The bourgeois revolution of 1648 in the most advanced country in Europe at that time - England - is considered the conventional boundary of the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern period. The bourgeoisie played an extremely progressive role at this stage of history.

Along with gymnastic methods of physical education, the formation and development of modern sports is taking place in many countries of the world. It was based on physical exercises containing elements of competition. Most intense sport(the term comes from the ancient Latin “disportare” - to have fun, to play) begins to be cultivated in educational institutions in England and America. Regarding development physical education in regions such as China, India, Japan, Central America, it stopped due to worsening internal social contradictions and as a result of the colonization of these countries.

In development of theory school physical education Much credit goes to progressive bourgeois thinkers who fought against feudal domination, including the author of the theory of natural human development D. Lock(1632 - 1704), who put the task of physical education of the child in first place.

New ideas were most fully developed in the theory of the French writer and philosopher J. J. Rousseau(1712-1778). In his opinion, every social problem stems from human evil, and evil, in turn, from human weakness. This situation, in his opinion, can be changed only by educating seasoned, strong youth. In practice, these ideas of physical education were implemented by philanthropists.

Developing capitalism led to the expansion of colonial wars and thereby determined the need for an increased military focus in physical education. At this time, a number of reactionary views on the physical development and education of a person appeared. First of all, it should be said about the English sociologist and psychologist G. Spencer(1820-1903). The biological laws of the animal world were mechanically transferred by him to human society. He said that “...War between people, like war between animals, plays a significant role in improving their organization.” In capitalist countries, Spencerism was one of the sources of the formation of the ideology of militarism in physical education. Later, at the beginning of the 20th century, Spencer’s treatises “The Study of Sociology” and “Physical, Mental and Moral Education” gained significant popularity in the world.

Under the influence of the ideas of D. Locke and J. J. Rousseau in Germany at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. The bourgeois movement began philanthropism(philanthropist - a person engaged in charitable activities). This movement found expression in the creation of a new type of school - philanthropy. Of the representatives of this movement who were involved in the practical introduction of physical education in school, physical education teachers played an outstanding role G. Fit(1763 - 1836) and I. Guts-Muts(1759-1839).

Within their system, philanthropists identified three main groups of exercises: games, exercises for developing manual dexterity, and physical exercises themselves.

The games differed in their impact on students as follows: to develop intelligence, to develop attention, to develop memory, imagination, mental abilities, and games of an aesthetic nature.

The development of manual dexterity did not reflect training in “labor”, as it is understood now, but education through labor activity itself - as a carpenter, turner, gardener and bookbinder (these professions were honorable at that time).

Physical exercise itself formed the basis of the system. They were divided into jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing, balance, weight training, posture exercises, dancing, drill exercises, swimming, singing exercises, and mental exercises. In turn, these types of movements were classified into components that accustomed children to the circumstances that they might encounter in everyday life. For example, they practiced jumping up, jumping from different heights, up - long, down - long, standing and running jumps, jumping with various objects and equipment (for example, with a pole), etc.

The significance of the activities of philanthropists lies primarily in the fact that thanks to their efforts, physical education was included in the school curriculum, they became pioneers of the German and Swedish trends in gymnastics.

The period from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 20th century. is characterized by the fact that physical education developed in two main directions - gymnastic And sporty -gaming. But during this period, the means of physical education (gymnastics, sports, games) had not yet defined clear boundaries between themselves; they strongly interpenetrated each other, and this process continued until the first half of the 20th century.

On the European continent, school physical education in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. developed mainly on the basis gymnastics A number of circumstances contributed to this:

1. The developing industry has acutely raised the question of the need to teach children about labor movements. It has been established that there are a number of main forms of movements on which labor operations are based.

2. The impetus for the development of national gymnastic systems was military tactics, in particular the successes of the Prussian king Frederick II in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). The warrior’s personal initiative was relegated to the background, and the main attention was paid to close formation, salvo fire, joint actions, and mechanical execution of commands.

3. National aspirations for unity and independence also played an important role in the development of school physical education and extracurricular gymnastics movement. It is no coincidence that the German gymnastic movement found its application not only among Germans, but also among Italians, Czechs, Poles, Croats, Slovaks, Bulgarians, i.e. where the movement for national liberation at the beginning of the 19th century. was in a state of inception or development.

4. An increasing number of government officials, doctors and teachers recognized the importance of organized forms of physical education and its inclusion in the number of compulsory educational subjects for more successfully solving the problems of preparing young people for life.

The largest national-bourgeois gymnastic systems created at the beginning of the New Age were German, Swedish and Czech.

German gymnastic (tournaur) movement has its roots in philanthropism. It took shape at the beginning of the 19th century. and is associated with the names of F. Jan and E. Eiselen. Jan was more of an organizer and ideological leader, and Eiselen was a practitioner and specialist in the field of gymnastics methods. The creation of German gymnastics at the very beginning was aimed at increasing the combat skills of the German army in the fight against the French conquerors (Napoleon's army). From the middle of the 19th century. the content of military gymnastics is being processed in relation to the requirements of school physical education. It has become widespread in the army, schools, and various sports societies. In 1811, near Berlin (now it is the park named after F. Jan) a gymnastics ground (turn-platz) was built, equipped with special equipment - horizontal bars (crossbars), parallel bars, horse, poles, climbing ladders, etc. Number of participants there were up to 500 people on site.

German gymnastics basically retained exercises from the system created by philanthropists. However, some additions were made: swimming and wrestling were excluded, a general warm-up, overcoming obstacles, stretching exercises were introduced, gymnastic apparatus were included in the training practice, and climbing and hanging exercises were separated into a separate group.

The theoreticians of the German gymnastic movement considered all types of physical exercises to be gymnastics.

A physical education teacher helps a student with exercises on a horse (from the book “Gymnastic Exercises” by E. Eiselen, 1845)

However, many of them: athletics exercises, rowing, skating, cycling, weightlifting and others - developed independently, outside of gymnastics.

The methodology for conducting classes and the classification of exercises in German gymnastics did not have a sufficiently complete scientific justification. The classification was based on the external form of movements; there were no instructions on the dosage of physical activity, pedagogical and medical control.

Founder Swedish gymnastics is P. Ling. He studied the ancient physical culture of China, the Scandinavian countries, and German gymnastics of the New Age. Based on this information, P. Ling classified physical exercises based on knowledge of anatomy and biology. P. Ling divided gymnastics into four types: military, pedagogical, medical and aesthetic, but in practice he created only military.

Pedagogical gymnastics was developed by Ya. Ling (son of P. Ling). In the 40s XIX century he described the technique of performing and teaching methods of Swedish pedagogical gymnastics, the structure of the lesson, introduced gymnastic equipment - a gymnastic wall (wall bars), a bench, a gymnastic beam (boom), etc.

Based on the idea that the human body consists of various parts, the creators of Swedish gymnastics considered it necessary to develop these individual parts of the body. So, all exercises were divided into the following groups: for legs, back, arms, abdominals, chest, for the development of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, etc. The proposed lesson structure was complex and consisted of 12-18 parts. Each part provided for an impact on one or another part of the body or functional system of the body.

Swedish gymnastics was a step forward in terms of explaining exercises in terms of knowledge from the fields of anatomy and biology. In Sweden at that time, the training of teachers with higher education in gymnastics was organized. In 1813, the Central Gymnastics Institute opened in Stockholm. Y. Ling developed the first project of an indoor gym, according to which the first gyms began to be built. Physical education in Swedish schools was also carried out among girls.

Swedish gymnastics organically complemented German gymnastics. In the practice of physical education, these two systems gradually merged.

In the middle of the 19th century. began to be created Sokol gymnastics system . This is the first significant Slavic system of physical education, called “Falcon” - a symbol of freedom, courage, independence. Its founder was the famous cultural figure of the Czech Republic M. Tyrs. As a representative of the bourgeois intelligentsia, he sought to unite and unite the Czech people in the struggle for national independence, since the Czech Republic at that time was under the rule of Austria.

Sokol gymnastics made a significant contribution to the creation of modern sports and rhythmic gymnastics. It included exercises already known from German and Swedish gymnastics, but significantly supplemented them with a number of other movements.

In Sokol gymnastics, an attempt was made to classify physical exercises on a new basis. They were divided into four main groups.

The first group is exercises without apparatus: walking, running, floor exercises, drill exercises, round dances, dancing.

The second group is apparatus exercises: simple long jumps, “attack” high jumps, deep pole vaults, exercises on a goat, a long table, a long and wide horse with handles and without handles, crossbar, uneven bars, rings in place and in swing, on stilts, stairs, wall bars, ropes, poles, Swedish bench, balance beam, ball, skates, bicycle. Exercises with equipment: exercises with various weights (sticks, dumbbells, weights, peaks, flails, cues, hammers, clubs, shovels, picks, hoes, scythes, bows, ladders, logs), throwing exercises (javelin, discus, hammer, cube, cannonball, ball), exercises with objects (flags, flags, clubs, jump ropes).

The third group is group exercises: pyramids, mass gymnastic performances, outdoor games.

The fourth group is combat exercises: fencing, wrestling, boxing, resistance exercises.

A step forward was that in Sokol gymnastics attention was paid not to the number of repetitions, as was the case in German and Swedish gymnastics, but to the beauty of performing movements. Gymnastic exercises began to be combined in combinations, they began to use musical accompaniment, beautiful costumes, and various external designs. The lesson was divided into three parts: preparatory, main and final (as it is done currently). The methodology of conducting classes included a lot of interesting and new things, especially during mass gymnastic performances, in which up to 15-20 thousand people participated.

By the middle of the 19th century. in England, school physical education based on modern sports And game activities. This direction goes back to the pedagogical practice of the then rector of the college in Rugby, T. Arnold. In college he had to face the same phenomena that were characteristic of all English educational institutions. He shares his impressions as follows: “The colleges in which tomorrow’s generation is being formed are immersed in the midst of moral contagion. Here you can find: all kinds of crimes and drunkenness, systematic lies, tyranny of elders over younger ones, indiscipline and disobedience of students, disregard for school rules, general laziness and avoidance of work, organized solidarity based on violations of discipline... This picture must be supplemented by the fact that the students are inveterate gamblers. The moral decline of the physically weak majority is accompanied by effeminacy and bodily decline... except for dressing up their own hairstyle, they are not interested in anything else...” Arnold understood that he could achieve a radical restructuring for the better only if his measures did not affect the customs of students and their feelings related to competition. At the same time, he noted that the best in cricket and other ball games also perform leadership roles outside the playing field. Different teams - as unique microsocial units - in the relationships between their members adhere to the same rules of “fair play” that exist during competitions. This is how the theoretical justification for school physical education, based on sports and play activities, developed: through the joint influence of school, church and sports, one can successfully influence the development of positive personal qualities in young people. The solution to educational problems was carried out through sports such as cricket, swimming, fencing, tourism, wrestling, and mountaineering.

Educational illustration for learning to swim (from the book “Fundamentals of Swimming” by K. Heinitz, Vienna, 1816)

The spread of sports in the world in the second half of the 19th century. contributed by the following significant reasons:

1. Gymnastic forms of physical exercise could not fully satisfy the emotional needs of a person, his leisure, entertainment, i.e. they no longer sufficiently contributed to the realization of interest in any particular type of motor activity.

2. By that time, gymnastics could no longer absorb and combine all the variety of physical exercises (cycling, mountaineering, swimming, speed skating and skiing, football, equestrian sports and many other sports).

3. A significant impetus to the development of sports orientation was given by the ongoing process of development of the international sports movement. The first continental and world championships and the Olympic Games became the reason for the spread of sports throughout the world.

There were also objective difficulties in the development of sports at that time: the negative attitude of some religious figures towards it; existing superstitions and prejudices against the development of certain sports, in particular cycling, and later motorsports; Official circles in many countries were opposed to women playing sports.

Thus, by the middle of the 19th century. the pedagogical, methodological and organizational foundations of bourgeois physical education and sports were laid. In the development of physical education in the world, two directions are distinguished - gymnastics and sports-games. The positive thing about all gymnastic systems was that they generalized the experience of physical education over many centuries, made an attempt to systematize and classify physical exercises, and created new sports equipment and equipment that are still used today.

In a number of countries, the contours of modern sports are being drawn up, the first national physical education and sports organizations are being created, and national competitions are beginning to be held. There was a need to create rules and regulations for competitions. All this created favorable conditions for the emergence of an international sports movement.

Organized forms of physical education and sports were mainly practiced among young people for the purpose of their military physical training.

From the second half of the 19th century. Modern views on physical education and sports are beginning to take shape. Pedagogical views on physical education were largely formed under the influence of new knowledge in the field of biological sciences, since the leading theory of the second half of the 19th century. was the theory of natural scientific materialism. Its most significant provisions, which significantly influenced physical education, were:

1) the unity of the human body and its inextricable connection with the environment;

2) the dependence of body shapes and the structure of its organs on their functional state;

3) physiological mechanism of motor skill formation.

Sketch of one of the competitions of the Melbourne Cycling Club (“Scientific American”, 1879)

The old methods of German, Swedish, Sokol gymnastics and other systems no longer met the requirements of the time.

Development of physical education in the second half of the 19th century. did not follow the path of opposing gymnastics to sports, or vice versa, but, on the contrary, there was a search for integrative forms of movements, a rational rapprochement of these two directions.

Among the new foreign systems of physical education, first of all, the method proposed by the Hungarian should be highlighted G. Demeny(1850-1917), and the “natural gymnastics” method developed by the Austrian teacher K. Gaulhofer(1885 - 1941) with employees.

G. Demeny, a Hungarian by nationality, lived and worked in France. He studied German and Swedish gymnastics and identified in them the inconsistency of movements with the laws of anatomy and physiology, noting the presence of largely unnatural and formal elements. The founder of the Russian system of physics education, P. F. Lesgaft, also held the same views, as will be noted below.

Demeni developed the following system of requirements when performing physical exercises:

1) static, unnatural positions should be avoided. The speed of movement of individual parts of the body should be inversely proportional to their mass. Movements should be natural and sweeping, and not “selective” and “angular” (this position is in many ways similar to the Chinese health gymnastics taijiquan);

2) movements must be performed with a complete amplitude, antagonist muscles, i.e. those that are not involved in performing the movements, must be relaxed.

Demeny divided movements in sports into seven types: walking, running, jumping, climbing, lifting and carrying weights, throwing, defense and attack techniques. Each of these species had many varieties.

Gymnastics was also intended for girls, with an emphasis on its aesthetic side.

Method natural gymnastics, developed at the beginning of the 20th century, was based on the scientific principles of the biomedical sciences, which by that time had made a significant step forward in explaining the meaning of physical exercise. The name of this system comes from recommendations to conduct physical education classes in natural conditions, i.e. mainly in the open air. At its core, this method was intended to replace German gymnastics in schools. The classification of physical exercises was based on the principle of their influence on the development of certain physical qualities: balance, flexibility, coordination, strength, endurance, etc. The structure and content of a physical education lesson for school-age children were developed in detail. In this gymnastics, the main movements were from athletics, wrestling, boxing, swimming, fencing, tourism, and winter sports. The following types of equipment were widely used: bars, horizontal bar (crossbar), obstacles (fence, barrel), wall bars. “Natural gymnastics” fully represents the integration of gymnastic methods with the sports direction: it (although it is called “gymnastics”) includes both many modern sports and the actual exercises on gymnastic apparatus.

The founders of this method, which was widely used in schools in Austria, Germany, Poland, Hungary, and the Baltic countries, considered physical education not only as a means of physical influence on the child’s body, but also as a necessary component of mental and moral education, hygienic education. However, the founders of this system denied the importance of the social environment in human physical development, arguing that heredity plays a decisive role here, that is, physical capabilities are genetically determined. Most likely, it was influenced by the doctrine of heredity, the discoverer of which was the famous Austrian naturalist G. Mendel(1822-1884).

From the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. the process of formation begins on the basis of gymnastic movements of sports and rhythmic gymnastics. In other words, gymnastics itself also becomes a sport. Essentially, we are witnessing the merging of two directions in physical culture - gymnastics and sports games - and the formation of relatively independent means of physical culture - gymnastics, sports and games.

Following the example of England and the USA, other developed countries also began to recognize that modern sport is not only a game and entertainment, but also an activity useful for the education of a person. The number of works in which doctors emphasized the positive impact of sport on health grew, the military saw sports training as the key to improving the military-physical condition of young people, historians cited data on a significant number of drowned people during hostilities, in particular in Napoleon’s French army. Unusual natural conditions in places where colonial wars were fought showed an urgent need for skills in mountaineering, tourism, orienteering, etc. Teachers argued that outdoor games are an indispensable means of children’s development.

Since the beginning of the 30s. XX century In the physical education of the Anglo-Saxon states, the sports and recreational direction began to spread intensively (recreation literally means restoration). Sport was seen in many ways as a means of relaxation and restoration of human strength after work. At the same time, the defeats of Anglo-Saxon athletes in international competitions from French tennis players, Japanese swimmers and Finnish athletes were explained by “incorrect” systems of physical education based on gymnastics. The global economic crisis of 1929-1931 had a significant impact on the strengthening of the sports and gaming direction in the physical education of youth, when the free time of workers and unemployment became the central problems. In 1931, D. B. Nash’s book “Character Education in Physical Education” was published in the USA, which played a well-known role in the promotion of sports and recreational areas. Nash says the goal of school physical education reform should not be a return to Swedish gymnastics, which only focuses on developing children's muscles. Nash argues that the motivation for systematic physical exercise is an objectively existing personal interest in the most suitable sport. Children already at school age could prove themselves on the basis of this sports specialization... This direction has become widespread in elite schools in the USA, England, Australia, Canada, South Africa, and Japan.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. the integration of gymnastics and sports and games was largely contradictory. For example, in Europe at this time there was a competitive relationship between gymnastics and athletics. Representatives of these sports considered them to be superior to other motor hobbies. However, both gymnastics and sports have not yet clearly defined the boundaries of their exercises. This is obvious from the program of gymnastics competitions at the Olympic Games: 1900 - long jump, combined high and long jump, pole vault, lifting a 50-kilogram weight; 1904 - gymnastic triathlon: long jump, shot put, 100-yard dash; gymnastic hexathlon: exercises on the horizontal bar, parallel bars, vault, pommel horse, shot put, 100-yard dash; 1912 - free gymnastic system (here we mean the gymnastic system with which this or that team performed. For example, the Russian team demonstrated Sokol gymnastics). In 1920, the European system, the Swedish system, and the free system were introduced in team gymnastics competitions. Only since 1924 did the gymnastics competition program acquire a modern “gymnastic” look. By this time, the boundaries of the main means of physical education and sports are relatively clearly defined in the world - gymnastics, sports, sports and outdoor games and tourism, the list of sports related to these means, including artistic gymnastics, is specified.

Directions in physical education based on gymnastics and sports and gaming activities can be called main trends between the First and Second World Wars. However, there were also distinctive features and peculiarities in the physical education of individual countries. They were determined by economic factors, established school practices, political and ideological aspirations, climatic conditions, traditions, etc. Thus, countries with a tropical climate (Central America, India) were characterized by a hygienic orientation. India also inherited mystical (ritual) elements, which is expressed, for example, in the yoga system, gymnastic dances and pantomime movements. In Iran, Iraq, Japan and Turkey, movements characteristic of national types of wrestling were decisive in physical education. In Australia and Canada in the 30s, in New Zealand in the early 40s. Physical education of schoolchildren was carried out on the basis of sports and games.

In the last years of the XIX - early XX centuries. Numerous attempts are being made to search for such out-of-school forms of youth education that would ensure their good military physical training . However, only in England was it possible to create a system, the second made it possible to reach wide sections of young people - boy scout movement . It arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The founder of this movement is the English general Robert Baden-Powell. His participation in the colonial Boer War in South Africa (1899 - 1902) played a decisive role in the emergence of the idea of ​​educating English boys on the principles of scouting (scout means “scout”). In African conditions, Baden-Powell realized how important it is to be able to conduct military operations in difficult natural conditions: difficult forest thickets with unusual fauna, navigate unfamiliar terrain, etc. These skills, using the mental characteristics of children, can be successfully developed. Of course, one of the main tasks of scout education was preparation for military service, but it was not explicit. This is what the English scout studied: the art of scouting, knowledge of natural phenomena, life in camp and on a hike, the development of endurance, social behavior, and actions in case of accidents. For example, between 1910 and 1914, 792 Scouts in England were awarded for their exploits in saving lives during various natural disasters. Of course, the system of their ideological education did not contradict state interests. The motto of the English Scouts, for example, is: “Faith in God, loyalty to the king, loyalty to the Motherland - be prepared!” The badge is a lily tied with a ribbon. The middle petal is “the right path and faith in God,” the left one is “devotion to the king,” the right one is “loyalty to the Motherland.” On the ribbon there is a call - “Be prepared!” The scout uniform is a living copy of the suit that Baden-Powell wore in Kashmir in 1987. This suit consists of a wide-brimmed khaki hat, a colored neck scarf (Russian Scouts have a blue tie), a green or gray shirt with shoulder straps, short ( above the knee) trousers, stockings (below the knee) and shoes or shoes in black or brown. In conditions of camp life, a necessary attribute of a scout is a staff the length of a person. It was marked in feet and inches (foot - 30.48 cm, top - 4.45 cm). The staff served as a means of overcoming obstacles, a variety of physical exercises were performed with it, they could be used as stands when setting up tents, making stretchers, etc. Each patrol (6 - 8 scouts) was named after an animal or bird: “ Beaver”, “Bison”, “Falcon”, etc. The patrol flag always depicted the animal chosen by the scouts. Patrol officers, their assistants and instructors (scout masters) formed a “court of honor” to resolve issues of rewards, punishments, dealt with various controversial situations, etc. P.

In just a few years, this successful comprehensive system of educating school-age children has spread throughout the world, and it is still popular today. Contacts between scouting organizations of different countries are carried out by International Committees, uniting about 16 million scouts from more than 120 countries. However, before World War I, the Boy Scout movement was used primarily for military training of youth.

In all countries of the world, the scouting movement, where it exists, is financed by government organizations, public figures, membership fees, earned from their own funds. For example, in England, at the very beginning of the organization of scout troops, the Daily Telegraph newspaper annually allocated them 4,000 pounds sterling. Baden-Powell, in his book "Boy Scouts", gives boys a number of tips on how to earn money: making wicker chairs, picture frames, bird cages, carved pipes, upholstering old furniture, beekeeping, making buttons, shoelaces, packing boxes and crates, etc. etc.

The scouting organization itself does not teach labor skills, but it actively encourages and facilitates their acquisition and reveals the children’s ability to apply them in practice.

Why has this education system gained worldwide recognition and is popular among children to this day? Firstly, scout training takes the form of a long game that is attractive to children, using conventional symbols, distinctive signs, greetings, costumes, patrols, units, etc. Secondly, during play activities, children master skills useful for everyday life. Thirdly, in scout training there is a love of nature and the animal world that is characteristic of children, a penchant for adventure, interest in everything heroic, selfless concern for other people, etc.

Most fully in the interwar period and especially during the period of fascism militarization physical education appeared in Germany. Sports science, fulfilling the social order, dealt not with the problems of comprehensive education of the individual, but with issues of military-physical training of the bulk of the population. The “pure Aryan” had to go through a “hard school”: from 10 to 13 years old in the “Jungvolk”, from 14 to 18 years old in the “Hitler Jugend”, pass factual standards and exams, receiving a “military certificate”. The basis of the military-physical training of young Germans was “Gelendeshport” (terrain sports), introduced in 1934: long marches with overnight stays in the forest, orienteering, shooting, throwing grenades, swimming in clothes, running over obstacles, overcoming swamps, climbing trees and rocks, exercises with weights, crawling, etc., many exercises from the scouting system, but with a stricter focus on military preparedness. The exercises were performed to the point of exhaustion with complete and unquestioning obedience to the elder. At the end of this program, 18-35 year old men passed the standards for the imperial badge of three degrees (gold, silver and bronze)

Since 1937, five physical education lessons and one “sports day” per week have been introduced in German schools - a special competition day in which all schoolchildren were required to participate.

The militarization of physical education in the pre-war years covered many countries to varying degrees, especially this process affected the countries that participated in the Second World War, and there were more than 70 of them.

In the 20s a new direction in physical culture is emerging in the world - professional applied physical training. Physiologists have found that physical exercise, breaks , included in the labor process, increase efficiency, delay the onset of fatigue, promote faster recovery, and create a positive emotional background for sometimes monotonous work operations. Under the influence of these data already in the 20s. in many developed countries they have begun to advocate for the inclusion of such breaks in the form of industrial gymnastics. Some of the largest enterprises have even introduced positions of physical education teachers (instructors). But so far these have been only isolated cases. The introduction of industrial gymnastics remained an unresolved problem for a long time, since in most enterprises it could not be connected with labor productivity: some labor physiologists objected to the content of the gymnastics itself, in particular the monotony of its exercises; the workers themselves avoided industrial gymnastics, suggesting that it was aimed primarily to intensify work, and not to improve their health. Nevertheless, in Germany, where there was a clear tendency towards state, and then (with Hitler’s rise to power) totalitarian management of physical education and sports, “pausenturn” was introduced in 1920.

In the early 30s. a number of researchers have revealed that movements borrowed from sports cannot be completely transferred to industrial gymnastics, but in the process of playing sports, a wide range of qualities is formed, which has a positive effect on the success of work activity. This gave a significant impetus to the expansion of the creation of recreational territorial and factory physical education and sports organizations, which began to form in leading capitalist countries at the end of the 20th century. Businesses and government officials have come to the conclusion that it is better to invest money in protecting the health of skilled and reliable workers than not to do so. In pre-revolutionary Russia, this form of physical education and sports work at enterprises was called “entrepreneurial sports.”

After the Second World War, in the 50-60s, in developed capitalist countries there was active government intervention in the matter of physical education of the population. Naturally, with the defeat of fascism in Germany, Japan and Italy, the militaristic orientation of physical education was eliminated. As for physical education in England, the USA, Australia, Canada and the Scandinavian countries, there in the 40s. its content remained practically the same as in the pre-war years.

The example of school physical education in the United States shows how the state is beginning to pay more and more attention to it. Data published in 1950 on the physical fitness indicators of American schoolchildren aged 6-16 years old revealed that, firstly, they are clearly inferior to the youths of Western Europe, and secondly, the level of physical fitness in private schools is 10-15% higher than in state educational institutions. But about 90 - 95% of all children in these countries study in public schools in the USA and England.

The wars in Korea (1950-1953) and Vietnam (1964-1973) clearly demonstrated the costs to the physical fitness of American youth. In 1956, US President Eisenhower drew attention to the problem of poor physical fitness of young people and formed the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, which became one of the main conductors of the national campaign for the improvement of the American nation. Since then, once every 10 years, all US schoolchildren aged 6-17 years have been tested according to a single program: shuttle run 3 x 30 feet (30 feet - 9.14 m), pull-ups on the crossbar, number of flexions and extensions of the torso in 1 minute , bend forward while sitting on the floor, run 1 mile (1609 m). Until the end of the 80s. No more than 2% of schoolchildren could complete the “presidential” tests. Currently, the requirements have been slightly reduced. Various incentives are provided for completing the tests: diplomas signed by the President of the United States, special honorary stripes, certificates; those who have completed the standards are written about in state newspapers and shown on television. In the 80s American experts noted that “only a third of American schools currently have the funds to implement compulsory physical education programs.” That is why physical education specialists in leading capitalist countries have recently been faced with the task of finding new forms of work in this direction. Now in Western countries, additional and optional classes in physical education and sports have become widespread, i.e. extracurricular forms of classes. As a rule, they are carried out by the school teacher for an executive fee, consisting mainly of voluntary contributions from parents, as well as funds allocated from real public funds. For example, in the USA, extracurricular activities programs are compiled by those educated in the early 80s. rational advice for intra-school sports. Many US schools have intra-school sports councils, which include students and parents. There is no single program for all schools in the United States. Each state and school district has the right to develop its own program. For example, in one of the schools, students in grades 2-5 are awarded points: 2 points for participating in one or another sport, 3, 2, 1 point respectively for 1st, 2nd, 3rd places in competitions, 1 point for jogging (1 km). Points are counted every week, and once a year the most active athletes of the school are solemnly presented with various awards.

First 80's. On the initiative of the Presidential Council, the best specialists in the field of physical education in the United States are annually determined. The profession of a physical education teacher or coach in the USA is very prestigious. The teacher is engaged only in the direct teaching and upbringing of children. For example, according to the recommendation of the New York Department of Health and Physical Education, one teacher in an elementary school should have no more than 240 students, and in a secondary school - 180. The daily load should not exceed 5 hours, the weekly - 25-30 hours. Every day the teacher conducts advisory hour for children and parents. The dynamics of each student’s physical development and preparedness are recorded on a computer.

Already from childhood, Americans are convinced that the real value of sports is in preparing for the achievement of material success in life, that it instills the strong-willed character traits necessary to win victories. This is largely facilitated by the creeds preached in sports, which hang in the vast majority of school locker rooms: “You are nobody until you are No. 1”, “We are No. 1”, “Victory is life!”, “In in this country, if you finish second, no one knows your name,” “Failure is worse than death because you have to live with defeat,” “The greatest goal in life is to achieve success!”

The well-known basketball coach in the USA, J. Wooden, says: “Whoever knows how to play on a sports team will be able to act in other areas of life with great benefit for himself and for society.” Former cosmonaut F. Borman believes that “sport taught him to make sacrifices in order to achieve a goal,” and the world-famous pediatrician B. Spock, Olympic champion in 1924, directly states that “the team made him a man.”

Most US schoolchildren gravitate towards three native American sports: American football, basketball and baseball. Moreover, as a rule, American football takes priority in schools. The younger generation of America is being educated by the example of football ethics... “Punish the attacker!”, “Be a fighter!”, “Make the enemy afraid,” “Break his spirit,” “Leave a bruise on his body,” “Make him pay for the attack.” at you”, “Be hostile and angry, aggressive and furious”, “Always remember: losing is nothing! Victory is everything!” - such advice, according to sports journalist J. Underwood, was given by a mother to her 8-year-old son, who plays on the school football team. She gleaned these tips from “Rules for Successful Playing Football for Children.”

American psychology is to stand out, to be better than others. They don't like losers and weaklings. Throughout its more than 200-year history, Americans have worshiped the cult of strength, personified in sports by the winner - the champion. Looking up to a champion is one of the main driving psychological factors that is inherent in almost all American schoolchildren.

In the mid-90s. A survey was conducted in a number of US schools. The children were asked one question: “How would you like to distinguish yourself?” 44% of students responded that they would like to become “superstar” athletes, 31% wanted to become excellent students in their studies, and 25% said that they would simply like to be popular, without specifying in what field. It is interesting to note that American sociologists conducted a similar study in the late 50s, and the survey results were almost the same. This shows that American schoolchildren love sports. They are convinced that it prepares them for life, helps develop character, self-confidence, and improves health.

Physical education and sport, of course, contribute to the formation and development of such traits that ennoble the individual, such as friendship, mutual understanding and cooperation, respect for an opponent, etc. However, as American sociologists note, this is inherent in it as long as human values ​​prevail over material ones. It is this positive beginning that US children's sports are losing. At the same time, sports activity promotes adaptability to competitive conditions, enterprise, aggressiveness, and the opportunity to “do business.” And this is one of the main reasons for its enormous popularity among all categories of the American population, especially among schoolchildren.

The desire for primacy and superiority is one of the most characteristic features of the American nation. This does not mean that these qualities are absent in other countries or other cultures. But nowhere else is this desire more pronounced than in the United States.

The number of physical education lessons in schools in a number of developed countries is presented in the table (situation at the beginning of the 90s).

PALESTRA Institute offers modern education in the field of physical education and sports.

When teaching, much attention is paid to practice. Students hone the knowledge acquired within the walls of the institute by working in sports clubs, fitness and wellness centers in Prague and at the main sporting events of the country. PALESTRA has been a partner of the Prague International Marathon for 16 years.

Bachelor's degree

Within the framework of the bachelor's degree program, training is conducted in two specialties.

The specialty “Sports and Fitness” involves the study of sports subjects with an emphasis on didactics (conducting sports events). Students are offered a wide range of courses - skiing, cycling, boating, hiking and others.

The specialty “Sports and Leisure Pedagogy” includes a larger number of subjects in the field of pedagogy and psychology. Students are taught to lead projects aimed at supporting leisure activities and personal development of various target groups.

Master's degree

The Institute of Physical Culture and Sports PALESTRA quickly responds to market needs. The institute recently began offering a master's degree program in Wellness. This is the only institute offering training in this modern and highly sought-after program.

• The PALESTRA Institute cooperates with sports associations and offers students the opportunity to obtain various coaching licenses. For example, as part of your studies you can obtain a UEFA B football coaching license.
• Students also have the opportunity to obtain a number of certificates necessary for further business activities (certificate of a ski instructor, swimming instructor, fitness center instructor, specialist in the field of sports and fitness massage, etc.).
• The PALESTRA Institute has an excellent technical base and has its own modern diagnostic center. Students have ample opportunities to participate in international exchange programs.
• Full-time and combined forms of training are provided.

Enrollment

Applicants are admitted based on the results of an oral interview.

Cost of education

• Bachelor's program “Sport and Fitness” – CZK 58,000 per year
• Bachelor's program “Sports and Leisure Pedagogy” – CZK 49,500 per year
• Master's program in Wellness – CZK 53,000 per year.

(Payments can be made by semester).

21. Sokol movement in the Czech Republic and other Slavic countries, content of Sokol gymnastics

In the Czech Republic, in the mid-19th century, the so-called Sokol movement. It was a cultural organization that created libraries, various amateur activities, volunteer fire brigades, but the main basis was gymnastics organizations. In an effort to make their organization attractive, the “Falcons”, led by Miroslav Tyrs, developed a system of gymnastic exercises on apparatus, with apparatus, and without apparatus. They introduced a combination of different exercises, paying attention to clarity and purity of movements. They introduced a monotonous gymnastic costume and musical accompaniment for the so-called. free movements. All exercises were divided into 4 groups. 1) exercises on apparatus 2) exercises with apparatus 3) group exercises 4) combat exercises. Lesson scheme: drill, freestyle, with shells, combat, on shells, in subgroups, general, drill, end.

22. The system of physical training of youth on the eve of the First World War (J. Ebert).

Hébert continued the line of development of the applied direction in PV, typical of France since the time of Amoros. He proposed to conduct all classes on site without any special equipment. I used trees for climbing, ditches for jumping, and fences for climbing. The exercise system was presented to young people for the purpose of their conscription training. He did not offer anything for women, believing that all his exercises would work for them. He was an opponent of sports specialization, wrote the book “Sports against FC”, and introduced a comprehensive test of 19 types of exercises. Achievements in each type were assessed using a 15-point system.

23. System of physical training of youth on the eve of the First World War (n. Buk)

Beech. Direction: gymnastics was created to train healthy, strong, but awkward guys through gymnastics so that they become dexterous and agile and fit for military service. He continued the Swedish exercise. Widely used equipment (wall, bench, boom). The classes were conducted at an unusually fast pace. Exercises with a partner were widely used.

27. General characteristics of the development of the international sports movement after the Second World War

After the end of the Second World War, the collapse of German fascism and Japanese militarism, in the defeat of which the Soviet Union played a decisive role, the first stage in the development of the international sports movement began. Sports organizations of the USSR and other countries of the socialist community, using the best traditions of the international workers' sports movement of the pre-war years, led a consistent and persistent struggle for the reorganization of the international sports movement on democratic principles. After the Second World War, the international sports movement began to represent a complex social phenomenon. Its development took place and is happening in the conditions of two opposing social systems - socialism and capitalism, the relationships and cooperation of which took various forms, but their essence boiled down to the struggle of two ideologies - communist and bourgeois. This struggle also captured the international sports movement. The materials of the Conference of Communist and Workers' Parties (1969) say that humanity entered the last third of our century in an atmosphere of intensifying historical confrontation between the forces of progress and reaction, socialism and imperialism. The arena of this confrontation is the whole world, all the main areas of public life - economics, politics, ideology, culture. Sports organizations of the USSR and other countries of the socialist community, relying on the ideology and policy of proletarian internationalism and respect for all peoples, use international relations as an important factor in the struggle for peace and friendship, for the social progress of society.

CREATION OF SOKOL GYMNASTICS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC

N. Kachulina

Russian State Academy of Physical Culture,
Moscow, Russia

The Sokol gymnastics system originated in the Czech Republic in the mid-19th century. At this time, small Slavic peoples living in the center of Europe were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In relation to the Austrians, they were oppressed peoples and fought for national liberation. It was at this time that Sokolstvo was born. Gradually developing and improving, it turned into a noticeable social phenomenon not only in the Czech Republic, but also in other Slavic states, primarily in Russia.

The authors of Sokol gymnastics were Miroslav Tyrsh - professor of history and art at the University of Prague and doctor of philology and major industrialist I. Figner. In the book “Fundamentals of Physical Training,” M. Tyrsh outlined an original system of exercises, the basis of which was German gymnastics, improved in the 50s and 60s. XIX century Spiessom. M. Tyrsh supplemented this system with elements borrowed from various types of European gymnastics, as well as some types of athletics. The purpose of gymnastics was defined as “to strengthen and preserve a person’s health, to make him invulnerable, to give courage and composure, strength and agility, agility, determination, courage, and finally to protect him from the consequences of one-sided activities.” All exercises were divided into four main groups.

The first group is exercises without apparatus:

1. Walking, running;
2. Floor exercises;
3. Order exercises (major exercises, round dances, dances).

The second group is apparatus exercises:

1. With equipment (sticks, dumbbells, weights, clubs, etc.);
2. On apparatus (goat, long table, crossbar, horse, ropes, etc.).

The third group is group exercises: pyramids, mass gymnastic performances, outdoor games.

Fourth group - combat exercises:

1. Resistance;
2. Fight;
3. Fencing and fist fighting.

A step forward was that in Sokol gymnastics attention was paid not to the number of repetitions, as was the case in German and Swedish gymnastics, but to the beauty of their execution. The falcons excluded all movements that looked ugly. The classes were conducted according to the following scheme: first drill exercises, then freestyle movements, exercises with apparatus and combat, then exercises on apparatus in subgroups (usually three with a change of apparatus), then general exercises (pyramids), finally drill exercises again, after which classes were ending. Gymnastic exercises began to be combined in combinations, musical accompaniment, beautiful costumes and special gymnastic shoes were introduced. In general, the system was aimed at regular and targeted training of the body and was considered by its author as a means of physical and moral education of the Czech people, helping to strengthen physical and moral strength and military training. From time to time, rallies of “falcons” were held in Prague, at which public physical training performances of all Slavic falcon societies were held.

A distinctive feature of the Skol movement was that from the very beginning, representatives of the society carried out cultural and educational work among the broad masses of the Czech people. Before the creation of "Falcon", the overwhelming majority of Czech peasants were illiterate, but even those who had the opportunity to attend school studied in a foreign language, German. "Falcons" played a huge role in the development of literacy and education among their people. The first Sokolnys (places where Sokol gymnastics classes were held) had libraries, literacy schools, were engaged in publishing activities, and widely distributed books in their native language among the Czech people.

Thanks to its attractive forms of work, the Sokol movement became widespread in many countries of the world, including Russia, and became the basis for the development of modern artistic gymnastics.

Bibliography:

1. - Prague, 1912

2. . - Chigirin, 1909

3. . - St. Petersburg, 1913

4. . - M., 1911

5. . - M., 1910

6. - Pg., 1912

7. . Translation from Czech and addition by Lukesh A. - Tiflis, 1911

8. . Mandatory lectures on history, ideology, organization. - Belgrade, 1935

9. . - Prague. VINNICHUK, 1924

10. . Dedicated to the emerging Falconry in Rus'. - St. Petersburg, 1912

eleven. . - Warsaw, 1910

CREATION OF THE SOCOLSCOY’S GYMNASTICS IN CZECHIA

N.Kachulina

Russian State Academy of Physical Education,
Moscow, Russia

The socolscoy"s system of gymnastics has arisen in Czechia in the middle XIX centuries. At this time small Slavic peoples living at the center of Europe, were in structure of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In relation to Austrian, they were oppressed and order struggle for national clearing. At this time also was born Socolstvo. Gradually developing and being improved, it has turned to the appreciable social phenomenon not only in Czechian, but also in other Slavic states, first of all in Russia.

The authors of the socolscoy's gymnastics were M.Tirsh - professor of history both art of the Prague university and doctor of philology and large industrialist I.Figner. In the book "BASES of physical preparation" M.Tirsh has stated original system of exercises, which basis has made the German gymnastics advanced in 50 and 60 years XIX cen. by Shpiss. This system M.Tirsh has added by elements borrowed from different kinds of European gymnastics, and also some kinds of athletics. The purpose of gymnastics was defined as "to strengthen and to keep to the man's health, to make him impregnable, to give courage and composure, strength and dexterity, quickness, resoluteness, boldness, at last, to protect from consequences of unilateral employment."

All exercises were subdivided into four basic groups.

The first group- without exercise sports shells:

1. Walking, run;
2. Free exercises;
3. Serial exercises (drill exercises, round dances, dances);

The second group- exercise with sports shells:

1. With shells (sticks, dumb-bells, weights & etc.)
2. On shells ("goat", horizontal bar, "horse", ropes & etc.)

The third group- group exercises: pyramids, mass gymnastic performances(statements), mobile games.

The fourth group - battle (dashing) exercises:

1. Resistance;
2. Struggle;
3. Fencing and fist fighting.

The step forward was that in Socolscoy's gymnastics was paid attention not to the quantity of recurrences, as it was in German and Swedish gymnastics, but on the beauty of their performance. All movements, which looked ugly - were excluded. The employment were carried out under the circuit: at first drill, then free and fighting exercises. The exercises with shells and on shells in complement of subgroups, then general exercises (pyramid), at last, the drill again, then employment came to an end. Gymnastic exercises became to incorporate in a combination, the musical support, beautiful costumes and special gymnastic footwear was entered. As a whole, the system was directed on regular and purposeful training of a body, and was considered by its author as a means of physical and moral education of the Czech people promoting strengthening of physical and moral forces and military preparation.

Distinctive feature of socolscoy's movement was that from the very beginning by the representatives of a society conducted cultural - educational work among broad masses of the Czech people. Before its creation the Czech peasants in the overwhelming majority were illiterate, but also those who had also those who had an opportunity to attend the school, were trained in Germany. "Socoly" have played a huge role in the development of the literacy and education among the people. They had the libraries, school of liquidation of illiteracy, were engaged in publishing, distributed the books in the Czech language.

Due to the attractive forms of work, the socolscoy's movement has received a wide circulation in many countries of the world, including Russia and was a basis of development of modern sports gymnastics.

The Faculty of Physical Education and Sports (FTVS UK) is one of the youngest faculties of the most prestigious Czech educational institution. Its graduates become specialists in the field of sports, physical education, therapeutic and rehabilitation practice and sports management.

The emergence of FTVS UK was preceded by the opening in 1959 of the Institute of Physical Culture and Sports, which six years later became part of the university as a separate faculty. Initially, training took place in a building known as Tyršův dům (Little Country). After 1989, the faculty moved to the building of the former Party College under the Central Committee of the Communist Party, which is located in.

Faculty students study in a bachelor's program, which spans three years, and a master's program, lasting two years. Studying in Czech is free, however, there are paid programs in English. FTVS UK cooperates with several international programs, so students have the opportunity to undertake internships and scholarships in many EU countries.

Students have at their disposal an athletics stadium, tennis courts, several gyms, a beach volleyball court and the Troyan Slalom Canal, where canoeing and rafting are taught. In addition, the faculty has a unique laboratory that allows diagnostics of errors during swimming, and a swimming pool located in the mentioned Tyršův dům. For nonresident students, a place is provided in a two-building dormitory with a capacity of 260 places.

Among the famous students and graduates of the faculty: Olympic champions David Svoboda, Miroslava Knapkova, Jaroslav Wolf, Martin Doctor, hockey coaches Alois Gadamczyk, Ludek Bukac, Marian Jelenik, head coach of the Czech national rugby team Martin Kafka, football coach Jakub Dovalil and many others.

FTVS UK is the only place in the country that trains specialists with higher education in this field. Only a third of applicants become happy students at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports of Charles University. Most of the faculty's graduates work as teachers at school, and a minority work as coaches and instructors.