time, they announced an end to the four-month truce that had been declared on July 23, 2001, and launched a coordinated offensive across the country on the night of November 23. The heaviest fighting took place in the three western districts of the country (Rolpa, Rukum, Karnali) and northeast of Kathmandu. By November 26, the Maoist People's Liberation Army (PLA) controlled almost half of Nepal's territory.

In the face of a severe crisis, King Gyanendra, at the request of the government, declared a state of emergency approved by parliament from November 27, 2001 throughout Nepal. Many civil liberties were suspended, restrictions on movement and censorship of the press were introduced. Unauthorized meetings were completely prohibited. The Maoists themselves were declared a terrorist organization. On the recommendation of the National Defense Council, it was decided to use the regular army to fight the partisans (previously, only police units and civil self-defense units were used for these purposes). The government declared the Maoists and their supporting organizations terrorist. The Ministry of Defense appealed to the population to “help the army in the fight against terrorists.”

Heavy fighting continued throughout the next year. On February 17, 2002, the rebels launched their largest offensive against government forces in the western district of Achham, during which between 130 and 150 military, police and local government officials were killed. On February 21, parliament extended the state of emergency for another three months. In April and May 2002, the insurgents intensified their campaign in western Nepal.

In May, Sh.B. Deuba proposed for parliamentary consideration the issue of extending the state of emergency. The majority of parliamentarians intended to vote against this proposal, arguing that the state of emergency was ineffective in suppressing the terrorist activities of the Maoists, with whom it was necessary not to fight, but to negotiate. On May 22, 2002, King Gyanendra, on the recommendation of Prime Minister S.B. Deub, dissolved the lower house of parliament and called early parliamentary elections for November 13, 2002 (the legality of these steps was confirmed by the Supreme Court of Nepal). The work of the National Assembly, which is not subject to dissolution, was declared a “break” by decree of the king. In response to the dissolution of parliament, the Nepalese Congress expelled Sh.B. Deuba from the party and demanded the resignation of the cabinet.

Meanwhile, the Maoist insurgency grew. The rebels established control over a large part of Nepal, incl. over the districts of Achkham, Dang, Syangja, Surkhet, Rukum, Kalikot, Jajarkot, Rolpa, Salyan and Gorkha. At the end of September, Prime Minister S.B. Deuba recommended to the king to postpone the elections by one year in connection with military operations against the rebels. Instead, on October 4, 2002, King Gyanendra removed Deuba from his post as prime minister and announced the dissolution of the cabinet for “failure to hold elections as scheduled.” Until the appointment of a new head of government, Gyanendra temporarily declared a regime of direct rule, concentrating all functions of the executive power in his hands. He approved the decision to postpone the elections indefinitely. This step caused open discontent of all parties, who regarded it as a constitutional coup. On October 11, 2002, King Gyanendra appointed a new cabinet headed by L.B. Chand, one of the leaders of the NDP. The transitional government, which included only representatives of dissident factions of major parties and a number of technocrats, was given only two tasks: to resolve the Maoist issue and prepare new elections. The political situation in the country became tense when the king reintroduced direct rule in December 2002, thereby causing new protests and accusations of exceeding his constitutional powers.

Against the backdrop of political instability, the government made some progress in negotiations with the Maoists. On January 29, 2003, a new truce was announced. By this point, approximately 7,000 military, civilians and rebels had been killed in the conflict. In April and May 2003, two rounds of peace negotiations took place between the government of L.B. Chand and the rebels. As a result of street protests on May 30, 2003, the government of L.B. Chand resigned. CPN (UML) General Secretary Madhav Kumar Nepal has been proposed as a candidate for the post of head of the cabinet by the major political parties. However, hopes of a compromise with the opposition were dashed when, on June 4, King Gyanendra commissioned the formation of a cabinet by S.B. Thapa, a prominent PDP figure, is in office for the fourth time since 1996. Thapa has also failed to attract other parties to his government; therefore, only seven members remained in the Council of Ministers (since March 2004 - 8 members), mostly well-known conservative politicians from the non-party panchayat system abolished in 1990. In August 2003, the government of S.B. Thapa held the third round of negotiations with the Maoists. On August 24, the Maoists threatened to break the truce if the government did not agree to include their participation in the Constituent Assembly within 48 hours. On August 27, 2003, the Maoists unilaterally interrupted the negotiations, announcing the end of the truce, and resumed hostilities against the government. In September, the rebels went on a 3-day strike. At the end of 2003 - beginning of 2004, there was a new surge of violence, clashes between students and police. In April 2004, thousands of people demonstrated in Kathmandu, organized by the Nepali Congress and the CPN (UML). The protesters demanded to hold parliamentary elections in the near future and transfer power to a coalition government. As a result, the monarch promised to hold elections in 2005. In February 2005, he dissolved parliament, declared a state of emergency, party leaders were arrested, and the king took full power into his own hands. In May 2005, the government lifted the state of emergency and released the party leaders, but the monarch still retained absolute power. In April 2006, in the wake of popular discontent, he lost most of his powers and privileges, although he continued to live in the palace. In the summer, he was completely removed from power, power functions were transferred to the prime minister, and in 2007 the government took away his multi-million dollar salary. In November 2006, a truce was reached between the government and the Maoists. After the adoption of the interim constitution, the Maoists were able to enter parliament in January 2007. To draft a new constitution, a Constitutional Assembly was established, which will also serve as the parliament of Nepal for the next two years. Elections to it took place only in April 2008. The Maoist Communist Party received 30% of the votes, approximately 220 of the 601 seats in parliament. They are followed by the Nepali Congress (21.3%) and the United Marxist-Leninist Communist Party (20.7%). On May 28, 2008, at the first meeting of the Constitutional Assembly, Nepal was proclaimed a Federal Democratic Republic. The 240-year reign of the Shah dynasty came to an end. President Rambaran Yadav, elected by parliament, became the head of state. Considered an incarnation of the god Vishnu, King Gyanendra was reduced to an ordinary citizen and was forced to liberate the royal palace in Kathmandu.