Which of the estates proposed to abolish Luther. Martin Luther - short biography. To the Christian nobility of the German nation

The Reformation (from Latin reformatio - “transformation”) is a religious and socio-political movement in Europe in the 16th century that put forward demands for the reform of the Catholic Church and the transformation of the orders sanctioned by its teachings.

The beginning of the Reformation in Germany is associated with the name of Martin Luther (1483-1546), an Augustinian monk and professor at the University of Wittenberg, who in 1517 openly opposed indulgences. From his youthful years he was distinguished by deep religiosity; in 1505, having received a master's degree in "liberal arts", against the will of his father, who wanted to see his son as a lawyer, he became a monk of the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt.

In the hope of saving his soul, the future reformer strictly followed the monastic instructions (fasting and prayers). However, even then he had doubts about the correctness of this path. Having become a priest in 1507, Luther, at the insistence of his order, continued his university education at the Faculty of Theology at the University of Erfurt.

A trip to Rome in 1511 and the impressions of a personal acquaintance with the depraved mores of the highest Catholic clergy intensified in Luther the desire to search for those foundations of Christian dogma that were supposed to correspond to the internal religiosity, and not to the ritual, external side of the cult.

From 1512, after receiving a doctorate in theology, Luther began lecturing at the University of Wittenberg. Here he turned to an in-depth study of the Bible, moreover, as a lecturer, he was forced to develop his own interpretations of the biblical text. In 1512-1517. his theological concept gradually begins to take shape.

On October 18, 1517, Pope Leo X issued a bull on absolution and the sale of indulgences in order, as it was stated, “to assist in the construction of the church of St. Peter and the Salvation of the Souls of Christendom". This moment was chosen by Luther in order to present his new understanding of the place and role of the church in his theses against indulgences.

On October 31, 1517, Luther nailed to the door of the university church in Wittenberg the "95 Theses" ("Disputation on the Clarification of the Effectiveness of Indulgences"). He, of course, did not think about confrontation with the church, but sought to cleanse it of vices. In particular, he called into question the special right of the popes to the remission of sins, calling on the faithful to inner repentance, which was assigned the main role in obtaining the "saving help of God's mercy."

Luther's "Theses" translated into German gained phenomenal popularity in a short time. Soon, experienced Catholic theologians were sent to refute Luther's theses: Tetzel, the distributor of indulgences in Germany, the Dominican monk Sylvester Mazzolini da Prierio, and the famous theologian Johann Eck.

All of them, criticizing Luther, proceeded from the dogma of the infallibility of the pope. Luther was charged with heresy, and on August 7, 1518, he was ordered to appear for trial in Rome. However, relying on the support of his supporters, including among the authorities, Luther refused.

The papal legate in Germany had to agree to a proposal that Luther be interrogated in Germany. In October 1518 Luther arrived in Augsburg, where the Reichstag was sitting at that time. Here Luther declared that he would not renounce "a single letter" of his creed. The period of negotiations between the papal curia and Luther ended with a dispute that took place in the summer of 1519 in Leipzig between him and Eck.

When Eck accused Luther of repeating a number of positions close to the teachings of Hus, Luther declared that among the positions of Hus were "truly Christian and evangelical." This statement meant not only a refutation of the "supreme holiness" of the pope, but also the authority of the councils.

Only Holy Scripture is infallible, declared Luther, and not the pope and ecumenical councils. Thus, the result of the Leipzig dispute was Luther's open break with Rome.

In the treatise “To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation on the Improvement of the Christian Condition” (1520), Luther substantiated the liberation from papal domination by the thesis that the service of God is considered not as a matter of one clergy, but as a function of all Christians, their secular institutions and secular power.

This is how the idea of "universal priesthood" was expressed, which all Christians possessed. In parallel with this, Luther developed a program to fight the papacy and reform the church. He urged the Germans to stop paying Rome, reduce the number of papal representatives in Germany, and limit the intervention of the pope in the administration of the empire.

An important point in the national development of the Germans was the call to read the Mass in German. Further, Luther demanded the closure of the monasteries of the mendicant orders and the dissolution of all spiritual brotherhoods, the abolition of church immunities, excommunications, numerous holidays, and the celibacy of clerics.

By this time, we can already talk about the established system of Luther's theological views. The basic proposition put forward by him was that a person achieves the salvation of the soul (or "justification") not through the church and its rites, but with the help of personal faith, given to a person directly by God.

The meaning of this statement was, first of all, in the denial of the mediating role of the clergy between believers and God. Another thesis of Luther was to affirm the priority of Holy Scripture over Holy Tradition - in the form of papal decrees and resolutions of ecumenical councils.

This position of Luther, like the first, contradicted the Catholic dogma of a centralized universal church, distributing divine grace at its own discretion, and of the indisputable authority of the pope as a teacher of faith.

However, Luther did not completely reject the significance of the clergy, without whose help it is difficult for a person to achieve a state of humility. The priest in Luther's new church was supposed to instruct people in the religious life, in humility before God, but could not give absolution (this is the work of God).

Luther denied that side of the Catholic cult, which did not find confirmation and justification in the letter of the Holy Scriptures, therefore another name for the Lutheran Church is the Evangelical Church. Among the church paraphernalia rejected by Luther were the veneration of saints, the veneration of icons, kneeling, the altar, icons, sculptures, and the doctrine of purgatory. Of the seven sacraments, only two were ultimately retained: baptism and communion.

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Martin Luther (1483-1546) was the son of a prosperous burgher, a native of peasants, who became a member of entrepreneurial companies in the Mansfeld copper mining area. Luther was born in Eisleben (Saxony) and grew up in an environment of growing opposition to the Catholic clergy in German cities. Luther graduated from Er Aurta University, but abandoned the ways of the layman, joining the Augustinian monastic order. Having become a doctor of theology, he sought to eliminate the "corruption" of the church: in turning to the ideals of the Gospel, he saw a way to cleanse the life of the entire Christian society. The humanists prepared the ground for the spread of his ideas in many respects by their activities. Outraged by the trade in "absolution of sins" put on a grand scale by the agent of the pope and the archbishop of Mainz Tetzel, Luther at the end of October 1517 spoke with 95 theses against indulgences. Luther's words and actions received wide support in all sectors of German society and gave a powerful impetus to the development of the anti-Roman opposition movement.

Unlike the humanists, who condemn the remission of sins for a fee as a characteristic abuse of the church and the papacy, Luther refuted the very Catholic dogma about the possibility of saving the soul only through the mediation of the Catholic clergy and on the basis of a rite established by the church. In contrast to dogma and mercantile church practice, he emphasized the importance of the believer's conscience, the need for his justification of the deepest repentance for sin - "contrition of the heart." Luther believed that only by reaching complete humility before God's will, a person who has reached this mystical "abyss" can receive the saving help of God's mercy, which brings justification, bestowing faith.

Luther's theses, still quite contradictory, already outlined some of the fundamental principles of his teaching, the principles of which he deepened and substantiated later. The main place in this doctrine is occupied by the concept - "only three": a person is saved only by faith; he acquires it only through the grace of God, and not as a result of any personal merit; the only authority in matters of faith is Scripture.

Luther's teaching on salvation by faith led to far-reaching consequences. If the justification of a person is carried out according to God's plan, in complete dependence only on God's mercy, then the role of the mediation of the Catholic clergy and the significance of the church hierarchy in the fate of believers - each individually and the community as a whole - are excluded. The existence of the entire multi-stage church system headed by the pope loses its meaning, and only the personal, intimate and direct relationship of the believer to God determines his fate. Luther himself was not immediately aware of the results of this teaching.

He categorically refuted canon law, which substantiated the claims of the papacy and the church, and crossed out the authority<священного предания». Он осудил все попытки оправдать необходимость этого авторитета как якобы «живого Евангелия», помогающего толковать смысл Священного писания. Только само Священное писание содержит истину веры, и оно открыто всем.

Luther's early theology, not yet systematized, rapidly developing and full of contradictions, not knowing the later dogmatization and schematization, did not yet exclude the possibility of a deeply democratic interpretation. It made it possible to draw conclusions about the insubordination of a person's conscience to any external authorities, about the right of communities of believers to complete autonomy from the church hierarchy and the papacy. Luther's early teaching, which soon became widely known not only in Germany, but also in other countries of Europe, had a powerful impact on the entire subsequent development of the Reformation.

Destroying orthodox ideas about the role of the clergy as the highest religious authority, Luther, however, did not question the role of the church as mentor of people in religious life. He believed that its purpose was to help a person achieve humility, to clarify the Holy Scriptures.

In the tense situation in Germany, Luther's theses, which responded to an urgent social need, gained phenomenal popularity in a short time. Luther's friends - humanists and members of the Augustinian order - translated them from Latin and energetically contributed to their dissemination.

In February 1518, Luther wrote an explanation to his theses, where he emphasized the obligation of believers to obey the authorities, but pointed out that this need does not extend to the matter of conscience. A prominent ecclesiastical polemicist, professor of theology, Eck tried to ridicule the theses. Luther first turned to the language of the masses in polemic, declaring in German that the church needed reform, which could not be the work of the cardinals and the pope alone - its shortcomings and abuses should be discussed by all, and moreover openly. The danger of Luther's ideas was recognized by the inquisitors. They officially accused him of heresy, but the canonical process moved slowly. Luther insisted that in disputes about Christian doctrine it is unacceptable to resort to excommunication: convictions cannot be overcome by violence, the word can only be defeated by the word. In response, Luther's opponents achieved a decision to deliver him in chains to Rome. However, the Saxon elector Friedrich the Wise intervened in the matter, deciding to support Luther as his subject and take advantage of his “incident” for political purposes. Friedrich was promised to interrogate the accused of heresy "in a fatherly way." The further the struggle unfolded, the more place in it began to be occupied not by questions of the relationship of man to God, but by the problems of the structure of the church and the power of the pope. The public resonance of Luther's speeches also increased. An important milestone in the history of the Reformation was Eck's Leipzig dispute with Karlstadt, a lecturer at Wittenberg University who supported Luther, and with Luther himself (summer 1519). Eck argued that Luther was following in his delusions in the footsteps of the heretics Wyclif and Hus, condemned by the councils; Luther replied that in the teachings of Hus there was much that was truly Christian, and councils in matters of faith could be mistaken. The hitherto unheard-of rejection of the wisdom of the councils meant a virtual break with orthodox tradition and with Rome. Luther, however, was only strengthened in his convictions by reading Hus's treatise on the church at that time. Luther was also strongly impressed by the work of Lorenzo Balla, published by Ulrich von Hutten, which exposed the "Gift of Constantine" as a fake. Luther increasingly compared the Roman Curia in his letters to the tool of the Antichrist, and even wrote about the need for a sword to correct her vices.

In 1520, in the most secular of his works - "To the Christian nobility of the German nation on the improvement of the Christian state" - Luther proposed a program of church-political transformations. Here, for the first time, his call was made to the German estates, especially to the nobility, to lead the anti-Roman movement, and the doctrine of the “universal priesthood” was substantiated, which had a revolutionary effect on the social thought of the 16th century. Luther argued that all lay people have the same right to the priesthood that only the Catholic clergy had previously enjoyed. He demanded a clear distinction between the prerogatives of two powers - secular and spiritual, as well as the scope of two rights - secular, to which he attached paramount importance in ensuring the order necessary for Christian life, and church. Luther justified the need for the secularization of church property and the dissolution of monastic orders; in the monasteries, he proposed to place public schools, shelters, hospitals. Striving for the independence of the country from the claims of papal Rome, Luther appealed to the national feelings of the German people.

In the work “On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church,” he subjected the doctrine of the sacraments to crushing criticism, recognizing only three of the seven sacraments on the basis of Holy Scripture (later only two - baptism and communion). Henceforth a compromise between Luther and Rome became impossible. The new theology turned into a banner of social opposition, its main conclusions were perceived by the masses, who did not go into the scholastic subtleties of Luther's argumentation, as the basis not only for church, but also for socio-political transformations.

In June 1520, Pope Leo X signed a bull threatening Luther with excommunication unless he renounced his errors. In response, Luther published an essay - “On the Freedom of a Christian”, where he emphasized that in matters of conscience a Christian does not obey anyone, while in the field of external, “carnal” freedom, the existing authorities are the guarantors of order. Here, Luther's burgher attitude was revealed: he considered the system of power of princes that existed in Germany, which ensured the dominance of the feudal order, as not subject to radical changes.

In December 1520, after the papal bull came into force and the burning of Luther's books began, he responded by publicly symbolically burning one of the copies of the bull, as well as a book containing the foundations of canon law. Luther's bold stance, which demonstrated that the power of the pope is not unlimited, brought him great popularity in Germany. He became a national hero. Numerous printing presses printed Luther's works, making the Reformation ideas available to the masses. In April 1521, at the Reichstag in Worms, a new attempt to force Luther to recant his views in the presence of Emperor Charles V ended in failure. Luther's famous words were heard here: "Here I stand, and I cannot do otherwise." At the request of the emperor, the Reichstag adopted the Edict of Worms, ordering to persecute the champions of the new heresy throughout the empire. On the way from Worms, on the orders of Elector Frederick the Wise, Luther was kidnapped and placed in a safe place - the Wartburg castle, where he completed the translation of the Holy Scripture into German - a work that played a huge role in the development of German national culture.

Important events took place in Wittenberg during Luther's absence. The city, which became the center of the anti-Roman movement, was engulfed in religious disputes. For the first time, a group of monks defiantly left the monastery to lead the ordinary working life of the laity. There have been some changes in the church service. Supported by the burghers and students, Professor Karlstadt preached in December 1521 in secular attire and gave communion to believers in violation of Catholic orthodoxy "under both kinds." The payment for worship went to social purposes; in January 1522, a public fund was created, which was managed by representatives of the magistrate and the community. The transformations in Wittenberg were the beginning of the practical implementation of Luther's church reform ideas.

Luther was outraged by the "carnal" understanding of the ideas of spiritual freedom, for which he stood up. Fearing the rebellious actions of the people, he returned to Wittenberg and in March 1522 delivered sermons against the radical interpretation of the Reformation doctrine. Luther argued that the right to carry out reformation belongs only to princes and magistrates, but not to the people. Soon he issued "A sure warning to all Christians on how to protect themselves from rebellion and indignation." Developing the ideas of obedience to the princely and city authorities, he became the main spokesman for the ideas of the moderate burgher camp of the Reformation.

Born November 10, 1483 in the city of Eisleben in Thuringia. His father, Hans Luther, came from a peasant background, was a miner, and later acquired six foundries; mother, Margarita, also came from a peasant class. Martin was brought up in strictness, he received his education in church schools, where harsh morals reigned. In 1501 he entered the University of Erfurt and graduated in 1505 with a master's degree in arts. He then turned to the study of law, but a career as a lawyer seemed to suit his father's wishes rather than his own. Luther has long been tormented by the question of the fate of man in the world. His era was the era of a real cult of death, which arose a century earlier after the epidemics of the "black death" - the plague, but it was not even death that inspired him with the greatest fear, but the subsequent judgment and the threat of eternal damnation. In July 1505, as Luther was returning to the university after visiting his parents, he was caught on his way by a thunderstorm. Falling to the ground under a terrible lightning strike, he screamed in horror, turning to the patron saint of his father: “Holy Anna, save me! I will become a monk." Fulfilling this vow, he soon entered the Augustinian order, which was distinguished by a strict charter.

Taking vows and the monastery.

In September 1506 Luther made his last vows, and in May 1507 he became a priest. The following year he was transferred to Wittenberg University, where he taught logic and physics, and in 1510 he was sent on an assignment to Rome. In 1512 the University of Wittenberg awarded him a doctorate in theology; he quickly rose to the teaching field and preached regularly in the parish church. However, the old fears continued to haunt him. Initially, he hoped to earn paradise by a harsh lifestyle, but he soon came to the conclusion that it was not in the power of a person to do something so good as to allow him to rightfully claim the mercy of God. By carefully studying the Church's system of repentance, Luther became convinced that sins that he was not able to overcome and eradicate can still be forgiven. He found that he was not even able to confess all his sins: some of them slip from memory, while others are committed completely unconsciously, so that a person does not see his sinfulness until God the Judge points his finger at them. The mystical path, consisting in renouncing all struggle and relying on the miracle and mercy of God, did not seem to him a satisfactory solution, since for Luther God was "a consuming fire."

Teaching in Wittenberg.

The solution to the problem came to Luther not as a result of a sudden insight, but as a result of reading the Holy Scriptures, which he had to study especially closely when he was appointed to the chair of biblical exegesis at the University of Wittenberg. Having prepared and read courses of lectures from 1513 to 1516 on the interpretation of the Psalms and the Epistles of the Apostle Paul to the Romans and Galatians, Luther came to the conclusion that the salvation of man depends solely on God's grace, which became available only through the sacrificial death of Christ. Christ is, first of all, not a formidable Judge condemning sinners, but a Redeemer who accepted death on the cross. For salvation, a person needs only to believe and accept all that God has done for him, although his own sinfulness can never be completely overcome. This conviction formed the basis of Luther's theological system, the center of which was the doctrine of justification by faith.

Luther disagreed with official church doctrine on one point: he emphatically rejected the very possibility for a person to do anything that would bring him closer to salvation. The Church taught that through grace God endows a person with the ability to fulfill his commandments. A person is free to reject this grace, but if he accepts it and does good deeds, then this is credited to him. Luther argued that when good deeds are done with an eye to future retribution, this is no longer a merit, but a sin worthy of damnation.

Indulgences for the Cathedral of St. Peter.

The reason for Luther's decisive break with the Catholic Church was the well-known practice of selling indulgences. The term "indulgence" denoted the exemption granted by the church from punishment for sins. Initially, it was possible to obtain exemption only from the punishments inflicted by the pope on earth, but half a century before Luther, papal authority was also extended to the punishments inflicted by God in purgatory. Some popes began not only to free from penances, but also to forgive sins. Those who received such an exemption paid for this with material donations at a fixed rate (depending on the solvency of the subject). The rationale for this whole practice was the theory that Christ and the saints by their deeds deserved much more than was required for their own salvation, thus laying the "treasury of good deeds" that the pope can dispose of for the benefit of other people.

The privilege of selling special indulgences, which angered Luther, was granted by Pope Leo X to Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz, Magdeburg and Halberstadt. The proceeds were to be used to build the Cathedral of St. Peter. In reality, half of the money went to Albrecht himself: he paid them off for loans, thanks to which he was able to buy himself a second archbishopric from Rome. The distribution of indulgences was entrusted to Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk who already had considerable experience in this matter. In the letter accompanying the indulgence, it was announced that it granted the forgiveness of sin; in addition, it included the provision that those who bought indulgences for loved ones who are in purgatory, thereby relieve themselves of the need for repentance. Tetzel assured his listeners:

As soon as the coin in the casket jingles,

The soul will fly out of purgatory.

Ninety-five theses.

On the last day of October 1517, Luther, following the old custom, posted theses in Latin at the door of the palace church in Wittenberg, inviting theologians to discuss them. They included 95 points, which is why they were called the Ninety-Five Theses. Luther strongly opposed the idea of any connection between the collection of money and the remission of sins or release from punishment. He denied extending the pope's jurisdiction to purgatory. If the pope had the power to rescue souls from purgatory, he would have to release them all from there without any recompense. Many of Luther's contemporaries would have agreed with this, but he went further, to the point of denying the underlying theory of the "treasury of good works" done by the saints. Thus, Luther opposed not the abuse of indulgences, but the very idea of indulgences.

Luther sent a copy of his theses to Archbishop Albrecht, who, in turn, forwarded them to Pope Leo X. The pope belonged to the Medici family, being the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a widely educated man and a patron of the arts; it would be hard to expect that he would stop abuses in the sale of indulgences. Leo X backed up the pardoners' promises with his authority, confirming that souls were indeed immediately released from purgatory. Luther objected that the Pope was mistaken on this point. The Pope summoned Luther to Rome. At that moment, Luther's sovereign, Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, head of the college of prince-electors (electors) of the Holy Roman Empire, stood up for Luther, who insisted that his subject be given the opportunity to justify himself in the course of fair hearings, which was real only on German soil. Thus, the centuries-old distrust of the German rulers in the Italian papacy provided Luther with patronage and protection.

Hearings were scheduled in the presence of Cardinal Kajetan, who arrived in 1518 at the Augsburg Reichstag. The cardinal introduced Luther to the papal bull, which set out the doctrine of the treasury of merit accumulated by the saints. Luther opposed this doctrine, thereby challenging not only the authority of this pope, but also the canon law in which this doctrine was enshrined. The cardinal declared Luther a heretic and ordered him to leave and not return until he was ready to recant his opinions.

Debate between Luther and Eck.

A fire loomed clearly in front of Luther. His opponents predicted that in less than a couple of weeks he would be burned, and they would have been right if not for the sudden change in the political situation. The German Emperor Maximilian has died. The choice of his successor depended on seven Electors, led by Frederick of Saxony. The Pope did not want to strengthen the power of the main contenders for the imperial throne - Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England and Charles of Spain, therefore he preferred Elector Frederick. In order to win Frederick's favor, the pope did indeed allow Luther to have a public debate with a prominent theologian, Dr. Johann Eck, at the University of Leipzig. At the center of the debate was the question of the antiquity of the institution of the papacy: it was assumed that if the succession of the popes could be traced back to the time of the apostles, this institution was of divine origin. Luther declared that the power of the pope over the whole church had existed for only 400 years and that it was a human institution. Then Eck forced Luther to admit publicly that, in his opinion, neither the authority of the pope nor the authority of the ecumenical councils was infallible. Eck pointed out that this statement is consistent with the views of Jan Hus, a Bohemian heretic who was burned at the stake a century earlier. Luther had to admit the existence of certain points that brought his position closer to the position of Jan Hus.

Defending a known heretic meant declaring oneself a heretic, so it was obvious to everyone that this time Luther would not escape the fire. However, influential forces in Germany unanimously came to his defense. They were German nationalists, led by the knight Ulrich von Hutten (famous for his satirical writings), who saw in Luther the liberator of Germany, from which the insatiable papacy was sucking all the juices. These were the humanists, led by Erasmus of Rotterdam, who perceived Luther as a champion of free scientific thought, oppressed by the pope. The pope hesitated, for although Charles of Spain ascended the throne of the Holy Roman Empire (under the name of Charles V), the pope also needed the support of Frederick, as a kind of counterbalance. But in June 1520, Leo X, in his hunting residence, compiled the bull Ex s urge Domine - "Arise, Lord ... a wild boar has invaded Your vineyard." Luther's Leipzig opponent Johann Eck was instructed to publish this bull, but he faced unexpected opposition from the dukes and bishops, and only three months later, on October 10, 1520, the bull was handed to Luther in Wittenberg.

Subsequent writings.

Meanwhile, Luther, not thinking to submit, published a series of pamphlets, each of which only aggravated his guilt in the eyes of Rome. His appeal to the Christian nobility of the German nation for the correction of Christianity (An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation: Von des christlichen Standes Besserung) called on secular rulers, including the emperor, to reform the church. Luther demanded that the papacy return to apostolic poverty and simplicity. The Pope was actually supposed to be like St. Francis of Assisi, and to transfer the earthly affairs of the church to the discretion of local churches. These appeals met with the warmest response in Germany. More radical was the demand for the abolition of celibacy for the clergy, which was opposed in Germany long before Luther, in the 11th century, when it was introduced by Pope Gregory VII.

The next essay, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae praeludium), was even more radical. In it, the very sacramental character of the church and the theocratic claims based on it were put under attack. Of the seven church sacraments that existed in the era of Luther, he recognized only two: baptism and communion, and the latter refused to connect with the mass.

Luther believed that the Mass was not at all a repetition of the sacrifice of Christ. Eucharistic wine, like bread, should also be given to the laity. According to church teaching, in the sacrament of the Eucharist, bread and wine really turn into the body and blood of Christ, retaining only the external signs (accidents) of bread and wine. To this doctrine, known as the doctrine of transubstantiation (transsubstantiatio), Luther opposed his own doctrine of "coexistence" (consubstantiatio), or "co-presence": after the consecration of the Holy Gifts, the essences of bread and wine continue to be present in them, along with the essences of the body and blood of Christ. . The priest does not perform any miracle, since Christ is always present and in everything. The clergyman only opens the eyes of the faithful, showing them his presence, for although God and Christ are present in everything, this presence is not always obvious. After the publication of this treatise, Erasmus announced that the split between Luther and the church had become irremediable.

Equally revolutionary was the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. In his essay On the Freedom of a Christian (Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen), Luther argued that the laity should not depend on the priestly class, since a priest is simply a member of the church appointed to perform a specific ministry.

The papal bull was presented to Luther on 10 October; in it he was given 60 days to repent. Luther's answer was a pamphlet Against the accursed bull of the Antichrist. On December 10, the day the reprieve ended, he publicly burned the bull. However, this in itself did not put Luther out of the church, since his excommunication required a new bull, in which it would be announced that the deadlines had passed. This second bull was signed in January 1521. However, for the bull to become valid, it had to be published, and this bull was not published. In addition, it mentioned not only Luther, but also other persons, in particular Ulrich von Hutten, who had a significant army and had the opportunity to protect not only himself, but also Luther. Aleandro, papal representative to the Reichstag of the German Empire, returned the bull to Rome and demanded 40 copies of a new bull against Luther alone. As a result, Aleandro, willy-nilly, had to appear before the Imperial Diet, convened at Worms, without having at all a bull that would prove to the (mostly secular) tribunal that Luther was indeed a heretic. The Imperial Reichstag, originally convened to discuss administrative and financial problems, was thus to assume the functions of a church council. However, the Reichstag would not make a decision without first hearing Luther. Frederick of Saxony was particularly vehement in his insistence that his subject be allowed to speak. Emperor Charles V, although he was a zealous Catholic, ordered Luther to be summoned.

Reichstag of Worms.

Luther appeared before the Reichstag. He was shown editions of his writings and asked if they were all written by him. Luther recognized all these writings as his own. Then he was asked if he insists on everything that is said in these books. Luther asked for time to think and received a reprieve until the next day. The next day, the question was raised again, and Luther was asked in school Latin to answer bluntly whether he renounced his teaching or not. He replied in German: “Since you, Your Majesty, and You, Your Lordships, want a simple answer, I will give it without any scientific subterfuge. Until I am refuted by the evidence of Scripture or by clear arguments - for I do not believe either the pope or the councils; it is known that they often erred and contradicted themselves - I am overpowered by the words of Scripture I have quoted. And since my conscience is a prisoner of the Words of God, I cannot and do not want to renounce anything, because it is dangerous and impossible to go against my conscience. I'm standing on that. I can't help it. May God help me. Amen".

Luther at the Wartburg.

Even after this bold statement in its defense (the famous phrase "Here I stand ..." may be a later addition), the Reichstag did not dare to condemn Luther, but the emperor made it clear that Luther's implacable position was incompatible with orthodox dogma. And after some of Luther's supporters left, the rest adopted the "Edict of Worms", which subjected Luther to state disgrace. In the normal course of events, this would mean a fire, but Elector Frederick of Saxony intervened again, this time ordering his chaplain to hide Luther in a place that even the Elector himself would not know about. Wartburg Castle became such a place.

Initially, Luther was in a depressed mood. He claimed that the devil appeared to him several times (there is a legend that once Luther threw an inkwell at the demon, but missed). However, he soon managed to restore peace of mind, and he took up the translation of the New Testament into German from the Greek text, published shortly before by Erasmus. He then proceeded to translate the Old Testament from Hebrew. Luther was an excellent translator; in addition, he had a genuine religious fervor, which allowed him to ascend to the heights and penetrate into the depths of biblical texts.

While Luther was in the Wartburg, a reform movement began to grow in Wittenberg, led by some of Luther's colleagues at the university, above all the kind-hearted Philip Melanchthon, famous for his learning, and the violent Andreas Karlstadt, known for his radicalism. During communion, parishioners received not only bread, but also wine. Luther wholeheartedly welcomed these changes. He was invited to more active participation. The monks left the monasteries and got married. Does Luther approve of this? In search of an answer, Luther turned to Scripture and concluded that the monks were right, although he himself would never have taken a wife. Then, completely discouraging rumors began to reach about atrocities organized during Catholic services, about the destruction of icons, and so on. The elector warned him that he would not be able to provide protection for a person subjected to church excommunication and outlawed by the state. Luther replied that he did not ask for protection, and returned to Wittenberg. The fact that he then managed to live another 25 years and die in his own bed can only be explained by an incredibly happy combination of circumstances. The emperor could not actively intervene in what was happening, as he was distracted by wars with the Turks, with France, and even with the pope himself.

Church reform.

Luther undertook the task of reforming the church in accordance with his understanding of the gospel. He soon felt the blows from both liberals and conservatives. Liberals, i.e. Catholic humanists, and above all Erasmus, departed from him after they realized that the position he had taken led to a split in the church, in whose universal unity they deeply believed. Over time, Erasmus was even persuaded to write an essay against Luther and direct a blow to the very heart of his teaching - his doctrine of man. Erasmus, like the official church, believed that a person is able to contribute to his own salvation. In response, Luther insisted even more forcefully on the absolute helplessness of man.

Revolt of radical reformers.

Supporters of Luther and von Hutten with his party raised an uprising against the clergy and were defeated. An even more devastating blow followed. An extremist group arose in Luther's own camp, claiming that his views were not radical enough. Karlstadt suggested that the veneration of sacred images and church music be abolished altogether, and declared that the Eucharist was merely a symbol. He denied the need for monetary rewards for clergy and special vestments for them, and he denied all academic degrees. Thomas Müntzer argued that the saints, i.e. those who have been reborn in Christ can recognize each other, unite in union, and hasten the coming of the Lord by destroying the wicked. He put above all not the letter of Scripture, but its spirit and individual spiritual experience (personal revelation). Müntzer found numerous followers among the peasants, who had long suffered from social injustice, and started a wave of merciless peasant revolts that devastated Saxony.

Luther did not at all consider that the Church of Rome had done him harm. He loved music, he liked church painting, and he insisted that the Eucharistic bread and wine were the true body and blood of Christ. He believed that saints could not be recognized on earth. In any case, the sword, in his opinion, should never be used to spread religious faith, not to mention the fact that it should not be spread by some commoner, but by a person invested with spiritual authority. Thus, Luther took the position of conservative Protestantism. Subsequently, he sharply condemned the rebellious peasants and considered it acceptable to use violence against sectarians. Earlier, he said that faith cannot be the result of coercion and that officials are not capable of judging heresy. He never backed down from these words, but now he nevertheless recognized that public blasphemy and incitement to sedition should be punished by death. And when the pacifist movement of the Anabaptists arose, Luther declared them troublemakers, because their unwillingness to defend justice with the sword undermined the authority and the state.

In a creative way, Luther began to implement church reforms. His translations of the Holy Scriptures became his main tool. In September 1522, the German New Testament was published, and in 1534, the entire Bible. In addition, Luther composed church hymns and melodies for them. Particularly famous is the hymn Stronghold of Our God (Ein "feste Burg ist unser Gott), based on Psalm 47, for which Luther wrote both words and music. As aids for religious education, Luther compiled two catechisms - one for adults, the other for children. To help preachers, he published a volume of sermons, made changes to the liturgy, first in Latin, and then in German. From his pen came out many works, most of which were biblical commentaries, especially on the Old Testament. He preached on Sundays, and often on other days of the week, he was to be served during home worship to numerous household members - children, workers and students. Almost every word he said at the dinner table or in the classroom was recorded by diligent scribes. Some of his "conversations" would have been it is better to consign to oblivion, and some lectures are unspeakably boring, although sometimes a true fire flares up in them.

After the Reichstag of Worms, Luther ceased to play the social role he had previously played. Excommunicated and outlawed, he could not participate in the Reichstag. This duty was taken over by Melanchthon. Nor could Luther appear before a secular assembly to confess his convictions, as in Worms. The German princes did this for him at the Augsburg Reichstag in 1530. In the last 25 years of his life, Luther was primarily a teacher and preacher, although, of course, he continued to write articles and pamphlets that received the widest response, and was at the very center of the Reformation movement, so that opponents mockingly called him the Wittenberg Pope.

Marriage and the last years of life.

Luther took another decisive step, which, although it related to his personal life, was to have a profound impact on German culture and the entire Protestant world. It's about Luther's marriage. There was absolutely nothing romantic about this act. Impressed by the teachings of the reformer, the community of nuns left the monastery and arrived in Wittenberg. It was Luther's responsibility to provide them with lodgings, husbands, and generally take care of their situation. One of them, Katharina von Bora, nevertheless turned out to be unattached. Luther once declared that he himself would never marry, but in the situation that had arisen, he considered it the best way out to take her as his wife, and on June 27, 1525 they got married. Luther admitted that he was not passionately in love, but he had respect for his wife. Subsequently, he became very attached to her. Luther and Katharina became an example of a German family - patriarchal, alien to romanticism and sentimentality, but full of love and mutual tenderness. They had six children of their own; in addition, Luther and Katharina raised eleven more orphaned nephews and nieces.

The last years of Luther's life were overshadowed by chronic ailments. He died at Eisleben on 18 February 1546.

Luther Martin(November 10, 1483, Eisleben, Saxony - February 18, 1546, ibid.), leader of the Reformation in Germany, founder of German Protestantism. Martin Luther was born into a family of a former miner who became one of the owners of smelters and copper mines. After graduating in 1505 from the University of Erfurt with a master's degree, Luther entered the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt. In 1508 he began lecturing at the University of Wittenberg (from 1512 doctor of theology).

In the context of the rise of the social movement in Germany, October 31, 1517. Luther came out with 95 theses against indulgences. These theses contained the main provisions of his new religious teaching, which denied the basic dogmas and the entire structure of the Catholic Church, including the dogma that the clergy is a necessary mediator in the communication between man and God. Luther and his supporters argued that in Catholicism the veneration of God was replaced by the veneration of the church, the performance of rituals invented by the clergy and the worship of man-made objects of worship. The salvation of a Christian, Luther argued, is not in church services, rituals, candles, masses, chants, icons and other purely external manifestations of religiosity, but in a deep and sincere faith in God. Based on Holy Scripture, Luther argued that the entire hierarchy of the Catholic Church, monasticism, most of the rites and services are not based on the "authentic word of God", the "true gospel". Contrary to the teaching of Catholicism about the need to perform various rituals for the salvation of the soul, Luther, referring to the epistles of the Apostle Paul, argued that "a person is justified by faith alone." What concerns religion is a matter of the conscience of the Christian; the source of faith is Holy Scripture, "the pure word of God" (Luther translated the Bible into German). Everything that found confirmation in the texts of the Bible was considered indisputable and sacred; the rest was regarded as a human institution, subject to rational evaluation and criticism. As a result, "church tradition" and the Catholic Church itself were rejected. The Church, according to his teaching, is not a visible society of believers, but an invisible society of saints, justified and regenerated. Based on this understanding of the church, L. denied the church hierarchy, the sacrament of the priesthood. He recognized two sacraments: baptism and communion. Rejected saints, veneration of relics and icons. A “justified” person is spiritually free, since his fate is already determined by God, but in earthly life he must obey all its laws. Of great historical importance was the proclamation by Luther of the idea of independence of a secular state from the Catholic Church. Such theses were perceived by the opposition strata of the population as a signal to speak out against the Catholic Church and the social system sanctified by it.

In the first seven theses, Luther argues that repentance, to which Jesus Christ calls, is not accomplished in an act of the sacrament, but lasts the whole life of a Christian and ends only with entry into the Kingdom of Heaven (4 thesis). The true remission of sins is not performed by the pope, but by God himself (6 thesis).

In the next ten theses, Luther criticizes the Catholic dogma of Purgatory, which, as it were, erases the meaning of death (thesis 13).

In theses 21-52, Luther proves the invalidity of indulgences, for only God (or rather, His will) knows our salvation (thesis 28 is the basis of monergism). In addition, having bought an indulgence, the sinner has no guarantees that he is really saved (thesis 30). The purpose of indulgences is found not by the purchase of a letter of absolution, but by sincere repentance (the principle of Sola fide).

In the next 20 theses, Luther affirms the priority of the Word of God (lat. verbum dei) and the Gospel of Indulgences (thesis 55). “The true treasure of the Church,” he writes in paragraph 62, “is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and grace of God,” which God revealed on the cross (68 thesis). This is the principle of Sola Scriptura

In the last 20 theses, Luther argues that the pope has no special right to forgive sins (thesis 75). Otherwise, why hasn't he forgiven everyone's sins yet? (Thesis 82) Luther also does not consider the construction of the church of St. Peter's justification for indulgences (thesis 86)

In conclusion, he lays the foundations for the theology of the cross, according to which one should enter heaven not with money, but with sorrows (theses 94-95).

For these theses, he was accused by Rome of heresy, refused to appear before an ecclesiastical court, and in 1520 publicly burned a papal bull that excommunicated him from the church.

The provisions of the teachings of M. Luther on the reform of the church.

Justification by faith. In Catholicism, a sinful person is justified before God by "good deeds" with the help of the church. In Lutheranism, every Christian achieves the salvation of the soul solely through the God-given faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ.

Direct control over faith and conscience. Criticism of the claims of the clergy to the right of an intermediary between people and God. Fellowship with the Lord is possible for every pure-spirited Christian.

The fundamental transformation of the church. The idea of abolishing the guardianship of the papal curia had far-reaching consequences: the prerequisites were created for the political unification of Germany, the outflow of huge sums of money to Rome was stopped, a third of church holidays were abolished, and entrepreneurship was stimulated.

The simplification of rituals (the simplicity of the mass, the elimination of the sacraments) changed the life of brotherhoods, workshops and guilds, abolished a significant part of the black and white clergy, eliminated the costs associated with the maintenance of the church, led to the secularization of church and monastic property.

Luther preached the doctrine of "two kingdoms", according to which it is necessary to distinguish between "law" and "gospel", i.e. recognize the independence of the state in relation to the church, which was placed L. dependent on the secular authorities. He preached the doctrine of divine justice, understanding it not as a property expressed in punishment or retribution, but as an activity that makes a person righteous. Justice does not depend on man, but is given by the grace of the Creator and proclaimed by the Holy Spirit. According to Luther, the human mind is unable to penetrate the mystery of divine grace, which can only be known by faith. Reason itself is perverted by original sin.

In the essay "On Secular Power" (1523), Luther wrote that if the whole world consisted of genuine Christians (i.e., of true believers), then there would be no need for princes, or kings, or a sword , nor in law. However, only a minority of people behave in a Christian way; There are always more bad guys than good ones. Therefore, God established two governments - spiritual (for true believers) and secular (restraining the evil, forcing them to maintain external peace and tranquility).

The true Christian needs neither the law nor the sword, but he must take care of other people; therefore, since the sword is useful and necessary for the protection of the world, the Christian pays taxes, honors the authorities, serves, does everything that benefits secular power. “If you see,” Luther argued, “that there are not enough executioners, guards, judges, masters or rulers, and you consider yourself capable (of this occupation), then offer your services and take care of it so that they do not neglect the authorities, without which it is impossible get by..." The main thing is that the Christian should not use the sword for selfish interests; subject to this condition, "guards, executioners, lawyers and other rabble," Luther believed, could be Christians, since power and the sword are the service of God, and therefore "they must be those who would seek out, accuse, torture and kill the evil, defend forgiving the good, answering for them and saving them."

Often referring to the words of the apostles Peter and Paul about the God-established power given to punish criminals, terrible not for the good, but for the evil, Luther justified secular power in all its unattractive manifestations. “Know also,” wrote Luther, “that since the creation of the world, a wise prince has been a rare bird, and even more rare is a pious prince. Usually they are either the greatest fools or the biggest villains on earth; you should always expect the worst from them, rarely anything good ... If the prince manages to be smart, pious or a Christian, then this is the greatest miracle, the surest sign of God's mercy for this country. "

However, through the mouth of the apostles, God ordered to obey any authority, without which the existence of mankind is impossible. But the laws of secular power extend no further than the body and property, that which is external on earth. Secular power has neither the right nor the power to dictate laws to souls. "Everything connected with faith is a free matter, and no one can be forced to do so," wrote Luther.

Speaking against the privileges of the Catholic clergy, Luther defended the independence of the state in relation to the church. The service of priests - the spread of God's word, the teaching of Christians; in all external affairs they must submit to the state. One of the main provisions of Lutheranism is the independence of secular power from the papacy. Man freely seeks truth, relying on inner religiosity; in matters of faith coercion is impossible.

The clergy is not some special "rank", independent of the secular authorities. Luther called on kings and princes to armed struggle against popes, cardinals, and the entire Catholic clergy.

The provisions of M. Luther on the separation of spiritual and secular authorities.

The doctrine of the "two kingdoms". Religious and secular spheres ("service" and "personality") are demarcated. The religious organization of the society is completely autonomous. Freedom of conscience, faith, the inner world of a person are the sphere of exclusively spiritual power. The intrusion of secular power into religious life is justly resisted by the power of words and suffering for faith. The only judge and avenger is God.

The concept of a secular state and law. Secular power deals with the economy, politics, education, culture. Officials (“persons” or “executors”) are obliged to follow the interests of their subjects, they are guided by ethical principles, the norms of natural law.

Autonomy of civil law. It is exempt from the guardianship of canon law, but, since cannot take into account the whole variety of social conflicts, then it should not be elevated to an absolute.

The mind is the "teacher of the law", therefore it plays an important role in politics.

Secular authority. The institutions of secular power are sanctified by divine authority”; subjects have no right to resist the authorities. Officials leave, and the government is established by God. Disobedience to authority is a greater sin than murder, adultery, or lying.

Meaning.

The historical significance of M. Luther's activity lies primarily in the fact that his speech gave impetus to a powerful upsurge in the movement of all the progressive and revolutionary forces of society. At the same time, the Lutheran Reformation, having broken with the general popular movement, the center of which it was at first, later became the mainstay of the power of the feudal princes. Of great importance was the proclamation by Luther of the idea of the independence of a secular state from the Catholic Church, which in the era of early capitalism corresponded to the interests of the emerging bourgeois elements. Of great importance was Luther's translation into German of the Bible, in which he succeeded in establishing the norms of a common German national language.

A huge number of books have been written on the topic of the Reformation, which began with Martin Luther in the 16th century, and still I want to look behind the screen of being and touch the new facets of Martin Luther's life, understand the motives that move him on the path of the universal Reformation and the famous 95 theses, and most importantly, to salvation and freedom of the soul.

It is best to divide the search into 3 key questions:

1) The fetus in life

2) The fetus after life

3) Personal life / inner harmony

Biography of Martin Luther

The biography of the great reformer begins in 1483, when the Scripture was available to priests only in Latin, and often was not read even in this version. The myths of an evil God who cannot be satisfied with anything are deeply rooted in the lives of the common people. Martin was born into a family of hardworking and stubborn peasants. At home, young Luther adopted an example of hard work and discipline, achieved good results in his studies, defending his thesis and receiving a bachelor's and master's degree.

Once, when Martin Luther was walking through the forest, a strong storm began and he was very frightened when he was thrown to the ground by a lightning strike, which was preparing to say goodbye to life, considering what was happening to be the punishment of heaven. With all his might, Luther prayed to St. Anne for help. The young lawyer promised to become a monk and only wanted to get away from hellish torment. He believed that he could please God only through the monastery. He wanted with all his heart to find peace, peace with God. Then you can see what the Word of God can do with complete trust in Him and constant study.

The monastic path of Martin Luther

Having become a monk, Luther exhausted himself with posts, services, good deeds, and was still dissatisfied. Everything that he knew before, all the traditions of that time drove him into depression, claimed in unworthiness. Luther, because of his thirst for God's acceptance, could not eat or drink for several days and only read the Bible. He was found half alive, but all efforts did not bring peace to the heart.

Luther had one desire - to please God, only sincere love for the Almighty gave strength to go forward, despite the difficulties and failures. Martin held his first mass, which was attended by his father, and due to strong excitement, he could not cope, faced the shame and rejection of a loved one. Nevertheless, he did not give up and remained on the chosen path, contrary to his father's desire to see Luther as a lawyer.

Constantly in search, the future Reformer goes to Rome to the holy places and finds there priests corrupted by fornication, thirsty ministers, selling indulgences and invented relics. Despite the strong disappointment, Martin goes further and meets with a new mentor, Staupitz, who opens up a different perspective on the affairs of man and God's presence, which changes the essence of man. Indeed, the truth is said "he who seeks finds." Luther begins to study the Bible in depth like never before.

Discovery of Truth

In 1515-1517. Martin gives lectures to students and realizes through the message to the Romans that God has great love for humanity and the Creator wants not to punish, but to justify everyone, and the most important realization comes - that only faith plays a role in saving a person. (“The righteous shall live by faith” Romans 1:17). “Finally, after much thought and by the grace of God, I began to understand that the righteous live according to God’s gift, namely, by faith ... I felt reborn, and also as if I had entered the wide-open gates of paradise,” Luther said.

Martin could not remain silent. He longed to convey his revelation and truth to the masses, which expressed his love and compassion for people. The world-famous 95 theses were born here, which were hung on the door of the church. In them, Luther expounded the basic truths of Scripture, without even imagining the consequences that they would be a revolution for the whole world.

Key areas of abstracts:

Opposition to selling indulgences to make money;
Denial of the authority of the Pope over purgatory;
Revealing the true ways of salvation for each person.

Surprisingly, even without informing the author, 95 abstracts were translated into German and printed out. One can only imagine how hungry people were for the truth.

The firm position of Martin Luther

Luther was confirmed in God's love, which prompted him to carry it to others. He argued that only Scripture is the final authority, and not the Pope. Martin Luther was forced to renounce his life's work, but the true foundation that had been laid could no longer be broken. The reformer confidently advanced, publicly burned papal laws, participated in student debates, and asserted himself in his own freedom. Words of affirmation: “Faith is not the merit of man. This state is given by God or, more precisely, it is the realization of a new life that has taken root deep in the soul, having received confidence in God's disposition.

When communicating with Emperor Charles V of Spain at the trial, Martin again refuses to recant and announces that he will decide to leave his views only in the case of arguments from Scripture. He is recognized as a heretic and there is a threat of losing his life like Jan Hus, but his friends take Luther away in time and hide him in the castle, where the translation of the New Testament into German is being born.

Love in Luther's Life

Luther adheres to the idea that people's souls are won by love. He does not require others to quickly accept God's mercy, realizing that time is needed. Luther's reforms were also aimed at helping the poor. Funding was provided from the funds of the monasteries to orphans, students and poor girls for dowries. Luther found new opportunities to influence. He changed boring services into preaching the gospel, helping monks escape and get married. He himself also married a strong-willed runaway nun with red hair, whose name was Katherine. In his heart for his wife, he felt deep tenderness and respect. She, in turn, became a caring assistant to her husband, an excellent organizer and financial manager.

Luther said:“Some marriages are born solely out of lust, but lice and fleas also experience lust. Love begins when we have the desire to serve others.”

Martin loved his wife and claimed that this only strengthened over the years, the children were a special gift for him and the loss of several of the 6 children was a great pain.

Martin Luther, with his open heart to people, often participated in discussions and hosted guests of different classes and ages.

The Reformation led in turn to an uprising of the peasants against the nobility. Luther opposed violence on both sides and tried with all his might to stop the bloodshed, which once again proved his love for people.

The greatest work Luther - a translation in addition to the New Testament and the Old from Hebrew into accessible German. I set myself the task of doing the work of the highest quality and conveying the truth to as many people as possible, I did not even imagine that almost all German families would strive to have such a copy.

Last days

Martin worked to the last, preaching while writing new works. His departure was on one of the trips, which he went on in poor health, but managed to preach, administer the sacrament and ordain ministers. His idea for the trip was the words: "If I can help restore harmony between my dear princes and their subjects, I can calmly return home and there go to another world." Until the last, Luther's every day was filled with love for people, which He drew from God.

Coming back to the 3 key questions: