Personal qualities are nothing more than components of character, its characteristics. The development of personal qualities contributes to the fulfillment of a person, making him versatile. Personal qualities allow you to react correctly to external stimuli and, despite everything, succeed in your activities. This is a way to effectively use internal resources.

Level of development of personal qualities

Each person is born with a certain character and set of personal qualities that determine behavioral characteristics and life priorities. Throughout life, some qualities change under the influence of various factors, some remain for life.

Psychologists say that the main stages of character formation occur in the first five years of life, then they are slightly adjusted based on life circumstances.

The main indicators and criteria that form the level of personal development include: the ability to take an active life position, the level of responsibility, the direction of the way of life, the level of culture and intelligence, the ability to manage emotions.

Many aspects of life depend on personal qualities, starting with the choice and ending with the priority of activities for. If a person realizes the need for a higher quality standard of living, he will try to achieve what he wants. Personal qualities such as the ability to adequately assess reality and one’s capabilities help with this. Even if a person’s innate characteristics are not at the highest level, but with awareness of one’s individuality, there is always the opportunity to decide on an activity that will most fully reveal a person’s abilities. Moreover, if desired, there is always the opportunity to develop personal qualities.

The development of a child begins with his birth. This is a multilateral process of interaction between parents, society and self-development. The main responsibility, of course, rests with the family. Here begins the knowledge of oneself as a separate individual, learns different options for interaction with other people and options for responses.

Today, the opinion has become established that all manifestations of human character are acquired in early childhood. At this time, three key groups of personality traits are formed. Depending on the period of life, the formation of methods, styles of behavior and tools for interaction with other people occurs.

Factors in the development of personal qualities

As soon as a child begins to perceive himself as a separate individual, begins to realize his place in the world around him, the process of developing basic qualities begins, including this is influenced by the development of the sensory sphere of life. There are several key factors that indicate the beginning of the process:

• active and appropriate use of personal pronouns;

• possession of self-care and self-control skills;

• the ability to describe one’s experiences and explain the motivation for actions.

Age of onset of personality development

Based on the above, the age of onset of personality formation becomes clear. Psychologists indicate an age of two to three years. However, it cannot be said that nothing happens until this moment. There is active preparation and formation of individual preferences, communication abilities, and temperament. By the age of five, the child fully perceives himself as a separate person with individual characteristics, who is in an active relationship with the surrounding reality.

A person is influenced not only by his family, but also by society, school, and friends. This environment certainly leaves its mark on the behavior and formation of the child. However, only close people can lay the foundation. They are the ones who set guidelines and show ways of interaction within the family and with other people. Since the child is not yet familiar with the rules of behavior in society, he focuses on his relatives and takes an example from them. Therefore, very often children have many common traits with their parents. Often the child completely copies the behavioral model of the parents.

This is a set of signs, principles, features and abilities that determine the level of usefulness of the system and the success of its interaction in various areas

They are part of a person’s character, a certain subset of features that allow them to most effectively respond to certain influences, act and successfully achieve goals in a certain subject area. More details about character and characteristics are written in the method Determination of character and temperament.

The presence of certain personal qualities is the most important sign of success, and their development is the main way to increase it. Let's take a closer look at the main qualities of a successful person and methods of their development.

Intelligence

This is a complex model of system behavior that uses consciousness, preconscious and subconscious to organize, manage, control and plan activities, store and use perceived and synthesized information in memory, personal development and realization of purpose, limited by conscience.

Allows you to identify actions and resources based on personal experiences and generated ideas and combine them into a plan to achieve goals.

With a low level of intelligence development, a person is not able to engage in useful activities, cannot organize, control and manage them. He is also unable to consciously set goals, draw up a plan for achieving them, overcome obstacles and act in their direction.

With a high level of intellectual development, a person completely controls his life, determines the optimal paths for development and achieving goals, is self-aware, engages in creativity and continuously self-realizes.

Increases success by determining the optimal path to achieve goals and the best ways to overcome obstacles.

Develops through the accumulation of experience and improvement of such abilities as self-awareness, goal setting, planning, imagination, etc.

This quality is discussed in more detail in the method Generating useful ideas and.

Self-discipline

This is the ability to start and complete actions, obtain expected results and achieve goals regardless of obstacles that arise.

Obstacles can be problems, needs, harmful influences, laziness, fear, lack of motive or incentive, etc. Moreover, the vast majority of them are internal.

It requires the will to take action, perseverance to see things through to completion, and determination to focus only on things that get you closer to your goal.

Will

It is the ability to consciously initiate, manage, and organize actions to achieve goals.

It appears at the beginning of performing actions to overcome inertia and when obstacles arise.

Allows you to become independent from the opinions and manipulation of other people, and act only on the basis of personal decisions, i.e. get rid of reactivity when interacting and become more proactive.

The speed of making and implementing decisions depends on willpower, which is influenced by self-discipline, independence, determination, self-confidence and courage. The better these qualities are developed, the greater the willpower.

With a low level of willpower development, a person does not begin to act independently, but only reacts to external influences. Cannot overcome obstacles, but simply stops achieving the goal or switches to another goal.

With a high level of willpower development, a person acts only on the basis of personal experience and goals. It immediately begins to act when deciding to achieve a goal or when obstacles appear on the way to it.

Increases success by overcoming increasingly difficult obstacles, completing increasingly complex tasks, and achieving increasingly rewarding goals.

It develops in a similar way to self-discipline - through the progressive complication of the actions performed and the goals achieved.

Perseverance

This is the ability to continue and complete the actions started to achieve the goal, regardless of the obstacles that arise.

Often used in defeat, when you need to “get back on your feet” and continue moving towards the goal.

Persistence, completing all tasks and successfully achieving goals increases motivation and self-confidence.

With low perseverance, a person completes few tasks, and only those in which there were no obstacles. If anything gets in the way, the person will immediately refuse to do it or switch to something else.

With high perseverance, a person completes all tasks, obtains the necessary results and, with the help of will, overcomes any obstacles on the way to the goal.

Increases success by completing all planned tasks, obtaining expected results and achieving all set goals.

It also develops through step-by-step complication of the actions performed and the goals achieved.

Determination

This is the ability to concentrate only on achieving the current goal, without being distracted by unimportant matters, without succumbing to laziness and spontaneous desires.

With low sense of purpose, a person is often distracted from the current task and goals, and begins to do other things that are not related to the current goal. This significantly increases the time and costs to achieve the goal.

With a high sense of purpose, a person performs only those things that bring him closer to the goal, and spends personal resources only on such things.

Increases success by setting and successfully achieving increasingly complex goals, focusing only on the most important ones, and minimizing costs and time on tasks that are not related to the goal - time sinks.

It develops through conscious concentration on a planned task and a gradual increase in the duration of this concentration. For example, at first you can concentrate only on the current task for 10 minutes, then 15, 20, 25... And then take an effective break for 5-10 minutes to quickly recuperate.

At the same time, it is important to find the optimal balance between concentration on work and rest in order to maintain maximum efficiency and not get overtired or burn out.

Intensity

This is the ability to concentrate on one goal for a certain period and make every effort to achieve it as quickly as possible.

It allows you to speed up the process of achieving a goal, but requires more resources per unit of time, which is usually a justified measure to get results faster.

Prevents activities in a relaxed, calm state for the sake of enjoying the process, which significantly slows down the achievement of goals and increases costs.

At low intensity, a person can act very slowly, take frequent breaks, waste resources without benefit for current goals, which worsens the condition and significantly increases the time it takes to achieve the goal.

At high intensity, a person performs actions at his maximum speed and with optimal expenditure of personal resources. Takes a minimum of breaks only for rest and recuperation, and is not distracted by other, useless matters.

Increases success by achieving goals more quickly, albeit at a higher, but payable, cost.

Develops through a progressive increase in the period of concentration and maximum effort on one goal.

Confidence

This is the state of a system in which it has knowledge about its response and the reaction of another system when a certain impact is applied.

Appears with development and awareness as a result of gaining true knowledge about oneself, one’s actions and their consequences. Minimizes uncertainty, stress, fears and risks.

Necessary for understanding the results that will be obtained when performing certain actions and influencing oneself or the environment. Helps take the first step towards the goal, reduces the risk of harmful effects and consequences that can worsen the condition.

Self-confidence is manifested in speech, appearance, clothing, gait, and physical condition.

When confidence is low, a person may spend a lot of time determining what safe and beneficial influences he can exert on himself or other systems to achieve a certain goal. At the same time, there is a high probability of causing harm, which can worsen conditions and relationships with other systems.

With high confidence, a person can quickly determine the necessary impact, which is guaranteed to lead to the necessary consequences and give the expected results. In this case, the risk of harm and deterioration of relations will be minimal.

Increases success by accurately determining which influence will be beneficial and which will be harmful, which helps the will to take the first step towards the goal, which is often the most difficult, because you need to overcome your inertia and internal obstacles.

It develops through awareness of oneself and the environment, one’s abilities, a positive attitude towards oneself, and the belief that if you do the right things you will definitely achieve success.

Organization

It is the ability to organize personal activities and determine the importance of goals and activities to increase the likelihood of success and minimize costs.

It manifests itself when a large number of unordered, chaotic tasks appear, the implementation of which may be ineffective due to the waste of resources on less important tasks. Such matters are described in detail, the connections between them are determined, and their importance and usefulness for self-realization and achieving the goal of life is determined.

The main means for organization are planning and systematization of its activities. To do this, you can use various systems of lists, folders, categories, etc. You can also delegate important tasks to more competent specialists. Tools for organization are described in more detail in the method Organizing personal goals and affairs. You can also start using a powerful, free online organizer right now.

With low organization, a person has many things to do, the usefulness and dependence of which is unknown to him. He makes decisions chaotically, usually depending on his mood and desire to complete the most interesting, but not necessarily useful, task.

When a person is highly organized, all important goals and affairs are described in detail, structured and organized into a single system. With its help, he can quickly find the necessary information and make the right decisions depending on current conditions and available resources. But this system requires the expenditure of additional resources to create it and update the information in it.

Improves success by clearly understanding what needs to be done to achieve a goal and quickly obtaining the information you need to make decisions and take actions.

It develops through the progressive complication of the system of organizing activities for self-realization and continuous updating of information in it. This is facilitated by the development of determination and self-discipline.

Courage

This is the ability to maintain the current state or improve it when danger or fear arises that prevents the performance of actions and the achievement of a goal.

Fear is a good helper in determining whether a decision is correct. The more a person is afraid to do something and it certainly won’t cause harm, the more useful this thing is for his self-realization. Then you need to courageously take the first step, which is usually the most difficult, and then everything will go like clockwork.

With low courage, a person may completely stop acting when fear arises, even if its cause does not cause harm. At the same time, he can switch to other, less useful goals, abandoning those that cause fear, but can bring more benefits (organize a company, take a higher position, build a house, etc.)

With high courage, a person overcomes any fear, and when it arises, he begins and completes everything to achieve his goal. Moreover, the stronger the fear, the more energy it gives to perform actions.

Increases success by overcoming increasingly powerful fears that arise when achieving increasingly complex, great and useful goals.

It develops through awareness of the sources of fear, determination of their harmfulness, ways to minimize it and a step-by-step increase in the complexity of the actions performed and the goals achieved that cause fear.

Problem solving

It is the ability to acquire missing resources to perform certain actions and overcome obstacles to achieve goals.

Imagination

This is the ability to create mental images in the mind regardless of the environment, combine them with real objects, simulate their interaction and determine possible consequences.

Used to generate original ideas that can be implemented in the form of material (new house, car, tool...) or ideal (knowledge, theories, processes, methods...) objects.

It is used by the system in creative activity to create new, unique objects that are used by itself or the environment and improve the state of the system, environment or supersystem.

With low imagination, a person uses only the information that he perceived from the outside: he saw, heard, tried. This allows you to use in your activities only what already exists.

With high imagination, a person continuously forms mental images of new and existing systems, connects them together, models their interaction, and evaluates the usefulness of the consequences of this. If an image is assessed as useful, then a person can implement it in the real world by creating something new, improving an existing one, or destroying something harmful.

Increases success by identifying new possible states, original ways to achieve goals and overcome obstacles.

It develops through the accumulation of knowledge about existing systems, the expansion of the paradigm and the progressive complication of the formed mental images of real and possible systems.

Generation of ideas

This is the ability to use imagination to form new ideas based on personal experience and existing ideas.

With a low ability to generate ideas, a person uses only templates and proven methods to achieve goals. Can use technologies that someone else has invented, but poorly adapts them to their activities, so they bring little benefit.

With a high ability to generate ideas, a person easily comes up with and implements new, unique objects, and invents new tools and methods. Develops new and improves existing technologies and implements them in his activities, which allows him to more successfully and efficiently achieve personal goals.

Increases success by identifying original paths to goals, using new technologies, and creating unique objects that can provide an advantage or be used as personal resources.

Develops through the accumulation of experience, the continuous search for more appropriate ways to perform actions and achieve goals, and the development and implementation of more complex and useful technologies, tools and methods. This is facilitated by improved imagination.

Creativity

This is a set of system abilities that allow you to generate fundamentally new, original ideas and use previously unused means to overcome obstacles and achieve goals.

Allows you to find original means to perform certain actions that no one has tried to use yet.

It can lead to both a decrease and an increase in the costs of achieving the goal, but, as a rule, the speed of completing actions increases significantly when using the original means.

It is the main means for creative activity, creating something new, unique and improving the environment.

With low creativity, a person can perform actions only on the basis of known solutions, uses only proven technologies and never applies anything new.

With high creativity, a person tries to find a more suitable path than the one known for each new task, new goal. It generates many ideas to determine the best ways to achieve success. Continuously searches, creates and implements new technologies in its activities.

Increases success by creating new, unique systems that can provide advantages, achieving goals in an original, unconventional way, which can be less expensive and faster than known ones.

It develops through the constant search for new ways and means of performing actions and the progressive complication of goals, achieved in an original way, and not in a stereotyped way. This is facilitated by improved imagination and the ability to generate ideas.

Self-awareness

This is the ability to analyze and evaluate your current state, thought processes in the mind, etc.

Allows you to compare the current state with the desired one, determine the difference and, using intelligence, determine actions to move into it.

It also helps to identify internal motives that provide energy for starting and completing actions.

With low self-awareness, a person uses only external information to make decisions. He is very susceptible to the opinions of other people and does not take into account his own thoughts and emotions.

With high self-awareness, a person makes decisions only on the basis of personal thoughts. He clearly understands what he wants, what goal to achieve and easily determines what he lacks for this.

Increases success by determining the difference between the current and target states, using internal motives, thoughts and emotions.

It develops through periodic concentration on thoughts and emotions, determining their essence, causes and consequences, and the progressive complication of the goals being achieved, which have an increasingly greater difference from the current state.

These are the most significant qualities of a successful person, the development of which allows you to successfully achieve any goals.

Moreover, many of the qualities connected to each other and the development of some improves others. For example, will, perseverance and determination improve self-discipline, while courage and confidence improve determination.

The development of these qualities and skills allows you to subconsciously, automatically interact, quickly and adequately respond to external influences and adjust your activities depending on new opportunities.

Let us consider in more detail how you can develop any of the qualities so that it has the greatest possible impact on your life and helps you achieve success.

Method of developing personal qualities

Successful self-realization requires a sufficiently high level of development of personal qualities. You can improve several qualities at the same time. It’s better to choose those qualities that are most useful for achieving current goals, and concentrate only on their improvement.

All these qualities are innate - every person has them. But initially they are in passive condition and have virtually no effect on activity. In order for them to be more useful in achieving goals, they need to be continuously developed.

The main thing when developing qualities is to understand that they cannot improve instantly. They should be developed progressively and regularly depending on current goals. And if development stops, they will deteriorate and degrade.

Improving any quality is based on a gradual, step-by-step complication of the actions that are performed using it. To develop qualities, you can use the following method:

1. Need choose quality and to know about it, as much as possible, so that a clear understanding of it appears: its definition, how it manifests itself, what happens to the condition, how you react to external influences, how you influence the environment, etc. To do this, you can use their descriptions in this chapter and search for additional information on the Internet.

For example, intensity is the ability to concentrate on a specific goal and make every effort to achieve it as quickly as possible. It allows you to speed up the process of achieving a goal, but requires large expenses, which is usually a justifiable measure for faster results. Prevents activities from being carried out in a relaxed state for the sake of enjoying the process, which significantly slows down the achievement of goals and increases costs.

2. Describe ideal level development of this quality for 10 points out of 10: what this quality could be like for me personally, what my behavior will be, in what situations it can be used...

For example, use it when doing any business. Act as quickly as possible, do not be distracted by extraneous matters. Have a supportive environment. Spend a little time analyzing things to find out if it will help you achieve your goal. If you have the intention to fulfill it, then resolutely begin it. Set deadlines for completing things. Determine the reward in advance for completing it on time.

3. Define current level development of this quality on a scale from 1 to 10. To do this, just ask yourself: “How satisfied am I with this quality in myself on a scale from 1 to 10” and listen to the emotions that arise; they will prompt a subjective, but most accurate answer.

For example, 4

4. Describe a few simple steps, actions that can be performed to develop this quality by 1 point. Describe what exactly can be done, in what situations, what to use for this, etc., so that the quality improves a little. In this case, it is enough to be based on personal experience and your idea of ​​this quality in its ideal form.

For example, before starting a task, determine its duration and reward. Organize a supportive environment so that nothing interferes with it.

5. Then describe the steps to develop quality by another 1 point, and another 1, and another... And so get to the steps that will improve the quality to 10 points out of 10, i.e. to the ideal level.

For example, perform actual actions at maximum speed (walk quickly, type quickly, speak quickly, etc.). Spend a little time analyzing the case and answering the question “Why do it?” Immediately do the things that are needed to achieve your goals and that you yourself want to do. Delegate things that you need to do, but that you don’t want to do. Act decisively so as not to miss opportunities.

6. Select the steps from which you can begin quality development soon and start implementing these steps.

For example, set deadlines and rewards, create a supportive environment and not be distracted by extraneous matters.

7. Repeat this method periodically and update your answers.

This method must be performed for each quality that is useful to develop in the near future for current purposes. You can make a list of qualities, draw a scale next to it and mark the current level of this quality on it. For example, like this:

Periodically, for example, once a week, you can update this list, note the current level of development and analyze the dynamics of change. You can choose the quality that has become the highest priority and perform those actions that will help improve it.

This will help you determine which qualities are currently lacking most or which need to be improved to achieve your current goals.

You can hang this list in several prominent places, regularly review it, remember the steps that you decided to take first to improve them and perform them under suitable conditions.

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“Formation of personal qualities of students in the process of mastering the “Beaded Multicolor” program

Additional education for children increases the space in which students can develop their creative and cognitive activity, realize their personal qualities, and demonstrate those abilities that often remain unclaimed by basic education. In additional education for children, the child himself chooses the content and form of classes and may not be afraid of failure.

The creative association “Bead Weaving” is implementing Elena Vladimirovna Shikunova’s educational program “Beaded Colors”, designed for children aged 7-11 years (junior school age).

In a creative association, the socialization of younger schoolchildren occurs - this is the process of acquiring experience in social relations and mastering new social roles. The problem of joining the social world has been and remains one of the leading ones in the process of forming a child’s personality. The purpose of socialization in the process of educational activity is to develop the ability to adequately navigate the social environment available to him (children of different ages study in groups), awareness of the self-worth of one’s own personality and other people, the ability to express feelings and attitude towards the children’s team, the teacher in accordance with the cultural traditions of society.

What is specific for younger schoolchildren is that their inclusion in studies and work activities forms an awareness of their social responsibilities, fulfillment of the goal set by the teacher, high-quality preparation for the lesson, broadening their horizons through independent cognitive activity on the Internet, studying literature, developing interest and desire for participation in the life of a creative association.

Social activity expands the child’s understanding of society, leads to the development of social competence and, as a result, the formation of personal qualities of students. When starting education, the child encounters social activities for the first time, the results of which are assessed by others with a socially significant assessment. His relationship with the people around him also begins to correlate with these requirements - the child develops certain methods and strategies of behavior in society. Strategies learned in childhood lay the foundation for social behavior and largely determine it in later life. Younger schoolchildren need targeted assistance in building effective behavioral strategies. Therefore, the development of social competence of younger schoolchildren should become one of the most important areas of work.

Social competence is social skills (responsibilities) that allow a person to adequately comply with the norms and rules of life in society.

The basis of social competence is knowledge about society, rules and methods of behavior in it. For a primary school student, society is represented by a broad (world, country, city) and narrow (family, school, creative association) environment. His social competence is determined by how aware he is of both. Here we are talking not only about information about the world, country, region, their characteristics, social institutions represented in them, school, family, but also about the peculiarities of interaction between people, traditions, norms and rules of behavior. The work of uniting the children's team, involving children in developing rules of interaction, discussing with children various situations of interaction and behavior is well woven into the fabric of beadwork. To do this, work is organized in pairs, in microgroups, where each child is given the opportunity to express themselves, get to know each other better, and build constructive relationships. Annual visits to exhibition halls, excursions, trips to the museum, joint holidays “Christmas gatherings”, “Holy Easter”, “Mother’s Day” contribute to the establishment of warm, friendly relations in my creative association. At the same time, such personal qualities as tolerance, empathy, and friendliness are formed. Familiarization with the methods and rules of behavior is carried out in the process of specially organized observation, discussion, information, analysis of specific situations in the classroom, etc.

Social skill cannot take place without the development of personal formations in the child that contribute to social adaptation.

Firstly, the motivation for socially significant activities develops and crystallizes. It is necessary to make it clear to the child that the end result of his activity, the finished product, is important and needed by society (gifts, household items, accessories, toys), that is, something that others can use. Moreover, it is located at one of two poles: the desire for success (achievement) and the fear of failure (avoidance). Initially, the younger student is focused on achieving success. However, if he often encounters failures in the process of activity, then the motive of avoidance begins to dominate in his motivational sphere. Motivation for success is a positive basis for social adaptation. With such motivation, the child’s actions are aimed at achieving constructive, positive results. This motivation determines personal activity. The motivation of fear of failure is negative in terms of achieving social competence. The expectation of negative consequences (blame, ridicule, unsuccessful work) becomes decisive in his behavior. Having not yet done anything, the child is afraid of failure and refuses to do the activity. Therefore, from the standpoint of developing social competence, motivation for success is significant. For this purpose, assignments of varying difficulty levels are used in classes. The children who complete the task faster than others are offered more complex schemes, while those who find it difficult during the lesson are given simple tasks. In this way, the desired result of each child is achieved.

Secondly, in the process of intensive development and qualitative transformation of the cognitive sphere, the child masters his mental processes and learns to control them. This develops the ability to voluntarily regulate behavior and self-regulation.

Thirdly, the child masters the ability to look at himself through his own eyes and the eyes of others, he develops dialogical consciousness, criticality towards himself and others, he becomes capable of adequate self-esteem. Self-esteem is one of the central formations of the individual and largely determines the nature of the individual’s social adaptation and is a regulator of behavior and activity. It should be noted that due to the importance for a primary school student of the need to meet the expectations of adults and an orientation toward positivity, his adaptation is more conducive to high self-esteem than low self-esteem. Self-satisfaction and sufficiently high self-esteem are important components of social competence.

Diagnostics of the educational process is carried out: questionnaires, surveys, testing, analysis of creative works. As a result of testing, it was revealed that 80% of children have a positive attitude towards classes, 17% experience anxiety (these are children with hyperactivity syndrome, increased emotional excitability; when working with them, it becomes necessary to first calm the children down with the help of breathing exercises and psychological relaxation training), 3% are in a negative mood. These are after school students who don't like beading. These guys are offered options for working from other materials: felt, paper, foamiran.

Fourthly, during primary school age children develop a new type of relationship with the people around them. Children internalize social norms, introduce the categories of “good and bad” into interpersonal relationships, lose their unconditional orientation towards adults and become closer to their peer group. By learning to distinguish their opinion from the opinions of other people, primary schoolchildren learn the possibility of their influence on their own “I” in order to change it. The child begins to understand that the resolution of many life situations, including difficult ones from the point of view of social interaction, depends on his behavior. He becomes ready to master the skills of constructive behavior in problem situations. In my classes, this is facilitated by psychophysical games: “Give warmth to a friend”, “The magical power of a smile”, “Unusual chest”.

Consequently, at primary school age such personal qualities as achievement motivation, voluntariness, a positive attitude towards oneself, high self-esteem (the ability to determine the emotional states of other people), the ability to behave constructively in difficult situations (the ability to constructively resolve conflict situations) are formed.

The formation of personal qualities always involves adaptation to society (adapting oneself to environmental conditions, circumstances) and self-determination in society (this is an active position that involves assessing what is happening around). The social experience of a child of primary school age is a multi-level unity of cognitive, value, communicative and behavioral components of his life.

Younger schoolchildren are not yet able to independently participate in the real life of society. The concepts of “learning experience” and “social experience” are different. Learning experience develops directly in educational activities; it is similar for children of the same class. Social experience reflects the development of the personal qualities of a particular child: his assignment of methods of activity and communication, mastery of social roles, acceptance of normative values, and the presence of ideas about himself as an individual. This experience influences the formation of his desires and interests, directs and restrains his activity. If a child does not have experience of creative efforts in his life, he will not be able to open up in communication, knowledge, and practical activities.

The process of upbringing in education is continuous, but the potential of additional education is very high. It is additional education, due to its essential and specific characteristics, that has the necessary potential, competitive advantages, and high results in organizing educational activities in the direction of personifying education, creating conditions for free individual choice, and developing motivation.

Modern children receive almost all information about life through television or a computer, and not from events and real meetings. In such communication with life there is no personal choice, no volitional effort, little evaluation and almost completely no empathy. Under these conditions, it is necessary to specifically create situations that the child would perceive as a vivid, memorable event. A conversation, modest in form, can become an event due to the experience of the uniqueness of the moment of unity with other people, with their creativity, with nature. The moral development of younger schoolchildren is unique. Their moral consciousness is dominated mainly by imperative (imperative) elements determined by the instructions, advice and demands of the teacher. Their moral consciousness actually functions in the form of these demands, and when evaluating behavior they proceed mainly from what not to do. That is why they notice the slightest deviations from established standards of behavior and immediately strive to report them to the teacher. To develop the moral consciousness of children and enrich them with vivid moral ideas on various issues of behavior, collective creative activities are used: the creation of joint panels “Tree of Friendship”, “Who lives on the lawn?”, which allows children to feel responsible for their friend, to provide or ask for help , rejoice at the result of joint efforts.

Primary school age is a special stage in a child’s life associated with the development of a new social position, expansion of the child’s sphere of interaction with the outside world, development of needs for communication, cognition, social recognition and self-expression. The level of social development of a schoolchild can be qualities that characterize the degree of his readiness for life in society: camaraderie, respect for elders, kindness, honesty, hard work, frugality. discipline, maintaining order, curiosity, love of beauty. The potential of beadwork for such development is inexhaustible.

The joy experienced by a child who has learned to create beauty with his own hands contributes to the formation of the spiritual world and aesthetic taste. Beading classes help children open up, make their leisure time exciting, unite them in one interesting activity and develop their individuality.

Personality qualities:

Consciousness

Habits; behavior

The educational process consists of two stages (Makarenko):

Stage of formation of personality consciousness

Methods for forming the consciousness of students are designed to transmit information from the teacher to the student and back. Consciousness as knowledge and understanding is the basis of worldview, behavior, relationships, it is the intellectual basis of professional activity. The richer, more complete, deeper, more objective and variable the information received, i.e., the experience of generations, the more professionally the future worker begins to act, the more intense his overall development.

Of this group of methods, the most common are conversation, instruction, story, demonstration, and explanation. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

So you can consider each method and discover that each of them has certain capabilities, its own zone of influence.

Methods for shaping behavior and activity are practical methods. A person is a subject of activity, including cognitive activity. Therefore, in the process of cognition he is not only a contemplator, but also a doer. Methods of shaping behavior include: involvement in activity, play, reliance on experience, assignment, requirement, ritual, coercion, self-government, self-service, competition, competition, training, exercise, etc. These methods are used directly to shape behavior, but indirectly they influence and on the formation of human consciousness. Methods of forming feelings, i.e. stimulating cognition and activity, are of an auxiliary nature and are used in unity with methods of forming consciousness and activity. To stimulate means to encourage, accelerate, improve the quality of cognitive and work activity, and create favorable conditions for it. Such stimulating methods include encouragement, reprimand, creating situations of success, relying on the positive in a person, control, self-control, assessment and self-esteem, etc.

cognitive, labor and other activities of students, as well as checking the effectiveness of the methods used. Methods for monitoring cognitive and production activity are somewhat different. Methods for monitoring cognitive activity are oral questioning (individual, frontal), checking notebooks, independent (control) work, laboratory testing, examination, etc. With their help, as a rule, the level of students’ learning is revealed. Methods of monitoring labor activity are monitoring with measuring instruments, monitoring through practical application (of a manufactured part, a repaired machine), as well as the creation of a technical control department, etc. There are methods for monitoring the results of extracurricular educational activities: the method of expert assessments, public opinion, questionnaire survey , conversation, methods for diagnosing the level of education of students, etc.

The stage of formation of behavior, habits.

Primary acquaintance with the action and primary mastery. Familiarization can occur through demonstration, explanation, story, observation. Based on familiarization, a primary, still general, schematic visual representation of the spatial and temporal features of the action is first formed - the direction and amplitude of movements, their speed and sequence. In the process of further exercises, that is, repeated repetition of certain actions in order to consolidate and improve them, gradually the sequence of movements becomes more coordinated, and the actions become clearer and more confident. These experiences affect the effectiveness of management, either promoting or delaying it.

Automation of movements. As a result of improvement, actions become faster and easier. Elimination of unnecessary movements and reduction of tension during their execution. Movements are combined into a single whole act, and the act into an even more complex integral action.

Introduction

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

As a social phenomenon and sphere of human practice, management appearedlong before it became the subject of scientific research.

People have the ability and need to work together, and this requirescoordination of their actions, coordination, cooperation, i.e. management of joint activities. At all stages of the formation of society, the problem of management was quite acute and many tried to solve it, but their works did not constitute a generalized theory. And only in the second half of the 19th century, after the victory of the industrial revolution in the West, the situation changed, because... large companies required a large number of top and middle managers capable of making competent management decisions, able to work with people, competent and able to balance their activities with existing laws.

The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that the central place in the process of solving many management problems in a school belongs to a person - the head of the school, who has to deal with the increasing complexity of new tasks and bear increasing responsibility for their solution and final results. And it is very important to find out how a school leader solves complex problems, what personal characteristics allow him to find optimal solutions, make him a professional in his field, and how to develop these qualities.

The problem of professionalism interests many scientists. Quite a number of empirical studies have been devoted to elucidating the influence of certain qualities on leadership effectiveness. Thus, as a result of enormous analytical work, Stogdill discovered significant discrepancies in research on the importance for successful leadership of such qualities as intelligence, eloquence, self-control, prudence, optimism, determination, etc. and at the same time, the qualities that contribute to the success of leaders often include energy, intelligence, social status, work motivation, dominance, self-confidence, social skills and responsibility.

Previously, in many management manuals and books on management, personality was not the subject of study, since all attention was paid to planning, economics, marketing, and the organizational and technical side. And only later, after realizing the role of groups and their constituent members in the labor process, they began to actively study the main characteristics of groups, the human factor, individual behavior and the personality of the leader.

Personality is the most important thing in a person, his most important social feature, if a person is a bearer of a variety of properties, then personality is his main property, in which his social essence is manifested and reflects the person’s affiliation with a certain society, a certain historical era, culture, science etc.

The importance of managers has now increased so much that in the West they talk about a “revolution of managers”, managers of the largest firms, corporations, the economic, scientific and technical significance of which in the world is comparable to the significance of large and medium-sized states.

The leader, as a subject of management, performs various roles, including the role of coordinator, organizer of members of a social group, exercises social influence in the team through various means, and uses clearly regulated subordination relationships. All this enhances the relevance of our research.

Purpose of the study: to study the professionally significant qualities of a leader, psychological characteristics and methods of shaping his personality.

Object of study: the process of forming the personality of a leader as a subject of management.

Subject of research: professionally significant qualities of a leader.

personality leader psychological gender

Research hypothesis: the effectiveness of a manager is directly dependent on the development of professionally significant personal qualities in him.

Research objectives:

.Study the personal qualities of a leader;

2.Highlight the main roles and functions of management and areas of managerial interaction.

.Determine methods for developing the psychological qualities of a leader’s personality.

Research methods: analysis of management literature, observation, testing.

Structure: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

Chapter 1. Personal qualities and abilities of a leader as a factor of his successful activity in the management system

§ 1.1 Psychological characteristics of the leader’s personality

Professionally trained leaders (managers) differfrom each other on leadership effectiveness. A survey of outstanding managers in Europe, the USA and Japan showed that they identified the following: factorsthat ensure success in management activities:

) a person’s desire and interest to engage in managerial activities;

) ability to work with people (communicate, interact, convince, influence them);

) flexibility, originality, originality of thinking;

) optimal combination of riskiness and responsibility in character;

) ability to foresee future developments, consequences of decisions, intuition;

) high professional competence and special management training.

The first five of the six most important factors for successful managers closelyassociated with the psychological qualities of the individual.

Qualities that are contraindicated for a manager are: increased sensitivity, high imbalance, and anxiety.

A manager's reasonable personal goals and clear personal values ​​can be highlighted as critical to success in his business career and personal life. V. Frankl in his book “Man’s Search for Meaning” identified three groups of positive meanings of values:

) values ​​of creativity;

) values ​​of experience;

) attitude values.

) The values ​​of creativity are realized through human labor. In his work, he expresses his abilities and individual characteristics, and brings a certain personal meaning to his work. A person’s understanding of the meaning of his work makes him creative and more productive.

) The values ​​of experience are manifested in a person’s sensitivity to various phenomena of the surrounding world - to people, nature (plants, animals). Psychologists understand the ability to empathize - empathy - as emotional responsiveness, sensitivity, attention to other people, their problems, joys and sorrows; desire to provide help and support. The development of empathy implies the development of humanistic values ​​of the individual, personal growth. Without this, complete self-realization of the individual is impossible. Empathy connects a person with the world of people and helps him not to feel his loneliness.

) Attitude values ​​are associated with a person’s reaction to the limitation of his capabilities when he finds himself at the mercy of circumstances that he cannot change. The measure of a person’s worth as an individual is how he feels about his fate, the hardships of life, failures, mistakes, and what position he takes in relation to them.V. Frankl notes that due to the presence of value relations, human existence cannot be meaningless. Thinking critically about your own mistakes without harsh criticism is a powerful psychological stimulus for gaining self-confidence. Everyone has the right to make mistakes (“they learn from mistakes”), but the consequences of mistakes must be analyzed as valuable experience from the past, a lesson that life has taught. Being overly critical of yourself interferes with creativity, self-expression, and creates a fear of failure in the future.

Each person fulfills his destiny, realizes the unique meaning of his life, focusing on different values. This helps him think about the meaning in life, which in itself is a normal manifestation of personal growth.

The effectiveness of a manager can be judged by certain criteria. The main criterion for assessing the performance of a manager is the final result of the work of the entire team, in which the efforts of both the manager and the performers are combined. From an economic point of view, this criterion determines the profit of an enterprise (organization). However, profit is not the only criterion for assessing the effectiveness of a manager. Along with it, there are others that can be divided into psychological and non-psychological, which have a close relationship.

Psychological criteria for leadership effectiveness include:

· psychological climate of the team;

· satisfaction team membership;

· motivation of team members;

· team self-esteem;

Non-psychological ones include:

· productivity, product quality;

· economical;

innovations;

· cost reduction;

·profitability;

· reducing staff turnover.

From a psychological point of view, management functions such as motivation and regulation (along with planning, organization, control) are the most significant. Internationally recognized authorities in the field of management note: "Business transactions can ultimately be reduced to designationin three words: people, product, profit. People come first. If you don't have a reliable team, then little can be done from other factors" (Lee Iacocca). "Respect the dignity of your subordinates, be considerate of them. Look at them, not capital investment or automation, as the main source of productivity" (T. Peters, K. Rothermea). "When you already have a staff consisting of trained, smart, energetic people, the next step is to stimulate their creativity" (A. Morita).

To encourage people to work well, conscientiously, energetically for the organization, the leader must:

) reduce the level of dissatisfaction of subordinates using motivation regulators;

) increase the level of satisfaction by strengthening the main motivators that stimulate the energy of subordinates.

The personal characteristics of a leader are directly related to his psyche, subjective qualities, innate, acquired or developedabilities. The leading place among them is occupied by intelligence, which characterizes mental abilities and personality development.

It has long been believed that, in general, a leader is smarter than his subordinates and the effectiveness of his activities directly depends on his intellectual level. However, research conducted in the 60s by the American industrial psychologist E. Ghiselli cast doubt on such ideas. Based on a summary of their results, he concluded that there is no direct connection between the level of intelligence and the effectiveness of leadership. The most significant results in management are achieved not by people with the highest or lowest level of intellectual development, but by people with average intellectual abilities.

A well-known confirmation of this conclusion were the results of research by Japanese companies T. Kono. They, in particular, showed that excellent students, having gone to work in Japanese corporations, as a rule, do not become top managers there. Kono explains this mainly by the fact that such students are not distinguished by the ability to establish relationships with other people, initiate and maintain collective actions in general. Skillthis kind of thing is one of the primary conditions for a business career V Japan.

Kono's idea about the complex nature of the influence of mental abilities on careers and leadership effectiveness was developed in detail by F. Fiedler and A. Leister. These scientists, based on their own research, came to the conclusion that the influence of intelligence on leadership effectiveness is mediated by a number of factors that can weaken the positive correlations with these parameters. These include: motivation, experience, relationships with senior management. The influence of intelligence on efficiency depends primarily on its motivation, desire to occupy high positions and achieve high results. For example, a manager with such a mindset may consider his motivation to be very relative, justifying it, for example, with the “frailty of earthly life”, the limited and “one-dimensionality” of the production role, the relativity of the values ​​of success, career, etc., the priority of other, non-production values ​​such as personal autonomy and freedom, intellectual or artistic creativity, communication with interesting people, leisure, etc.

High intellectual development is often combined with excessive reflection and individualism, a lack of self-confidence, determination, and some other qualities necessary for a career and effective leadership. In addition, managers who are not distinguished by particularly high intelligence, fearing for their authority, and even their position, often do not like those who are “too smart” and try to either get rid of them or delay their career growth, not allowing them to lead positions, so as not to make them potential competitors to yourself.

That is why, when assessing the role of intelligence in the activities of a leader, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of his mind, which are quite difficult to adequately determine using existing tests and techniques, as well as various factors that mediate the influence of intelligence. On average, managers have a higher level of intellectual development than their subordinates. Among them are many bright personalities and outstanding minds.

The intellectual level of a leader is associated with a number of his other most important qualities. The literature identifies very diverse personal qualities of a leader. A logically ordered and very reasonable list of them is offered by P.L. Krichevsky. Based on his classification, and on the materials of other authors, the most important personal qualities of an effective leader (in addition to the intelligence already discussed) include the following:

· dominance, i.e. desire to influence other people. This trait is directly related to leadership aspirations and management motivation;

· self confidence. A leader with this quality can be relied upon and trusted, and on the contrary, a leader who is unsure of himself, constantly doubting and hesitating does not inspire trust and is not able to unite and mobilize people to complete tasks;

· self-control, emotional balance and stress resistance. A manager must be able to control his behavior, regardless of emotions, not show personal bias or hostility towards individual employees, and be even and objective in his relationships with everyone. Of course, he, like any person, cannot help but experience positive and negative emotions. Constant suppression of emotions can negatively affect health and cause various types of neuroses, hypertension, ulcers and other diseases. Therefore, it is very important to find time for emotional release, which can be provided by sports, tourism, hobbies, active family and other communication, etc.;

· creativity, or the ability to create. A leader must be able to think independently, notice and support new things, look for more effective ways to complete tasks, and improve himself;

· purposefulness, desire to achieve a goal. Leaders often become goal-oriented people who set specific goals and persistently strive to achieve them. This is an important part of management motivation;

· entrepreneurship, willingness to take reasonable risks. In market conditions, a manager must have the ability to notice and calculate various options for action and, when appropriate, take risks, while trying to foresee the consequences as much as possible;

· determination, willingness to take responsibility. A leader who effectively carries out his managerial functions cannot turn to his superiors for any reason or prepare collective decisions that remove personal responsibility. He should not miss favorable opportunities to achieve goals, but must promptly stop negative actions and tendencies;

· reliability in relationships with subordinate management and clients. A leader who does not have such qualities loses the trust of others and cannot count on their support in any matter;

· social activist, ability to work with people. According to a number of studies, managers spend approximately three-quarters of their working time on verbal communication with people. If he does not know how to establish relationships with people, he will never achieve real success;

· the ability to make the most of employees through their proper placement and motivation. The individual efforts of a leader are not enough for the success of the organization, which depends on the maximum contribution of each employee and the overall complexity of the activities.

In order to optimally use the labor potential of employees, a manager must not only have personal charm, but also have a good knowledge of the individual capabilities and characteristics of his employees, and partly of senior management.

The named personal qualities of an effective leader are far from exhausting their complete list. They are significantly supplemented and specified by some other factors of a manager’s successful performance, in particular those established on the basis of a generalization of various studies and extensive literature by Finnish authors T. Santalainen, E. Voutilainen, P. Porenne, etc. Only partially repeating some of the already noted qualities, they They focus their attention not so much on general personality traits, but on the abilities of leaders mediated by training and practical experience. These include:

· effectiveness and desire to work hard to achieve goals;

· desire and ability to take responsibility for assigned tasks and make risky decisions;

· willingness to initiate change processes, manage them and use them in the interests of the organization;

· willingness to use an open and collaborative management style;

· the art of making quick decisions;

· ability to focus on the present and future;

· the ability to see and exploit changes occurring both within and outside the organization;

· readiness for close social relationships;

· readiness for general leadership;

· creative approach to your work;

· constant self-improvement and good general mental and physical shape;

· the ability to use your time correctly;

· willingness to motivate yourself and your staff;

· Willingness to work under the leadership of well-trained, professional staff;

· readiness for political leadership;

· international outlook.

Of course, this is not a complete list of the qualities of effective leadership - there are many more. But hardly all leaders, even quite successful ones, have such a solid set of qualities. Some of them are not necessarily required from every leader, for example, the need for an “international outlook” depends on the characteristics of certain countries and enterprises. It certainly should be possessed by, say, heads of joint ventures, international organizations, etc.

For practical work on the formation of effective leadership, it is important to know not so much the general positive qualities of a leader, but rather their real significance for typical situations in personnel management.

§ 1.2 Gender characteristics of the leader’s personality

Of particular importance are biological and demographic qualities that are innate or inherited. First of all, this applies to such demographic parameters as gender and age, and to a certain extent, health. The most common characteristic of managers, by which they are divided into two groups that are clearly unequal in size, is gender.

Traditionally, research in the field of personnel management focused on the male leader, considering this a kind of standard, since it was men who at all times clearly dominated among managers, both in public service and in business. In recent decades, the influence of gender differences on work and career, especially the behavior of women in organizations, has become the object of a number of special studies. Based on their results, we can distinguish two groups of factors that determine the characteristics of women’s organizational behavior:

)sociocultural factors, which include socially accepted standards of behavior, established role stereotypes in relation to men and women, traditions, primarily family ones, influencing the formation of value orientations, attitudes and expectations (expectations) of women;

2)actual sexual, biological and psychological factors.

The role of sociocultural factors is manifested in the fact that the vast majority of women, from childhood, are focused on a relatively modest social status, the values ​​of family and personal life, raising children and helping their husbands. Society and others also expect women to primarily fulfill these social roles. The presence of this kind of orientation of women and stereotypical perception of the female role by men is confirmed by a number of studies.

Thus, according to observations of the behavior of jurors conducted by American psychologists F. Strodtbeck and R. Marr, men are much more active than women in the discussion preceding the adoption of a judicial decision. Research by E. Eriz also showed that in mixed laboratory groups, when solving common problems, men were the initiators of 66% of all communicative acts. In general, many studies confirm that women have a weaker desire to become a woman and perseverance in achieving this goal. This attitude of women can be explained, first of all, by the clearly prevailing expectations in society that a man will perform the functions of a leader and the weak readiness to accept a woman in this role.

This conclusion is confirmed, in particular, by laboratory experiments conducted by the American psychologist R. Rais. He examined the attitudes of male cadets at a military academy to explain the reasons for the success of female leaders. For this purpose, all male participants in the experiment were divided into groups of three people. One part of the groups was led by men, the other by women. After summing up the results of the laboratory task by different groups, men were inclined to attribute the success of groups led by representatives of the “weaker sex” to luck and chance. At the same time, the successes of groups that were then led by men were attributed mainly to the personal qualities of their leaders.

Taking into account such stereotypes is important for women managers, who, in order to effectively lead, have to actually prove the “normality” of their presence in the role of “boss”. For men, such evidence is usually not required.

The second group of factors that determine the characteristics of a woman leader’s behavior is manifested in a greater dependence of her mood and mental state in general on physiological cycles, in being burdened with natural concerns about the family, giving birth and raising children, in less emotional balance and impartiality, in stronger than in men, the coloring of business relationships in personal tones and the perception of employees through the prism of likes and dislikes.

The identification of these empirically supported characteristics of women on leadership effectiveness is not uniformly interpreted in the scientific literature. Some authors generally tend to view them as advantages rather than disadvantages. “Many assumptions that female managers are significantly different from male managers,” says F. Denmark, “are not at all supported by data. As a rule, researchers agree on the existence of only one difference, namely women's greater interest in relationships between people; but this should be considered a plus in terms of leadership effectiveness. Claims about differences between the sexes in abilities, attitudes, personality traits are based more on left-wing stereotypes than on the results of empirical research - leaders ".

American researchers A. Eagly and B. Johnson agree to a certain extent with F. Denmark’s positive interpretation of psychological characteristics. Based on an analysis of the relevant literature, they concluded that female managers are more “soft,” “humane,” superior in understanding the personal problems of employees, and committed to a democratic leadership style.”

However, despite positive assessments of the psychological characteristics of female managers, most researchers adhere to the opposite point of view and consider their increased emotionality and personal orientation in business relationships as a negative factor in effective leadership, which, however, can be neutralized through persistent work on oneself, training and experience . For recognition by the group and effectiveness of female leadership, it is necessary to develop: high resistance to frustrations and emotional outbursts, to be more “thick-skinned”

Of course, the noted characteristics of female managers should not be considered as inevitable shortcomings of all representatives of the fairer sex with organizational power. History knows many examples when women leaders were distinguished by a high degree of rationalism, composure, determination and will. Moreover, facts of this kind abound not only in industrial activity, but also in politics, which provides examples of effective female leadership in the highest government positions (suffice it to recall the example of the “Iron Lady” - former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher).

And yet, women are quite poorly represented in positions of managers and heads of public services. Undoubtedly, there are considerable reserves in attracting women to leadership positions in business, politics and other fields of activity, even in the most advanced countries in terms of women’s emancipation. However, equalizing the representation of women in leadership positions would be detrimental to production, women themselves and humanity as a whole, since in the historically established - according to gender differences - social division of labor, women are clearly indispensable in performing such functions that are paramount for the existence of the entire human race, such as its reproduction (despite to well-known experiments on growing children “in test tubes” using genetic engineering), emotional education of children, creating a healthy full-fledged family. These functions are no less important for society and citizens than women's management.

What has been said about the influence of women’s natural characteristics on the social division of managerial and executive labor, of course, should not be taken as an argument in favor of any discrimination against women or making it difficult for them to access leadership positions. Women, like men, may well be talented, effective leaders and find their calling and satisfaction in this type of activity.

The second most important demographic characteristic affecting leadership effectiveness is age.

The impact of this factor on leadership activity, as in the case of gender, can only be discussed in general, average terms, taking into account quite frequent exceptions to the general rules, which are explained by the individual characteristics of people, as well as the specifics of various organizations. Therefore, modern science cannot always unambiguously answer the question about the optimal age for starting, flourishing and ending a business career as a manager.

In management practice, it is essentially the generally accepted opinion that the level of the position held generally correlates with age: higher leadership positions require a more mature age, of course, to a certain extent. Many management structures, primarily the army and bureaucrats, clearly regulate the occupation of high positions in the service hierarchy by experienced people with extensive organizational experience. For example, holding a general position in the army in peacetime is practically impossible not only at the age of twenty, but, as a rule, at the age of thirty-five.

In business, the age factor is not so strictly regulated. However, here too there is a pattern of people of very mature age occupying high positions. Thus, according to materials collected and summarized by T. Kono, the average age of presidents of large companies in the manufacturing industry in Japan is 63.5 years, in the USA - 59 years. Vice presidents of industrial companies are somewhat younger. In the 70s and 80s, their average age was approximately 55.7 years in Japan, and almost the same in the United States. Moreover, in Japanese companies, 66% of all new appointments to high management positions occur at the age of 50-56 years. Managers hold the position of company president for an average of 8 years, while their total duration of work in the corporation is about 30 years.

In Japan, there are relatively many effective company managers at a very mature age - over 70 years old, although even here some corporations, for example, the world famous electronics company Sony Corporation, limit the age limit for holding senior management positions to 65 years. Similar restrictions are widespread in Europe and America.

Both young and old age have their advantages and disadvantages that affect the effectiveness of leadership. The main advantages of young managers are usually energy, high susceptibility to innovation and entrepreneurship, good health and high efficiency. At the same time, they are inferior to their older colleagues in experience, specific human capital - knowledge, especially knowledge of the specifics of the organization, composure, wisdom, and the ability to distinguish the main from the secondary. As the famous American billionaire, president of the American company Occidental Petroleum, A. Hammer, wrote, “if you are lucky and live to be eighty-eight years old without losing the ability to think and feel, then you have one advantage - you know for sure that in your life what is important and what is secondary. II know clearly what I want to achieve in the time remaining to me, and if my goals are more difficult to achieve than the goals of many other people, this means that I will have to work harder." This tireless entrepreneur himself continued to successfully manage the company at the age of eighty, although his first million he earned money at the age of 21, combining his studies at the university with the management of a small pharmaceutical company.

There are quite a lot of similar examples demonstrating the possibility of effective leadership, both in old and young age. When solving practical personnel problems, as well as issues of age regulation for leadership positions in general, it is necessary to take into account, in addition to individual qualities, the characteristics of the field of activity. In those areas (mainly in the civil service) where there are no mechanisms for competitive selection of personnel, and it is difficult to determine clear criteria for their activities, accounting for work experience, as well as regulation of the age limit, are especially necessary. In the same place (primarily in business), where the effectiveness of management is regularly tested by competition, and the results of activity are quite tangible and can be assessed quite accurately, establishing direct (age limit for occupying a position) and indirect (presence of a certain track record) is inappropriate. So, Lee Iacocca says: “if a person at the age of 65 can still work and cope well with his duties, why should he resign? A retired manager has worked in the company for a long time, knows everything about it. For many years he has comprehended. If a person is physically healthy and has a burning desire to do his job, why not use his experience and knowledge?"

Health is an important factor in effective leadership. This means not only physical, but also spiritual and moral health, which characterizes the state of the human spirit: stable fundamental moral values, mental balance, resistance to stress, etc.

Health directly affects not only the age parameters of a person’s ability to work, prolongs the active period of life, but is also a necessary condition for everyday effective activity. leader. The working day of a manager and any other leader usually far exceeds the officially established 7-8 hours. It often lasts 14 or more hours a day and is also associated with high nervous and emotional stress. Therefore, a healthy lifestyle, physical education, tourism, sports, and regular psychological relaxation are the most important components of effective leadership, which should not be neglected. The predominantly objective factors of effective guidance include the socio-economic status of a person, his status in society, and the education he has received. Research clearly confirms the direct dependence of holding leadership positions on a person’s social origin and status. As noted by F.E. Fiedler, "the best way to become president of a company is to be born into a family that owns the company." Of course, this does not mean that only children of high-ranking parents occupy leadership positions. History knows many counter-examples, even among high positions in business and politics. However, a positive correlation between socio-economic status and entry into the leadership cadre still occurs.

This is largely due to such an indicator of social status as education. People from wealthy families are more likely to get a good education and find promising jobs than children of wealthy parents. In general, education is one of the leading factors in occupying leadership positions and effective leadership. This is confirmed by numerous studies.

Education occupies an intermediate position between the objective and subjective, personal characteristics of leadership, since its receipt depends both on the socio-economic status, wealth of a person, and on his individual abilities, primarily on the level of intelligence.

Chapter 2. Methods for developing the personality of an effective leader

§ 2.1 Roles and functions of the manager

Leadership is a mental and physical activity, the purpose of which is the implementation by subordinates of the actions prescribed to them and the solution of certain tasks.

A leader is a position that allows a person to have certain powers and use the power given to him. To effectively manage an organization, a manager must have leadership influence and certain personal qualities. However, a manager does not become a leader only because of these qualities.

A modern leader (manager) is at the same time:

1)a manager with authority;

2)a leader capable of leading his subordinates (using his authority, positive emotions, high professionalism);

)a diplomat who establishes contacts with partners and authorities and successfully overcomes internal and external conflicts;

)an educator with high moral qualities, capable of creating a team and directing its development in the right direction;

)an innovator who understands the role of science in the modern business world, who knows how to evaluate and immediately implement know-how, inventions, and rational proposals into production;

)simply a person with deep knowledge, extraordinary abilities, a high level of culture, honesty, decisiveness of character, strong will, but at the same time, prudence, the ability to be an example in all respects.

The activities of a leader are characterized by certain psychological characteristics.

The first of them is that a manager, in accordance with his functions, must perform work that is varied in the content of professional activity, while the ability of one person to master various types of activities is limited and complicated by contradictions.

The second feature of a manager’s activity, from a psychological point of view, is increased responsibility for the state of resources (equipment, buildings, structures; provision of production with raw materials and materials; work with personnel, etc.), as well as for the results of activities (worn out equipment, problems with sales, non-payments from suppliers and other similar problems increase the psychological burden on managers).

The third feature is that the work of a manager is always creative, resulting in management decisions that influence results. But making effective decisions is often complicated by a lack of funds, a lack of information on the main problems, and a lack of qualified performers.

The fourth feature of a manager’s activity, from a psychological point of view, is the performance of communicative functions, since management activity is associated with communication and constant work with people. Knowledge in the field of communication psychology is necessary for a manager to effectively perform these functions.

The fifth feature of a leader’s activity is his high general neuropsychic tension.

The psychological characteristics of a leader’s activities make it possible to imagine a certain psychological structure corresponding to him, including a set of characteristics: organizational abilities; communication skills; moral and ethical characteristics of attitude towards other people; motivational factors; volitional sphere; "practical" intelligence; personal character; emotional sphere; psychodynamic characteristics; gender and age characteristics.

The basis of the psychological structure of a leader’s personality is his organizational abilities. Specialists from the school of Professor L.I. Umansky, who deals with problems of managerial psychology, identifies three substructures of organizational abilities:

.Organizational insight or “feeling” of a manager, including: a) psychological selectivity (the ability to put oneself in the place of another, attention to the intricacies of relationships); b) practical orientation of intelligence (using the psychological state of the team in solving practical problems); c) psychological tact (i.e. the ability to maintain a sense of proportion in one’s psychological selectivity and pragmatic orientation);

2.Emotional-volitional effectiveness or hypnotism of “impressiveness”, the ability to influence others with will and emotions. This ability consists of such factors as: a) energy, the ability to charge subordinates with your enthusiasm; b) exactingness, the ability to get one’s way from subordinates, using psychologically competent techniques that are adequate to the requirements for subordinates; c) criticality, the ability to detect and evaluate deviations from the intended goal in the activities of performers.

.A penchant for organizational activity or readiness for organizational activity, ranging from motivation to professional preparedness, as well as well-being in the process of organizational activity, i.e. "tone", satisfaction and performance.

The effectiveness of leadership is largely determined by the compliance of the individual traits of the leader with the roles and functions that he is called upon to perform in the organization. In the most general, integrated form, the requirements for a leader are reflected in the social roles prescribed to him by the organization. The literature identifies a different number of such roles. For example, the American scientist V. Ansoff indicates four main roles of a leader:

)the role of the leader. In this case, we mean an informal leader with high authority and the ability to influence other people. The effectiveness of an organization largely depends on the use of leadership qualities. As G. Koontz and S. O'Donnell note, “If subordinates are guided only by the rules and needs established by management, they may work at about 60 or 65% of their capabilities, simply performing their duties satisfactorily enough to keep their job. To achieve full use of the abilities of subordinates, the leader must evoke an appropriate response from them by exercising leadership. "The productivity of personnel depends on leadership by 30-35%.

2)administrator role. This role presupposes the manager’s ability to control the state of affairs, make decisions and achieve their implementation, organize and coordinate the actions of subordinates, ensure order, compliance with legal and administrative norms and orders;

)the role of the planner. The main tasks of this role are to optimize the future activities of the organization by analyzing trends in changes, both of the organization itself and its environment; identification of management alternatives and selection of the best ones; concentration of resources on the main areas of the organization's activities. The planner must have an analytical mind, be methodical in his work and focus on the future;

)the role of the entrepreneur. Acting in this role, the manager must be an experimenter, find new types of activities, non-standard solutions that are most appropriate to the situation, must be prepared for a certain entrepreneurial risk, while minimizing it in every possible way.

A more detailed and, probably, closer to Russian conditions classification of manager roles is given by the author of the textbook “Personnel Management. Functions and Methods.” They call these roles this way, while simultaneously revealing their content:

)“thinker” - a general understanding of the state of affairs in the department, the search for optimal ways to solve problems;

2)staff worker - processing management information and drawing up documentation;

3)"organizer" - coordinating the work of employees;

4)"personnel officer" - selection, placement, evaluation of personnel;

)“educator” - training and motivation of staff;

)“supply” - providing the group with everything necessary for work;

)“social activist” - participation as a moderator at meetings and conferences; work with public organizations;

)“innovator” - the introduction of advanced labor methods and scientific and technical achievements into production;

)“controller” - control over compliance with organizational standards and product quality;

)"diplomat" - establishing connections with other institutions and their representatives.

Let's look at the functions of a leader.

The social roles of the leader are detailed and manifested in his functions. In the literature, there are quite diverse classifications of managerial functions. The following functions of a manager can be distinguished:

· assessment of the situation, development, justification (i.e. finding out how realistic, understandable and controllable the goals are) and setting goals;

· identifying and preparing activities to achieve goals;

· coordinating the activities of employees in accordance with common goals;

· control over personnel compliance of the results of their activities with the assigned tasks;

· organization of employee activities, i.e. use of existing and creation of new organizational structures or management of personnel and their activities;

· informing employees;

· interactive, contact interaction (communication) business communication for the purpose of obtaining information, consulting, providing assistance, etc.;

· formation of employee incentive systems and their motivation;

· delegation of tasks, competence and responsibility;

· conflict prevention and resolution;

· dissemination of organization-specific values ​​and norms;

· caring for subordinates and ensuring their loyalty;

· forming a cohesive team and maintaining its capacity;

· reducing the feeling of uncertainty in the actions of personnel and ensuring organizational stability.

As can be seen from the above list of managerial functions, they differ significantly in their complexity and scope of activity, and partially overlap. Some authors combine these and some other functions into two main functions: 1) achieving a group goal;

) cohesion of the group and concern for its preservation. Let's look at these functions in a little more detail.

Achieving a group goal. This includes all functions related to defining group goals and objectives, as well as mobilizing employees for their implementation:

· setting goals and defining the roles of individual team members;

· identifying problems that arise during the implementation of tasks;

· coordination of group activities;

· planning and organizational preparation of group meetings, including determining their composition;

· formation of “normal” group communications (for example, conversations with specialists, obtaining comprehensive information about the state of affairs of each group member, etc.);

· identifying and clarifying unclear issues;

· monitoring compliance with temporary plans and summarizing intermediate results;

· checking the correctness of perception and interpretation of information received by group members;

· methodological assistance to employees and assistance in developing their initiative and creative approach in solving problems;

· providing employees with future work taking into account their capabilities and desires;

· development of mutual assistance when performing difficult tasks and in unforeseen situations;

· regular summing up of individual work results;

· concern for advanced training and mastery of related professions;

· development of external relations of the group and preparation of relevant information;

· acquisition of financial and all other resources necessary for work.

2. Unity of the group and concern for its preservation. The content of this general function includes solving problems related to ensuring the optimality and constancy of team members, with the establishment of intra-group relations, including relations between group members and the leader. These tasks include:

· detection and elimination of emotional tension in group relationships;

· notification of group norms, rules of the game (for example, honesty and sincerity in relationships) and timely reminders of them;

· protection and encouragement of “quiet” team members, inhibition of the desire of overly active employees to dominate and oppress more modest ones;

· conflict resolution;

· protecting individual employees from those who violate their personal dignity;

· development of healthy collectivism, mutual trust and solidarity, goodwill and the desire to find compromises;

· all support for group meetings;

· an attentive and tolerant attitude towards employees when resolving issues that arise when working together in a team (correct understanding of common goals, opportunities, problems, etc.);

· employee motivation;

· initiating constructive criticism.

The functions of a leader are a measure of assessing his individual qualities, which are designed to contribute to his successful implementation of all social roles and areas of activity. Depending on the same order or proximity, various characteristics and qualities of a leader that affect the effectiveness of his activities can be combined into two general groups: biological and socio-economic characteristics and personal qualities, which we talked about earlier.

§ 2.2 Methods for forming the psychological components of a leader’s personality

Modern training methods cover all characteristics of intelligence. Unfortunately, there is no way to look at them even briefly. Therefore, we will only point out that in our time the systems of exercises and tasks that make up what is called intellectual gymnastics are so effective that training according to a pre-designed program may not bring benefit only to that person who does not have sufficient desire to improve and, accordingly, diligence in bringing the matter to a successful conclusion.

Principles and techniques of memory enhancement.

It is generally accepted that memory is the basis of personality. Loss of memory is a person’s loss of his “I”, his individuality. Memory is a condition for the implementation of any processes in the human psyche. The inability to hold any information in one’s head means the impossibility of thinking about this information, the inability to navigate the world around a person. Just as an internal combustion engine cannot operate without fuel, and an electric motor without electricity, so thinking cannot be carried out without informational “fuel”, without what the human brain holds in its storerooms. In addition, memory is such a fundamental characteristic of a person that its improvement affects almost all other intellectual abilities of people.

Before you begin memory training, you should firmly understand that:

)To improve memorization, you need to know the features of your memory, its type, capacity, accuracy, strength of fixation of the material, and readiness to reproduce it. This is the first principle of memory training - the principle of individuality;

2)memory cannot be improved at all; it is necessary to firmly establish: for what purposes it is necessary to improve memory. This is captured by the principle of target training;

3)any characteristics of memory improve if the object of memorization is a subject of your personal interest, if it affects any important conditions of your life. This is the third principle - the principle of interest (some scientists call it the principle of egoism);

)memorization and reproduction are directly dependent on the frequency of use of the material that needs to be mastered. This is the fourth principle - the principle of activity;

5)Memorization capabilities depend on the number of elements of the material intended for memorization: it has been revealed that their number should not exceed seven. Grouping material taking into account this fact is prescribed by the principle of seven.

Following these principles can significantly improve your memory ability. In fact, if you know the peculiarity of your memory, have or arouse in yourself a great interest in the subject of memorization, repeatedly and in different ways use what you need to remember, group the material so that the number of blocks does not exceed the “magic” number seven, - you have already ensured a strong hold or greater ability to hold firmly and reproduce the material quickly.

If we also know some memorization techniques, the niche of the ability to remember increases many times.

The most important technique for improving memorization is unloading memory through the use of so-called external memory. This is a computer, simple notebooks, electronic notebooks, diaries and weeklies, cards, tables, diagrams, magnetic tapes, etc. and so on. It is rightly said that an unwritten thought is a lost treasure. To better remember what you need to constantly carry in your head, you need to free it from the need to record everything that can be put into external memory. Moreover, the effectiveness of the latter is higher, the more organized and systematic it is, and the better it performs the function of an anticipatory (pre-notifying) reminder. External memory means then bring success when they are organized into a system that is convenient specifically for a given person.

The second technique is to organize your workplace and your living environment according to the rule - every thing has its place. This seemingly very simple technique is fraught with great potential for freeing physical memory from unnecessary effort. The adherents of this approach - the British - provide many examples of high memory efficiency due to the organization of the workplace.

The third technique, called the contrast method, consists of either organizing (creating) a contrasting background for memorizing the material, or finding paradoxical formulations to express what needs to be remembered, or considering (parsing, analyzing) material that is directly opposite in meaning to that which designed for memorization. How difficult it can sometimes be to remember “smooth” material that does not contain any surprises or at least roughness. When they say “A dog bit a man,” it may be remembered, but most likely it will be quickly forgotten. It’s another matter when someone brings the following news: “A man bit a dog.” If it is indicated who this person is (say, the resident from apartment 25), and where exactly the dog bit (say, on the left hind leg), most people will remember this forever. The statement that in our age an integrated approach to the objects of science is necessary is many times inferior in memorability to the statement “If a person knows chemistry well and only chemistry, then he does not know chemistry either.” The short and figurative “Paradox is a quadrilateral triangle” is much stronger than the long and “smooth” explanation of the essence of this logical phenomenon. Another example. A prominent memory specialist, Bruno Furst, cites a rather interesting, easy-to-remember case of contrasting presentation of information. In his book “Learn to Remember,” the following picture is reproduced: the leader of an American Indian tribe in brightly colored national clothes sits behind a modern office desk covered with telephones. It is impossible not to pay attention to this picture and not remember what is depicted in it.

Has great mnemonic power recoding method. Its meaning is to present (record, depict) material, as psychologists say, in another language, in one that has some advantages over the original one or, at least, is close to a person. A striking, long-known example of recoding can be at least the following. When the order of colors in the spectrum is remembered using the easily reproduced phrase "every - hunter - wants - to know - where - the - pheasant sits" (red - orange - yellow - green - blue - indigo - violet), then this is nothing more than a method recoding in action. A special case of the recoding method is a technique called likening (or analogy). It is very simple and at the same time quite effective. If you can find some similarity to the subject of memorization: “It looks like this” - this is already some basis for a strong fixation.

When we explain what representatives of mental abilities are, we liken them to symptoms in medicine, indicators in technology, evidence in legal practice. As a rule, this is quite enough for the idea of ​​the represent to remain in memory.

In the same row is a technique that can be called the method of figurative definitions. If we conclude the explanation of the essence of the nature of God with the words JI. Feuerbach that God is the projection of man into heaven,” there is no doubt that this statement will be engraved in the memory in the same way as, say, the “definition” of a model as a substitute object of study. The phrase of V. S. Chernomyrdin is remembered immediately: “ We wanted the best, but it turned out as always." Experts have dubbed this method of memorization the method of absurdities.

A very powerful memorization technique is to predict the consequences of the fact that we will not remember what we need to remember. The question is simple: what happens if we don’t remember some material? The more consequences that affect your interests you can draw from this fact, the more likely it is that you will retain in your memory the material intended to be remembered. For example, you need to remind the time of a business meeting with a work colleague. From the fact that you forget and do not come to that date, many conclusions can be drawn: firstly, the discussion of an issue that is interesting to you will be disrupted; secondly, your friend who must come to the meeting will be put in a difficult position, since the fate of his proposal (rationalization, for example) depends on your decision; thirdly, your prestige as a neat and punctual person will be undermined. In addition to these consequences, consequences can be derived from consequences, that is, the consequences of the fact that you forget to come to a meeting. When such mental work leads you to a clear understanding of the importance of the consequences of the weakness of your memory for you or for your close circle, there is no doubt that the material necessary for memorization will be recorded Vthe brain is quite reliable. Of course, it is possible to predict consequences not only from the fact that we will not remember the material. A forecast of the consequences of what we remember, a forecast of those benefits (conveniences, advantages) that we received, can also contribute to memorization if these consequences are significant enough.

From a practical point of view, a memorization method called minimization is interesting. In one case, this is the reduction of material to something easily understandable using “editorial editing” or through its creative alteration. In another, a lettering technique can be used - recording some textual material using the first letters of the statement (sentence, definition, formulation) that needs to be remembered. (The name of the now well-known quantum light generator “laser” is a construction from the first letters of the words that make up a phrase explaining what this word means). In the third case, the material is rearranged to strengthen the connections between its constituent elements and abbreviations of unimportant details. There can be many minimization techniques. But the use of all must obey the principle of seven - the number of elements (blocks) that must be remembered should not exceed seven.

Intellectual training does not consist in a theoretical study of the essence of the techniques presented, but in practical training that ensures such a level of memory development when the use of these techniques becomes automatic or almost automatic.

We are far from exhausting everything that could be said about ways to enhance memory. But our task is different - to give an example of general intellectual gymnastics exercises.

Quick reading.

The choice of reading as an object of consideration is not connected with the fashion for “dynamic reading”, but is based on an understanding of the need to provide people with at least some psychological means to “fight” against the excess of information that is so characteristic of our time.

So much knowledge has accumulated, the pace of its growth is so great that practically no specialist is able to master the necessary minimum of information if he does not master the accelerated reading method. The leader suffers from an excess of both strategic and current information, perhaps more than anyone else. Various measures are being taken to make it easier for managers and specialists to work with information. This includes the creation of information services, and the optimization of the procedure for presenting documents, and the reduction of the size of publications (books, articles, brochures), and the compilation of literature reviews, and abstracting, etc. and so on. But all this does not replace the need to read.

Practice has put forward, and theory has substantiated, the need to accelerate human perception of information from any source. Systems for dynamic (high-speed) reading of literature have emerged. These systems are based on a generalization of the experience of some outstanding individuals who had phenomenal abilities to quickly perceive and reliably assimilate the necessary information.

The basis of dynamic reading methods is overcoming the so-called phonic barrier (external or internal pronunciation of the text being read). The essence of speed reading is block perception of texts in the absence of regression (going back).

The real effect of learning dynamic reading is to speed up reading by 4-6 times. At the same time, the skill of fast reading is consolidated in 80-90% of students.

To date, more than 3 million people in the world have already taken speed reading courses, working in various fields of mental work (mainly managers of various ranks and scientists).

The quick reading technique practically boils down to instructions to act as follows:

)use only the visual channel of information perception;

2)to see a word not as a series of letters, but as a separate sign based on its general outlines (psychologically this is reminiscent of recognizing a person’s face at one glance without going through individual features);

)perceive not even words at once, but several layers or phrases;

)move your gaze not from left to right, but from top to bottom in the middle of the page (along a conventional line dividing the page in half); to capture as much text as possible on the sides of the conventional line, use the so-called “peripheral vision”;

5)do not allow any backtracking during reading.

Auxiliary means of teaching fast reading are special devices built to teach people to recognize texts with a short exposure time to the material. There are two types of such devices. One - with discrete presentation of information - is a panel with a window, the curtain of which is opened using a simple device for a strictly defined time. Reducing the exposure time (the time the curtain is open) “forces” and teaches a person to grasp the meaning of the presented information in an accelerated manner. With the consolidation of this skill, the ability to grasp and comprehend any material is acquired in a period that is 2, 3, 4 times shorter than at the beginning of training.

A device with continuous presentation of information is a simple broaching mechanism that moves a tape with natural text in accordance with a specified speed. At the initial moment, the speed of the text should not be very high (it should allow the student to read at a speed corresponding to his natural reading pace - this is the habituation stage). Very soon you can change the speed, gradually bringing it to the maximum possible. Getting used to the consistently accelerating process of moving a tape with text and acquiring a solid skill in perceiving and understanding material at speeds 6-8 times higher than the original ones will mean that you can move on to reading ordinary texts (without devices).

In the absence of devices that forcibly control the speed of perception of material, learning to read at speed is also possible. But in such cases, the function of the devices must be taken over by the human psyche, which complicates learning and lengthens its duration.

Empirical testsrevealed the greater effectiveness of dynamic reading methods. In the case of quick reading, on average more than 80% of the material is remembered, while in “regular” reading it is about 20%. This effect is obtained due to the fact that during the process of fast reading there is practically no distraction of attention to any disturbances. In an experiment with a group of already trained people who were given texts of varying difficulty and content for quick reading, a variety of disturbances were created around them (loud noises, screams, music of different content, claps and even shots from a gas pistol). After finishing reading, they were all asked the same thing: “Did anything bother you while reading?” The answer for all 28 subjects was negative. Another question was asked: “Did you notice anything unusual for the library reading room where the experiment took place?” (It is known that loud noises are not allowed in reading rooms.) Only one of the 28 subjects remembered that one of the doors of the hall was open and the other was closed. One hundred percent concentration on information. Not the weakest training in the ability to fully concentrate on the material!

In the process of numerous dynamic reading trainings, some shortcomings of the accelerated reading system itself were revealed, namely:

)fast reading is a weakly critical process;

2)it does not evoke very many associations;

3)if it is taught without worrying about the need to develop creativity, a person is raised with the characteristic signs of dogmatic thinking;

4)accelerated uncritical accumulation of information increases the dependence of the creative capabilities of a specialist’s intellect on his own erudition, sometimes so much that for some workers this leads to the loss of the ability to creatively solve problems due to the inhibition of creative thinking by an excessive mass of information.

Discrete reading.

In order to neutralize the harmful effects of high-speed honorniya, a method of slow (creative) reading, as we called it, was developed. The main goal of the technique is to develop the ability to creatively perceive the material being read and creatively generate new ideas based on and in the process of reading.

The methodology consists of three parts, fixing different levels of requirements for the student.

1. Recognition. The main thing here is a meaningful determination of the place of the perceived material in the system of previously accumulated knowledge, the establishment of connections between this material and information from other documents being studied at the same time. At the recognition stage, it is recommended to try to find internal connections of various elements of the perceived material, highlight the main thing in it, establish the subordination of various elements of the text, find places (concepts, definitions, statements) that are related to the subject of one’s own activity, turn the material (or part of it) into element of one's own knowledge system. A good help in this work is the use of so-called “marginalia” (icons for making notes in the margins of texts), with the help of which it is possible to record, say, the significance of the material for you or for your colleagues, or originality, grace, courage of thought, high accuracy, incomprehensibility, the need to discuss with someone, the opportunity to use, etc. and so on. A “variegated” synopsis is also useful, that is, writing the material in different colors of ink, different fonts, using different horizontal and vertical shifts of the material, different spacing between letters, words, lines, etc. to highlight the meaning of texts. (by the way, colorful notes are a good way to enhance our ability to remember).

2. Minimization, as noted above, is the reduction of material without distorting the meaning by the “method of editorial editing” or the method of recoding (arranging the material with your own words). The apparent simplicity of minimization should not lead to a simplified view of the work that needs to be done to reduce material. The whole point is that as a result of minimization there is no distortion of meaning. And for this you need to have a clear understanding of the meaning of its individual elements. The results of this stage are well monitored by comparing the conclusions obtained by people reading the original and already processed material. The similarity of these conclusions despite a fairly large difference in text volumes is an indicator of the high level of work performed.

3. Generation is the process of putting forward new ideas based on “subtracted” ones by combining them, extrapolation, interpolation, finding system-forming relationships, etc. This stage, generation, is especially responsible. There are many recommendations, the implementation of which makes it possible to “produce” ideas based on what has been read. Here is the redevelopment of the material (the establishment of connections in the text that are different from those of the author), and the prediction of consequences arising from the ideas of the text, and the restructuring of one’s own system of ideas, taking into account new material, and the explanation of the perceived material from other (not contained in the text) principles, and developing an opposing position, and “compromising” the ideas and/or arguments contained in the text, etc. and so on. With all the variety of actions, the main thing should not be missed - as a result of these actions, new ideas, new approaches, new arguments, new schemes, new projects and the like should appear.

Some historical example of creative reading is the technique used to develop problem-solving ability by the famous French mathematician and philosopher Descartes, who liked to think for himself rather than study the findings of others. Having become familiar with the main idea of ​​a new book, he closed it on the very first pages and loved to independently think about getting to the author’s conclusions, which ended with a comparison of the results obtained with the results from the book.

If learning speed reading is preceded by learning the method of slow (creative) reading, the negative consequences mentioned above do not appear. Moreover, the combination of these techniques contains great reserves for developing the ability not only to quickly navigate the world of information, but also to quickly solve a wide variety of creative problems. The experiments carried out show that learning to read (both fast and slow) is an essential basis for the development of creative thinking. By teaching us to read creatively and quickly, we thereby refute in practice the well-known saying about the futility of trying to keep up with two birds with one stone.

The described techniques are useful only when the person who has mastered them understands that reading at different speeds is no less important than reading quickly. It’s one thing to look at a text in order to search for material necessary for practical needs, another thing to look for your own original solution to a problem, and a very special case is to read a psychological novel. You can quickly read both a business document and a work of fiction. But the loss of an irreplaceable psychological flavor, without which a full-fledged experience is impossible, in the case of quick reading of fiction can hardly be compensated for by anything. In this light, the question of high-speed reading of works designed to excite certain emotions, designed to include the reader among the “participants” (empathizers) of the events that are the subject of the author’s imagination, cannot be considered resolved. Most likely, this kind of work should be read at a “normal” speed, at least until we learn not only to read faster, but also. worry faster. It is now clear that being able to read at different speeds is just as important as reading quickly.

How to develop thinking.

In various psychological trainings for managers, thinking training occupies a special place. Indeed, all things being equal, the result of a manager’s work ultimately depends on whether his thinking is capable of “giving out” a solution to the problem and ensuring the adoption of a good management decision.

But the problems are different. And this means that you need to have a fairly clear idea for what purposes to develop thinking, to solve what type of problems you should prepare it for.

What all problems have in common is that their solution, if they are real problems and not pseudo-problems, requires creative abilities; it is necessary to develop, first of all, the creative principles of the individual, which will certainly be refracted in specific acts of mental activity. What is also common is that when solving any problems, routine work techniques are rarely or often, but always used: stereotypes, algorithms, schemes, rules for processing information.

Consequently, when moving to intellectual training, it is impossible to bypass the development of human thinking and the skills to work “according to templates.”

The combination of the main, creative, with stereotypical, stereotyped thinking can give the effect of creative use of stereotypical thinking techniques and the rapid introduction of creative results into management practice in a standardized form acceptable to managers. It is clear what great advantages a person engaged in creative work has, to whom nature, training and upbringing have “gifted” such an ability. But if a person is unlucky and this extremely useful ability is not very developed, turning to special thinking training becomes for him a condition for both his “survival” in the field of management and his growth and development as a modern leader.

A training tool that combines stimulation of a person’s creativity and prescribes the use of standard (stereotypical) procedures in thinking is the “Algorithm for Solving Management Problems” (ARUP).

ARUP ensures blocking of the peculiarities of thinking that interfere with the solution of modern problems, and contributes to the emancipation of the creative component of the mentality of managers.

ARUP combines practical experience in solving problems by business managers with the achievements of modern scientific psychology and especially with research in the field of technical creativity; where the so-called “Algorithm for Solving Inventive Problems” (ARIZ) has been used for more than 40 years.

ARUP is a list of instructions, the implementation of which by the manager makes it easier for him to find solutions to problems, speeds up this process, reducing the field of search for solutions. ARUP opposes the movement of thought in line with outdated schemes and templates.

In a short chapter it is not possible to give a complete picture of the algorithm for solving management problems. But it seems necessary to us to indicate its capabilities and describe the main structural elements.

ARUP contains three relatively independent subsystems:

1.Statement of a management problem.

2.Solution to the problem.

.Decision-making.

Let us recall that a problem in economic activity is understood as a contradiction between goals and means, between the intended results and the possibilities of achieving them.

There are two main types of management problems: economic (production) and organizational. Resolving the former involves identifying and influencing the economic and production process (overcoming contradictions between goals and the possibilities of achieving them). Resolving problems of the second type is one of the prerequisites for solving economic problems. A common feature of these two types of problems is the presence of a contradiction between the given (expected) and the possible. The actual solution to the problem lies in the theoretical overcoming of this contradiction.

The problem statement includes:

1. Analysis of the situation:

a) understanding what needs to be done;

b) assessing the possibility of achieving goals;

c) comparison of what is necessary to achieve given goals with the intended means and what can be “obtained” in the process of practical implementation of the decision made on this problem.

2. Formulation of the problem , suggesting:

a) a clear description of the contradiction between means and ends;

b) a quantitative assessment of the magnitude of the discrepancy between means and goals (this result reflects the degree of tension of the problem situation).

3. Framing the problem , consisting:

a) in highlighting and clearly describing the main (central) issue in the problem;

b) determining the entire (maximally large) range of questions, without finding answers to which it is impossible to find an answer to the central question of the problem;

c) structuring the problem, that is, finding meaningful and temporal connections and subordination of the entire complex of issues that make up the problem.

4. Qualification of a problem, that is, assigning it to a certain type by:

a) time criterion: actual or potential problem;

b) object criterion: analytical or constructive;

c) meaning: key (strategic) or tactical;

d) source: a problem as a consequence of the mistakes of the organization’s employees, or a problem as a result of the development of the system, or a problem as a consequence of the actions of competitors;

e) solvability: solvable (with your own efforts or with external help) and unsolvable, which is represented by two varieties: unsolvable by your own efforts, unsolvable at this stage of development of the system in general;

f) structure: a complex (hierarchically, multi-level and multi-dimensional) constructed problem and a structurally simple problem;

g) periodicity: regular (constantly occurring under certain conditions) and irregular;

h) criterion of the degree of problem: scientific-practical (containing a high degree of uncertainty and therefore requiring the involvement of specialist scientists with their special methods) and practical (with low or medium uncertainty and therefore resolvable by the own efforts of practicing managers).

5. Search for analoguesproblems according to the list of the above criteria. Finding an analogue of this problem in the list of previously resolved problems is an essential step in solving the problem. The absence of analogues is a signal to mobilize all the creative resources of the management apparatus and the workforce to solve this problem.

ARUP “controls” the manager’s thinking when posing one problem, but prescribes work across the entire front of possible problems. The implementation of these instructions should bring to the manager’s desk a list of problems, among which, in addition to those requiring immediate solutions, are a large number of those that are posed preventively (advanced, in advance), that is, before these problems become a serious obstacle to the functioning and development of the managed system. The ability to deal with “future” problems before their resolution requires great effort distinguishes a promising leader who can solve even very large problems with little cost, precisely because they are recognized “in embryo.” It is not without reason that they say: “He who does not foresee problems does not manage,” and also: “He who does not see future problems pays dearly.” Events control such a leader (as in that story where “the tail controls the dog”), forcing him to act in conditions in which the choice of the most profitable option is either completely excluded or extremely difficult.

The solution to a management problem begins already in the process of its formulation and qualification, because already during this period a person occupied with a problem, voluntarily or involuntarily, thinks about how it can be solved, who to involve in working on it, etc.

Solving a management problem is a complex and difficult process if it is not organized according to the rules arising from the modern teaching about the psychology of human thinking.

Just for general acquaintance with ARUP, we point out that the solution to a practical problem, in particular, involves:

.Presentation to managers and specialists of a list of methods and methods for solving management problems in a convenient matrix form. This list contains all known methods, and in it, therefore, one can find an acceptable methodological tool based on the analogy of this problem with previously solved ones. The time gain can be so great that those who have used ARUP at least once become its supporters forever.

2.Using the anthropomaximological mechanism to search for the most acceptable solution methods. It is based on what can be conventionally called the psychophysiological theory of optimization. In anthropomaximology (the science of the ultimate capabilities of a person), an effect has been discovered, the meaning of which is that at the moment the highest demands are presented to a person and at the peak of training, he achieves the desired results, acting in an optimal mode. This effect directly relates to management work, and people can thus master the optimal system of actions in a short time.

Decision making has been described many times in the management literature. Let us only note here that the ARUP has a strict requirement to precede decision-making with an analysis of several options for action. Otherwise, it is not possible to find the best way of practical work to achieve the goals of the organization, and the decision-making process itself can hardly be considered justified from the position of modern science.

A person who has become familiar with ARUP under this scheme can naturally ask about the advantages of ARUP over a “spontaneous” solution to management problems.

In its entirety, ARUP is a reminder of actions aimed at overcoming almost all those intellectual weaknesses that prevent a manager from quickly solving problems and making timely decisions. Moreover, ARTC can be widely used in the process of training management workers, increasing their “sensitivity” to possible errors in solving real problems, developing in them immunity to the so-called intellectual and psychological “diseases” (inertia, conformity, dogmatism.) and developing the ability to disciplined, consistent and at the same time creative thinking. It is no coincidence that ARUP is recognized as the core of special intellectual gymnastics for managers.

The level of organization of a leader’s thinking can be measured using modern psychodiagnostic methods. The coefficient of organized thinking (OC) is a reflection of the compliance of an employee’s mental abilities with a list of requirements for his thinking, which are dictated by the characteristics of the management problems being solved in specific conditions.

The number of methods for increasing the efficiency of mental work of managers and specialists, which are used in intellectual gymnastics as its tools, has currently “exceeded” one hundred. Most of them can be used as tools for intellectual gymnastics. We will analyze only one group of methods, namely the group of methods for searching for ideas for solving management problems and making decisions. This choice is due to the fact that executives spend 30 to 40% of their working time searching for ideas for solutions. This group traditionally includes: the synectics method, based on the use of four types of analogies (direct, subjective, symbolic, fantastic) to stimulate and appropriately orient the thinking of workers; a method of morphological analysis, which is based on a matrix representation of partial solutions, which allows you to quickly and significantly expand the search area for solutions to a problem; a method for eliminating deadlocks, which is designed to find new directions of analysis if an obvious area of ​​study for possible solutions to a problem has not produced an acceptable solution; functional-cost analysis, the essence of which is indicated by its very name, the method of brainstorming.

What is attractive about brainstorming, proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne more than 40 years ago, is not only the simplicity of the procedure and high efficiency, but above all, its versatility. It can be used in almost all areas of activity where it is necessary to solve a certain type of problem, namely those that are located in the “hierarchy” of tasks below the broadest (that is, below philosophical problems) and above the most specific (that is, above calculation or for drawing work). These can be tasks to generate ideas at the stage of problem formulation, formulate proposals or justify a solution, to find a way out of a difficult or emergency situation, to search for the application of any scientific and technical achievements and options for management decisions, etc. These can be tasks of both theoretical and practical nature, both technology and engineering problems, and management problems.

The rules for brainstorming are as follows:

)questions related to the problem should be asked in such a way that short answers can be given without justification;

2)Criticism of the participants in the attack and their proposals, as well as ironic remarks and remarks are absolutely prohibited;

)insights and fantasies are given preference over systematic thinking;

)combinations and new applications of suggestions already made are encouraged;

5)all statements are recorded;

6)the ideas expressed are objectified (that is, they are deprived of personal identity);

7)criticism, evaluation and selection of proposals are carried out in a specially allotted time, by a specially selected group of people inclined to critical work.

The effectiveness of brainstorming is based on a fact that is well known in psychology: during a brainstorming session, its participants work as powerful generators of ideas, because they are not burdened with the need to justify their proposals and are protected from criticism, which, being a means of revealing shortcomings, also plays a negative role. role - it inhibits the expression of thoughts even in not very impressionable people with a strong nervous system.

According to J.N. Jones, six people participating in an attack can come up with 150 ideas in half an hour. The same team working with conventional methods would never have come to the idea that the problem it was considering had such a variety of aspects. Repeated and very useful use of brainstorming to solve various management problems has led to an understanding of a number of shortcomings of this form of work. It was improved, which resulted in its variety - multi-stage (cascade) brainstorming.

Without changing anything in A. Osborne's original requirements, we began to consider Osborne's brainstorming as only the first stage of a broader system of idea generation. This stage began to be called search (reconnaissance).

The next stage, called counterdictation, operationally represents the same thing as the first stage, with the only difference that one limitation is imposed on statements about the problem: the same problems must be solved without resorting to proposals already made. Ideas contrary to those previously expressed are approved and supported. The consequence of implementing this approach is two opposing lists of proposals for solving the problem. Both of them were obtained in conditions of freedom from criticism, but in total they contain a maximum of proposals and counterproposals. The greatest effect is obtained when the brainstorming participants at stages 1 and 2 are different. For “fresh” people involved in counter-dictation, the list of proposals received at the first stage will be just a list of restrictions in which “dead-end” (as the head of the discussion can present the matter) solutions are recorded. At the same time, emphasizing the need to “not touch” previously received proposals, the presenter does not at all prohibit their use. But use is possible only within sentences that contradict the meaning of the basic (first) list of ideas.

Third stage - synthesis. Here, a specially selected group of people with a pronounced ability for panoramic thinking “combines” proposals in one system and develops a solution that meets the requirements of comprehensiveness.

Fourth stage - forecast. Based on a “synthetic” list of ideas, it is proposed to predict the opportunities and difficulties arising from the solution. Processively, the forecast is the same as the first stage, but meaningfully these are different processes.

Fifth stage - generalization. Its meaning is to generalize the ideas received, to reduce the entire variety of ideas to a small number of principles from which these ideas could be derived without prior knowledge. These principles act as system-forming features for grouping proposals.

In order to test the results obtained “for strength”, it is useful to organize one more (sixth) stage in the “cascade brainstorming” - destructive. Its task is to “defeat” proposals from various positions: managerial, logical, factual, implementation, value, ethical, social. At the same time, the rule of freedom of attack participants from criticism is not violated here. It is necessary to criticize previously formulated ideas, but not each other. To increase the efficiency of the destruction stage it is necessary:

)careful objectification of ideas (there should not even be a hint of authorship in their formulation and presentation);

2)heterogeneous (intellectually and professionally diverse) composition of the group;

)administrative and legal independence of participants in the destructive stage from the organizers of development.

In order not to violate the general democratic way of "producing" ideas, at any stage of the attack the leader is not recommended to be overly harsh in qualifying statements. In practice, this means that if the proposed idea does not directly relate to the task of this stage, the facilitator should ask to bring it to its “logical conclusion” by continuing, reshaping, replacing individual concepts, etc. and so on. Another tactic of behavior of the presenter is also possible: he “distributes” ideas into stages, in other words, “prescribes” them according to their content. Let's say, at the moment of destruction, someone accidentally expresses a constructive thought. It is not suppressed as “irrelevant”, but is publicly entered by the manager into the material obtained at one of the previous stages. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that this idea does not have the right to be beyond criticism. It (but not its producer) is subject to destruction along with all other proposals.

This multi-stage brainstorming system somewhat slows down the process of mental work compared to brainstorming in its classical form. But it is capable of solving problems of the highest degree of complexity. Cascade brainstorming is an extremely powerful tool for organizing the thinking of managers and an equally powerful tool for training the mentality of managers.

To understand the possibilities of intellectual gymnastics, it is necessary to clarify the intellectual qualities that a leader needs to acquire or develop in order to successfully solve modern management problems. And the first place here is training his problematic thinking. An enterprise will not be able to keep up with competitive requirements if it does not develop. The development of an enterprise presupposes the focus of its managers on real problems, the solution of which can raise both the organization and, accordingly, the quality of products to a higher level. Simplified symbolism that allows one to distinguish problematic situations from non-problematic ones can be presented as follows.

P + V - non-problematic situation: the organization has needs (P), and there are opportunities (B) to satisfy them;

P ± V - quasi-problem situation: the organization has needs (P), but not all opportunities (B) for satisfaction are available;

P - V - ideal problem situation: the organization has needs (P), but there are no opportunities (B) to satisfy them.

It is not difficult to see the problem in the P - V situation, because it is simply something that interferes with the normal functioning of the organization or its development at the moment, or even stops the functioning of the organization. It is more difficult with the formula P ± B. Here you need to understand what exactly the opportunities need to be found, discovered, revealed and formulated in order to bring them into line with the needs of the organization. It is even more difficult with the formula P + V. There is no problem here: needs are satisfied on the basis of available capabilities. However, research shows that it is at the level of P + B that a manager can achieve the greatest success in the development of his organization if he can present P + B as P - B or as P ± B, and solve as problems what are not problems by the original definition is.

The ability to transform situations P + B into situations P - B or at least into P ± B is a subject of special concern for mental gymnastics coaches.

In the language of psychologists, the ability to see “on the contrary” sounds like a recognition of a person’s ability to see problems where everything is clear to others, where he is dealing with well or even flawlessly working systems. It is one thing to solve problems of a lack of capabilities (a very important condition for the normal functioning of an organization), but another, starting from the flawless operation of the system, to solve problems that practically do not manifest themselves at all. It is clear that seeing such “non-existent” problems is much more important than being sensitive to real P - V or P ± V.

The most powerful means of developing a leader's thinking is the use of so-called quasi-problems and quasi-tasks. Quasi-problems and quasi-tasks are real problems or tasks expressed in simplified language (to ensure understanding by people with different levels of training). These are, so to speak, real problems disguised in someone else's clothes. One of the advantages of quasi-problems is that no equipment or material resources are required to solve them. Another advantage is the ability to create special packages of quasi-problems to develop abilities to solve different types of practical, scientific and other problems.

The training effect of using quasi-problems is based on the law of transfer, which has long been known in psychology, the essence of which is that solving problems (tasks) in one area makes it easier for a person to solve problems (tasks) in other areas by training the mental mechanisms of solution, which are basically the same in a variety of fields of activity.

Quasi-problems and quasi-tasks differ not only in specialization, but also in what levels of problem complexity they are intended to solve.

In their specific form, quasi-problems are extremely diverse: from some kind of “completely unsolvable” puzzle to a situation that needs to be completed in a certain way (completion, bringing to the “norm”, generalization, translation into another system of concepts, design, etc.) .

There are many ways to train and develop your thinking. This includes influencing it with means that develop accelerated perception of visual and acoustic information, and special intellectual games, and a method of choosing non-standard “posts” of observation, and sensory gymnastics used to raise the tone of the “second program” for solving problems - emotional, and here is the development of so called intellectual sensitivity using transformation methods. the object of study, there is much more here that would be nice to know about for a person who intends to “get smarter,” that is, to increase his ability to solve his problems. But developing thinking with the help of a book, outside the living process of creative communication between people, is not the most economical way of training.

Experience in training people's thinking is available not only in Russia. Of interest for our purposes, in particular, is the Japanese experience in the development of intellectual abilities. It is based in Japan, like many other things, on traditions of the development of thinking that originated many centuries ago, but which have largely not lost their significance in our time. Only in the culture of the Japanese mentality can a task such as, for example, clap his hands and ask you to listen to him, have a meaningful meaning and training value. Question: what will clapping with one palm sound like? Apparently, only within the framework of Japanese culture can you understand problems such as “when the wind blows, the cooper gets rich”, which must be given a reasonable, logical and convincing interpretation. In the Japanese version, it is as follows: when the wind blows, dust rises, the dust gets into people's eyes and causes loss of vision, loss of vision leads to an increase in the number of blind people making a living by playing the shamisen (plucked string instrument), this leads to an increase in the demand for shamisen, for the production of which you will need cat skins, the cats are killed, the number of rats increases, the rats will begin to chew the barrels, the barrels are sent for repair or bought, the cooper gets rich.

This kind of task of restoring (inventing) connections between two groups of words that are outwardly unrelated to each other turned out to be quite suitable for training the imagination of Russian managers, without which no market thinking (modeling situations that do not yet exist) is possible.

Similar to the Japanese “strange” tasks that develop thinking are the unique game exercises that have long existed in Russia using paradoxes of this type:

· the more experienced the worker, the less useful he is;

· the better the organization of the business, the less hope for success;

· the more the employee knows, the worse it is for the business;

· the higher the rank of a leader, the less useful he is, etc.

The trainee was required to:

· explain the meaning of the paradox (what is meant);

· tie the paradox to reality in order to demonstrate its validity in any situation (find the conditions under which the paradox is no longer a paradox);

· translate it into a positive by transforming (replacing words.) so that it corresponds to real situations.

A very exotic form of intellectual training is the use of jokes, or rather, setting tasks to continue the joke to a funny conclusion. For example, a coach starts a joke, but breaks off the story and asks to continue it in such a way that it ends up being funny.

If a person has learned and manages to complete jokes in such a way that it evokes a positive reaction from experts (simply laughter), this is evidence that the person is naturally given the ability to solve serious intellectual problems or has trained this ability. The idea for this training was given by the outstanding Soviet aircraft designer O.K. Antonov, who, in response to a stupid question about why his desktop was “littered” with collections of jokes, quite seriously answered the following: the process of constructing a joke is akin to solving a design problem. And if I taught a person to “build” jokes, I advanced him in the ability to create or improve technical devices. By the way, O.K. Antonov also used anecdotes to recognize abilities for solving design problems. He started telling a joke and asked the candidate for the position to join him and help complete it. O.K. Antonov's sympathies were on the side of the person who did it better and faster. The logic here is simple. If a candidate could cope with the task of completing an anecdote, this meant that he was able to resolve intellectual paradoxes, which have the same structure regardless of where and in what field they arise: in management, design, or at a party. If setting the task of completing anecdotes is a type of paradox, then the ability to initially complete anecdotal paradoxes turns out to be simultaneously the ability to solve, for example, such a type of problem as: increasing the speed of an aircraft without changing its engine and aerodynamics.

The law of transference, discovered in psychology, explains why this is possible. Practicing one class of problems improves our ability to solve problems in other areas.

One of the reasons why, despite the pressure from “serious” scientists, anecdotes are left in the arsenal of intellectual gymnastics as material for training the ability to solve serious constructive problems, is that there is no academic (schoolboy) tediousness in the use of anecdotes and their use simultaneously with the training function of including the so-called relaxed concentration, which is, as professional psychologists know, a prerequisite for the emancipation of the psyche and the transfer of thinking to a state that best corresponds to the concept of optimality.

According to the research of A. Luk, the attitude towards humor in general and jokes in particular is an indicator of the level of development of a person’s mind. A study of the problem of humor has shown that the most ardent opponents of humor in serious matters are the most intellectually narrow-minded people. Their abilities do not extend beyond solving problems and making decisions “from here to now.”

You just need to take into account that humor in general, and jokes in particular, themselves can be of different levels and, accordingly, different degrees of intelligence and intelligence.

Knowledge of methods for solving a problem acquired during the learning process (at school or university), and logically rigorous approaches to them do not in themselves lead to solutions. Something is missing to achieve success. This is what is called intuition.

Intellectual gymnastics at the modern level contains a large amount of material that “permeates” all its sections devoted to the training of intuition. And this can be explained very simply. In most cases, businessmen rely on their intuition when solving a problem and making a decision. They have nothing else to do, since the logical method does not work. But neither in a secondary school nor in a higher educational institution did anyone train his intuition and, as a rule, did not even mention it in class. Meanwhile, serious practical development of the problem of intuition in our country (USSR) was undertaken more than 30 years ago.

The most painful question for an entrepreneur is how to learn to “look” into the non-existent (into the future) to determine error-free actions in the present. Let us immediately note that the word “flawless” in relation to the actions of a businessman is a very bold exaggeration. Almost 40% of business failures are due to the inability of managers to anticipate future economic conditions. And this is an order to train managers’ ability to make forecasts, which, although it does not provide an absolutely accurate picture of future economic conditions, still reduces the risk of erroneous commercial and other business decisions by almost 60%.

That is why in intellectual gymnastics a large place is given to training methods of forecasting, which have been quite actively developed in the USSR since the early 60s.

Conclusion

The personality of a leader is multifaceted and the success of his activities is important not only for him, but also for the entire team. The effectiveness of his activities can be revealed using the expert characteristics of the leader’s personality proposed by Kishkel.

The correspondence of personal characteristics to the content of the activity is an indispensable condition for its successful implementation. This compliance is especially important for activities with a high level of responsibility. These include the activities of a leader (manager, organizer). When resolving issues of selecting managers and forming a personnel reserve, data on the level of organizational abilities and organizational orientation of the manager’s personality can provide significant assistance. A conclusion about these qualities of a leader can be made by a psychologist based on an assessment of certain psychological characteristics of the leader’s personality, for example:

.Certainty - reveals the structure of interests in various aspects of one’s activities.

2.Awareness is awareness of the goals of organizational activities.

.Purposefulness is the priority of motives for organizational activities.

.Selectivity is the ability to deeply and fully reflect the psychological characteristics of the team.

.Tactfulness is the ability to maintain a sense of proportion and find the best form of relationships.

.Efficiency is the ability to captivate people, intensify their activities, find the best means of emotional-volitional influence and choose the right moment to use them.

.Demandingness is the ability to be demanding in various forms depending on the characteristics of a specific management situation.

.Criticality is the ability to detect and express deviations from established norms that are significant for activities.

.Responsibility is the ability to take responsibility for the results of one’s own activities and the activities of the team.

A special role in the success of a manager is played by methods of developing and strengthening memory, methods of dynamic reading, the use of brainstorming methods, the development of intuition and the ability to predict future situations, and solve problems.

Table 1. Reminder of the principles of memory training

Principles Contents The principle of taking into account individual characteristics of memory To increase memory capabilities, it is necessary to know the strengths and weaknesses of each person’s memory according to such characteristics as: capacity, strength, accuracy and readiness The principle of prescribing training It is impossible to improve memory in general; it is necessary to firmly establish for what purposes they intend to improve memory The principle of “egoism” (interest) It is easier to remember what is the direct object of a person’s personal interest The principle of maximum activity (use) Memorization and reproduction are better, the higher the frequency of use of the material intended for memorization The principle of minimum volume ( principle of seven) The strength of memorization, speed and accuracy of reproduction depend on the number of elements of the material that needs to be remembered; the maximum number of such elements is seven

Table 2. Memory Enhancement Techniques Reminder

Method of external compensationMethod of chainMethod of contradictionMethod of minimizationLogical methodMethod of recodingMethod of artistic designTechnique of using remindersTechnique of a hookTechnique of creating a contrasting backgroundTechnique of using basic conceptsTechnique of logical inferenceTechnique of creating a geometry of meaningTechnique of creating a picture of the materialOrganization of the workplaceConstruction of a paradoxical expression of contentLiteral deviceForecasting consequencesMotley notesEmpathy RelaxationBreeding chainsConstruction of antinomiesEditingModeling techniqueTranslation into another languageImaginative definitionsTabular matrix techniqueTechnique of absurd examples"Condensation "materialUse of analogies (likening) Use of marginaliaCaricature of meaningMemorization through forgettingBlock techniqueBringing conclusions to their logical conclusion (absurdity)Constructing a proof of the need to remember

Table 3. Dynamic reading technique

Rules Disadvantages Use only the visual channel of information perception Try to see the word not as a series of letters, but as a separate sign based on its general outline (psychologically this is similar to recognizing a person’s face at one glance, without going through individual features) Proceed to the simultaneous perception of several words Move your gaze not from left to right, but from top to bottom in the middle of the page (along a conventional line dividing the page in half); to capture as much text as possible on the sides of the conventional line, use “peripheral vision” Do not allow any returns during reading Fast reading is a low-critical process It almost does not cause associations If it is taught without worrying about the need to develop creativity, a person with characteristic features is raised dogmatic thinking Accelerated accumulation of information, increasing the dependence of the creative capabilities of the specialist’s intellect on erudition, leads to the “erudite-amateur” paradox. To use the knowledge accumulated during accelerated reading, new (internal) reading is required

Table 4. Discrete reading technique purpose - neutralization of the harmful effects of accelerated reading

RecognitionMinimizationGeneration1. Determining the place of the material in the system of previously accumulated knowledge1. Reducing source material without distorting the meaning by editing 1. Putting forward new ideas based on “read” ones by combining them2. Establishing connections between the material and the material of other texts2. The same way of recoding (translation in your own words) 2. The same by extrapolation (interpolation)3. Determination of internal connections in the text3. Comparison of the conclusions people get when reading raw and processed material 3. The same by finding system-forming relationships4. Identifying the main thing4. Compilation of activity manuals based on full and abbreviated texts and their comparison4. Redesigning the text5. Establishing the subordination of various elements of the text5. Predicting consequences6. Finding places (concepts, definitions, statements) related to the subject 6. Explanation of material from other (not contained in the text) principles7. Use of marginal language 7. Developing an opposing position8. Using colorful note-taking 8. Scientific compromise of ideas and/or arguments contained in the text

Table 5. Reminder of the rules of "brainstorming" according to Osborne

GenerationObjectificationSelection1. A clear statement of the problem requiring short answers1. Recording all statements (shorthand, tape recorder.) 1. Identifying the reality or unreality of a sentence2. Prohibition of criticism in any form2. Grouping ideas by meaning and purpose2. Determining the significance of ideas based on the criterion of immediate feasibility3. Encouragement: a) any short statements without argumentation; b) development of proposed ideas; c) fantastic associations and examples3. “Releasing” statements from personal characteristics by standard recording of ideas3. Identifying ideas that need constructive development4. Generation time per session - no more than 2 hours

Table 6. Reminder of the stages of cascade brainstorming

Stages Contents of activity 1. SearchFully complies with the rules of brainstorming according to Osborne2. CounterdictationThe same as stage 1, but with one limitation: the same problem must be solved on the basis of ideas opposite to those obtained in the first stage; the consequence of counterdictation is the second opposing list of ideas3. SynthesisCombining 2 lists of ideas in one system4. Forecast Deriving, based on a single list of ideas, ideas about future opportunities arising from solving the problem; criticism of the participants in the attack is prohibited5. Generalization The reduction of the variety of ideas to a small number of principles from which these ideas can be derived; criticism is prohibited6. Destruction (compromise) “Destruction” (criticism) of the acquired knowledge system from a managerial, logical, factual, value, ethical, aesthetic, social position; criticism of attack participants is prohibited

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