Central government reforms— large-scale transformations of the state apparatus undertaken by Peter I the Great. Key innovations are the creation of the Governing Senate, the replacement of the outdated system of orders with the Collegium, the creation of the Holy Synod and the Secret Chancellery.

A complete list of reforms related to central government bodies can be found in the table at the top of the page.

Reforms of the central government of Peter I

Reasons and prerequisites for central government reforms

• The key positions of government were not always occupied by competent nobles who received the post by right of noble birth.
• The outdated administrative system of orders hampered economic development and was clumsy.
• Strengthening the vertical of power (creation of an absolutist monarchy) was supposed to prevent possible riots and stop mass escapes of soldiers and peasants.
• The Grand Embassy of 1697-1698 allowed Peter I to become familiar with the European system of administrative bodies, on the basis of which he decided to carry out his own reforms.

Briefly about the essence and content
central government reforms

Creation of the Near Chancellery and abolition of the Boyar Duma

With the coming of Peter I to power, the Boyar Duma began to lose its powers, turning into another bureaucratic department. The tsar tried to change the established order (members of the boyar duma were elected from local nobles) and place people under his personal control in leadership positions. WITH 1701 its functions as the highest government body began to be performed by the so-called "Consultation of Ministers"- a council of heads of the most important government departments, among whom there were many non-boyars. After 1704, there are no mentions of meetings of the Borya Duma, although its official abolition did not take place.

Near office, was created in 1699 to control the financial costs of all orders, as well as administrative decisions, all the most important papers had to be signed by the main royal advisers and ministers, for which a special book of registered decrees was established.

Creation of the Governing Senate

March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the tsar (the Northern War occupied most of his attention). The Senate was completely controlled by the tsar and was a collegial body, the members of which were appointed by Peter I personally. February 22, 1711 for additional supervision of officials during the absence of the king, a position was created fiscal.

Creation of Boards

From 1718 to 1726 The creation and further development of Collegiums took place, the purpose of which Peter I saw was to replace the outdated system of orders, which were excessively slow in solving the problems of the state and, often, duplicated their own functions. As they were created, the boards absorbed orders. In the period from 1718 to 1720, the presidents of the colleges were senators and sat in the Senate, but subsequently, of all the colleges, representation in the Senate was reserved only for the most important ones: Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.

The creation of the collegium system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, uniform standards of activity (according to the General Regulations) - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

A comparison of the order and board systems is presented in the diagrams below.

Order system

Publication of the General Regulations

By decree of 9 May 1718 Peter I instructed the presidents of the Chamber, Revision, and Military Collegiums to begin developing General Regulations— office management system, called “collegiate”. The regulations approved the collegial method of decision-making by the boards, determined the procedure for discussing cases, the organization of office work, and the relationship of the boards with the Senate and local authorities.

March 10, 1720 The General Regulations were issued and signed by the Tsar. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters containing the most general principles of the activities of the apparatus of all state institutions, and an appendix with the interpretation of foreign words included in it.

The procedure for considering cases in boards and the official responsibilities of officials according to the General Regulations of 1720.

Creation of the Holy Synod

Towards the end of the Northern War with Sweden, Peter I began preparations for the introduction of a new type of administrative institutions - collegiums. Based on a similar principle, it was intended to establish the highest governing body of the Church, for which Bishop Feofan Prokopovich was instructed to develop Spiritual regulations. February 5, 1721 was published Manifesto on the establishment of the Theological College, later called "The Most Holy Governing Synod".

All members of the Synod signed the regulations and personally swore allegiance to the Tsar, and also pledged to protect the interests of the fatherland and Peter I. May 11, 1722- to control the activities of the Synod, the position of chief prosecutor was created, reporting to Peter I on the state of affairs.

Creation of the Secret Chancellery (Preobrazhensky Order)

Preobrazhensky order was founded by Peter I in 1686, as an office establishment for managing the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky amusing regiments. Gradually, as the power of Peter I strengthened, the order received more and more new functions - in 1702, the tsar issued a decree according to which all those who reported state crimes (treason, assassination attempt on the monarch) were sent to the Preobrazhensky order. Thus, main function, which this institution carried out - the prosecution of participants in anti-serfdom protests (about 70% of all cases) and opponents of the political reforms of Peter I.

During the era of Peter I in Russia, serious changes in the political, economic and cultural life of Russia, which began in the middle of the 17th century, continued and intensified. and associated with its gradual emergence from medieval isolation in relation to Europe. Peter I at the end of the 17th – beginning of the 18th centuries. significantly intensified reform processes. Economic and political transformations in Russia immediately required a large number of specially trained professional people: officers, sailors, artillerymen, engineers, doctors, scientists, civil servants, teachers. This, in turn, required educational reform.

A number of projects for organizing education were presented to Peter I for consideration. Thus, at the beginning of the 18th century. State schools of various types appeared in Russia.

All schools were created according to the decrees of Peter I and even under his personal control.

The first attempt of the government of Peter I to create a network of primary schools accessible to the broad public was the opening of digital schools. Decrees of 1714 introduced compulsory educational service for children of soldiers, children of clerks, clerks, as well as clergy, nobles, and clerks. It was assumed that these schools were a preparatory stage for subsequent vocational training. The content of the training included literacy, arithmetic, and elementary geometry. Students were forbidden to even get married until they learned digits. However, these schools gradually fell into disrepair. In 1707, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. The curriculum included arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy, and mathematical geography. Before studying this program, students could go through two primary classes (“Russian school” and “digital school”), where they learned to read, write and count. The school trained sailors, engineers, artillerymen, and servicemen. At the same time, a state artillery and engineering school was opened in Moscow. Training there consisted of two levels - lower and upper; the lower one, or “Russian”, taught writing, reading, and counting; upper - arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, drawing, fortification and artillery. Initially, children from different classes attended the school; Gradually, only noble children began to study there.

In 1707, a surgical school was opened in Moscow at a military hospital - a school for training doctors. The content of the training included anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, Latin, drawing; training was conducted primarily in Latin. Theoretical training was combined with practical work in the hospital.

For training the children of soldiers and sailors at the beginning of the 18th century. Garrison and Admiralty schools began to open, the purpose of which was to train junior army and navy commanders, craftsmen in construction and ship maintenance. The first admiralty school was opened in St. Petersburg in 1719. In 1721, a decree was issued on the creation of garrison schools for each regiment.

In the era of Peter, another type of school appeared - mining schools, which trained skilled workers and craftsmen; The first of these schools was opened in 1716 at the Petrovsky plant in Karelia. Children from poor noble families studied in schools; Here they taught mining to young men already working in factories, and blast furnace, forging and anchoring to students of the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences. At the beginning of the 18th century. mainly for noble children, new educational institutions were opened one after another, such as the Moscow Engineering School, the St. Petersburg Engineering School, the St. Petersburg Artillery School, etc. In the first quarter of the 18th century. a network of new theological schools was created (they were called bishops ) . A distinctive feature of these schools was the combination of a secular program with a religious one. They taught children reading, writing, Slavic literacy, arithmetic and geometry. These schools were only primary and were opened on the initiative of those clergy who supported the reforms in the state.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. a network of new theological schools was created (they were called bishops ) . A distinctive feature of these schools was the combination of a secular program with a religious one. They taught children reading, writing, Slavic literacy, arithmetic and geometry. These schools were only primary and were opened on the initiative of those clergy. It should be noted that the emergence of new types of schools in the Peter the Great era was an important stage in the organization of the national education system. During this period, the foundation was built for building school affairs on a new basis. In educational institutions created at the beginning of the 18th century, instruction took place in Russian. The Russian alphabet was improved in order to make it easier for students to learn their native language. In the teacher’s practice, manuals from foreign and domestic authors were used. It is important to note that the new educational institutions took on the functions of not only education, but also upbringing.

44.The emergence of vocational education.

Economic and political transformations in Russia immediately required a large number of specially trained professional people: officers, sailors, artillerymen, engineers, doctors, scientists, civil servants, teachers. This, in turn, required educational reform.

A number of projects for organizing education were presented to Peter I for consideration. a single type of education, characteristic of pre-Petrine times, was divided into two directions - church and secular; Within the latter, various professional schools arose.

At the beginning of the 18th century. State schools of various types appeared in Russia. These schools were distinguished by their practical orientation and at the same time were not narrowly professional. In 1707, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. The curriculum included arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy, and mathematical geography. The school trained sailors, engineers, artillerymen, and servicemen. At the same time, a state artillery and engineering school was opened in Moscow. Training there consisted of two levels - lower and upper; the lower one, or “Russian”, taught writing, reading, and counting; upper - arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, drawing, fortification and artillery. In 1707, a surgical school was opened in Moscow at a military hospital - a school for training doctors. The content of the training included anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, Latin, drawing; training was conducted primarily in Latin. For training the children of soldiers and sailors at the beginning of the 18th century. Garrison and Admiralty schools began to open, the purpose of which was to train junior army and navy commanders, craftsmen in construction and ship maintenance. The first admiralty school was opened in St. Petersburg in 1719. In 1721, a decree was issued on the creation of garrison schools for each regiment.

In the era of Peter, another type of school appeared - mining schools, which trained skilled workers and craftsmen; The first of these schools was opened in 1716 at the Petrovsky plant in Karelia. . Children from poor noble families studied in schools; Here they taught mining to young men already working in factories, and blast furnace, forging and anchoring to students of the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences.

At the beginning of the 18th century. mainly for noble children, new educational institutions were opened one after another, such as the Moscow Engineering School, the St. Petersburg Engineering School, the St. Petersburg Artillery School, etc.

The problem of professional training also affected the state apparatus: schools began to open where clerical workers were trained.

Collegiums- central administrative bodies created by Peter I from 1717 to 1722 to replace orders (the outdated system of executive bodies). The basis for the regulations of the boards was Swedish legislation, and the system itself was built on the basis of the experience of its functioning in Germany and Sweden.

Collegium system

The establishment of collegiums introduced three newprinciple:

• Sectoral division of departments (orders duplicated each other’s functions)
• Deliberative (collegial) nature of decision making.
• General rules for the functioning of authorities according to the General Regulations of 1720.

The meaning of boards

The establishment of the collegium system was the final stage of centralization and bureaucratization of state government bodies. Together with the Governing Senate, the Holy Synod and the Secret Chancellery, the collegiums formed the central government bodies (assisting the emperor and acting on his behalf) in the absolutist monarchy of Peter I.

In addition, the gradual replacement of orders with collegiums was the final blow to the localism system, which was abolished back in 1682, but unofficially continued to exist.

Central authorities

History of the creation of the Collegiums

Back in 1712, with the participation of foreign advisers, there was an attempt to create a Board of Trade. Sophisticated officials and lawyers from Europe were invited to work in government agencies of the Russian kingdom. The Swedish collegiate system, which at that time was the best in Europe, was taken as a model for developing its own rules.

In fact, real work on creating a collegium system began only at the end of 1717. On December 22, 1717, the royal decree “On the staff of the Colleges and the time of their opening” was issued., which marked the beginning of the reform of the Collegiums. It was impossible to quickly change the order system, so it was decided to abandon drastic changes in the government structure. Orders were either replaced by collegiums or transferred to their subordination (for example, the Justits Collegium included seven different court orders). Peter I himself called only three collegiums “first” (i.e., main) - foreign affairs, military and the Admiralty collegium.

In 1718 the list was approved first 9 boards:

1. Foreign Affairs.
2. Military Collegium.
3. Admiralty Board.
4. Chamber collegium
5. Justice Collegium.
6. Commerce Collegium.
7. State office.
8. Berg Manufactory Collegium.
9. Revision board.

Panoramic view of the building of the Collegiums located on Vasilyevsky Island in St. Petersburg, made by J. A. Atkinson in the period 1802-1805

Subsequently, as necessary, new boards were created or existing ones were reorganized:

In 1720, the Justice Collegium of Livonian, Estonian and Finnish Affairs was created.

In 1721, the Patrimonial Collegium was established to replace the Local Order.

In 1722, the Berg-Manufacture Collegium was divided into the Berg-College and the Manufactur-College, and the Little Russian Collegium was created to replace the Little Russian Prikaz. Thus, answering the question “ how many colleges were there under Peter I» you can list them by 1722.

INTRODUCTION

Russian journalism has gone through three centuries in its development. Originating as a phenomenon of political life in the form of government Gazette, throughout the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries. it was part of the literary process, fulfilling an educational, educational and political role in society.

Due to the absence of other institutions of social life in Russia, journalism in the form of literary polemics, criticism and journalism already in the middle of the 19th century. turned into a public platform capable of influencing not only literary, but also political opinions.

Gradually separating from literature and acquiring its own developmental features, in the second half of the 19th century. journalism becomes an independent social and literary activity related to the formation of public opinion. At the same time, the formation of journalism as a profession takes place, awareness of its role in the life of society, which is caused by the professionalization of journalistic work and the commercial approach to organizing the magazine business. The attitude towards journalism as a commodity, which first appeared in the 15th century. in the publishing activities of N. I. Novikov, was established in the 1830s in the journalistic practice of F. V. Bulgarin, O. I. Senkovsky and became a necessary condition for successful publishing activities in subsequent decades. The commercialization of journalism has given rise to controversy about the incompatibility of “trade” relations with the high literary and moral standards of journalism, and the need to develop ethical standards in journalism. The growth of the mass “average” reader in the second half of the 19th century. stimulated the typological development of the “big” and “small” press, its focus on the needs of the reader, and the study of the readership.

The emergence of periodicals, bearing the features of mass culture, throughout the 19th century. was accompanied by the preservation of the tradition of publishing “thick” social and literary magazines, which sought to develop the literary and aesthetic tastes of the reader, discuss significant problems of culture, history and public life, and socially and spiritually educate their contemporaries.

The uniqueness of the formation of journalism in different historical periods is associated with the nature of government and, accordingly, the attitude of the authorities towards the press, which was manifested in censorship-non-policy. At the same time, however, the restriction of the practical freedom of journalists in Russia stimulated the growth of spiritual freedom. This was reflected in the development of a conventional “Aesopian” language, a system of allegorical speech that established a special, trusting connection between publications and readers. In addition, the strengthening of censorship oppression caused the emergence of uncensored press both in Russia and abroad. Publications published in the mid-19th century. abroad in the Free Russian Printing House of A.I. Herzen, marked the beginning of the creation of a system of independent Russian press in emigration. Emigrant journalism, developing in the traditions of the Russian press, experiencing the influence of European journalism, reflected new typological features that manifested themselves in the genre originality, structure, design, and readership of the publication.

The first two centuries of the development of Russian periodicals laid the foundation for a system of publications in the provinces, which by the end of the 19th century was represented by official and private publications varied in typology and direction.

Throughout the entire period of the existence of the domestic press, attempts were made to comprehend, systematize, and recreate its history. M.V. Lomonosov,

A. S. Pushkin, N. A. Polevoy, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, A. I. Herzen, N. A. Nekrasov, M. N. Katkov and many others writers, editors, publishers who created the periodical press in Russia, participated in it and tried to determine its place and role in the life of society. Collection and description of periodicals, which during the 19th century. conducted by bibliographers

V. S. Sopikov, V. G. Anastasevich, A. N. Neustroev and others, ended with the publication of the fundamental work of N. M. Lisovsky “Bibliography of Russian periodicals. 1703-1900" (Pg., 1915). A significant place in pre-revolutionary studies on the history of literature and journalism belongs to censorship, about which A. M. Skabichevsky, K. K. Arsenyev, A. Kotovich, M. K. Lemks, V. Rosenberg and V. Yakushkin wrote.

The study of the history of domestic journalism in Soviet times has become systematic. Along with studies devoted to individual publications and personalities, general works by V. E. Evgeniev-Maksimov, P. N. Berkov, A. V. Zapadov, V. G. Berezina, B. I. Esin appear. “Essays on the history of Russian journalism and criticism” published at Leningrad University in two volumes (L., 1950; 1965) laid the fundamental basis for the development of a university course on the history of Russian journalism, which became an integral part of professional journalistic education.

The first textbook “History of Russian journalism XV11I-X1X centuries”, prepared in the early 1960s by V. G. Berezina, A. G. Dementiev, B. I. Esin, A. V. Zaiadov and N. M. Sikorsky (under edited by Prof. A. V. Zapadov), went through three editions (the last, third, was published in 1973) and still remains the only textbook that most fully represents the history of the Russian press of this period. However, it is largely outdated in methodological terms, which is reflected in the one-sided approach to covering the history of domestic journalism from the point of view of Lenin’s periodization of the liberation movement in Russia. The predominant attention to the revolutionary-democratic press affected the incompleteness and bias of the coverage of liberal and conservative publications that are of significant professional interest.

The need to create a new textbook is due to the demands of the time. The changed socio-political and economic conditions of the development of our country predetermined new methodological and methodological approaches in the study of national history, including the past of the Russian press. When creating this textbook, the authors relied on the research of their predecessors, which remain authoritative sources for the study of Russian journalism, retaining significant historical and scientific value. At the same time, the authors sought to avoid a dogmatic approach, ideological predetermination and didactic edification in assessing the phenomena of the past, tried to show the content and character of Russian journalism at different stages of development in all the diversity of its manifestations: liberal, democratic and conservative; Westernizing and Slavophile; Russian and emigrant; metropolitan and provincial.

The textbook, in chronological order, reveals the process of formation of the domestic periodical press from its origins to the creation of a developed printing system at the end of the 19th century; introduces the most influential publications, outstanding publishers, journalists; filling in the missing links, shows the uniqueness of the formation of the journalistic profession in Russia; examines the evolution of the Russian press in the context and inextricable links with European journalism.

The textbook was prepared at the Department of History of Journalism of St. Petersburg State University with the participation of historians of domestic journalism from the Ural, Rostov State Universities and IRLI (Pushkin House).

St. Petersburg State University: L. P. Gromova, Dr. Philol. sciences, prof.: Introduction; part I, chapter 1; part. Ill, ch.9, § 1-3, 5-8, 11-13,15-16; D. A. Badayayan: part II, ch. 8, § 5; Part Ill, Ch. 9, § 9.14; G. V. Zhirkov, Ph.D. Sciences, prof.: Part III, Ch. 10, § 1-5, 10; O. V. Slyadneva, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor: Part I, Ch. 2; E. S. Comma, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences: Part Ill, Ch. 10, §6-8.

IRLI (11\ 111KINSKY House): Yu. V. Stenpik, Dr. Philol. Sciences: Part I, Ch. 3-5; B.V. Melgunov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences: Part Ill, Ch. 9, § 4.

Rostov State University: A. I. Stachko, a.-r. sciences, prof.: part II, ch. 6, 7; Part Ill, Ch. 10, § 9.

Ural State University: M. M. Kovaleva, Doctor of Philology. sciences, prof.: part II, ch. 8, § 1-4.6;L. M. Iakushim, Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor: Part III, Ch. 9, § 10.

THE EMERGENCE OF RUSSIAN JOURNALISM

Handwritten “Chimes”

In Russia, as in other European countries, the appearance of the first printed newspapers was preceded by handwritten information publications containing messages mainly about political and economic events. In Europe, their creation was caused by the development in the XV-XV centuries. trade relations and the need for information, which at that time accumulated in large trade prices. The main communication line ran along the Rhine through Switzerland and Austria, connecting Germany with Italy. In Venice, which at that time was one of the largest centers of world trade, information of interest to business people was copied into a newsletter and sold for a small Italian gazzetta coin. Gradually, the name of the board transferred to the written message itself.

Russian handwritten newspapers arose in the 15th century. It is known, however, that even at the end of the 15th century. In Russia, translations of flying leaflets and newspaper articles began to appear, informing the European reader about military events, the discovery of new lands, earthquakes, floods and other news. The expansion of Russia's ties with European countries has created a need for foreign information. Thus, the Moscow government, which was in charge of the translation business, felt the need to compile handwritten newspapers that would complement the ambassadors' reports. Foreign agents, through whom Moscow monitored Western events, sent handwritten and printed leaflets to Russia through our ambassadors, which were the predecessors of the European press.

Moscow "Chimes" (from the French word courant current). or “Newsletters”, had the character of a government diplomatic publication, intended for the tsar and the boyars close to him, contained information from different countries, prepared by officials of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, in charge of the foreign policy of the Moscow state. The source of the messages were mainly European newspapers, mainly German and Dutch, less - Polish and French, even less often - Italian and Swedish. The main content of other newspapers of that era, and therefore of the “Courants”, was, as the inscription on the “Courants” of 1621 says, “various military actions and peaceful resolutions in Europe.” They devoted especially much space to military news that “the city is still under siege,” “they are brutally attacking the fool,” “the city surrendered by agreement”; detailed descriptions of naval battles, “bloody massacres”, “cruel skirmishes” were given; less often, reports were given about peace negotiations, the conclusion of treaties and other facts of the political life of European states.

In “Kyrantax” during the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645), the reader experiences different moments of the 30-year war - a brutal war between Catholics and Protestants, into which almost all the peoples of Europe were drawn. Messages about these events unfold in the form of a monotonous feed of news “from German, from Spanish, from French, from Danish, from Polish and from other lands,” drenched in the blood of fighting Protestants and Catholics. All these messages were presented for the most part with indifference and indifference. They informed about skirmishes, raids, victories and defeats of the “Svei, Tsar’s, Danish and other people.” Among a series of similar messages, one thing attracts attention, but three allow us to talk about continuity between “Chimes” and the subsequent “Vedomosti”. This is a “short and true story about the brutal bloody battle” that took place on October 23, 1642 near Leipzig. Before us is a detailed story about a separate event in the form of a so-called report with detailed details about the movement of troops, about the battle itself, a description of how “the entire Tsar’s cannon outfit and stores and junk and the entire baggage train were taken by the Suey people,” and, finally, a painting killed, wounded and taken prisoner, which is reminiscent of the “journals” and “reports”, which later under Peter 1 would be printed both individually and in sheets, and in “Vedomosti”.

In addition to information about external events taking place in Europe at that time, the Russian Chimes also reported about the internal affairs of European states, for example, about the struggle of the English monarch with “their side” (parliament). “They write,” it is reported from The Hague on October 3, 1643, “that the gentlemen of the States want to send their ambassadors to the English land in order to reconcile that special war and the world that is in the English land; But what happened in the last battle, we really don’t know.”

Particularly interesting in “Chimes” are the news about Russia borrowed from Western newspapers. These messages are interesting in many ways. First of all, they are often the only documentary evidence of the events that took place. In addition, they speak of increasing attention to Russia on the part of foreign governments and the recognition of significant influence behind it. This idea runs through all messages about Russia.

“They write from Ambork on the 22nd day of November (1643) that the Grand Duke of Moscow ordered the Sveisky agent to go to his land, and for this reason the Sveiyans live more cautiously at the border.”

“Saltan of Turskaya was very worried that the Moscow troops would enter the Crimea, and he was much more doubtful about the seizure of that side and the expulsion of the Tatars.”

From Rome it is reported that “the pope sent strong pleading letters to the king to Gishpansky and to the French and to Moscow, so that they would accidentally turn their weapons on the Turks.”

Basically, this news concerns the official foreign policy life of Russia, but sometimes there are reports about events inside the country: “about the great unrest about faith,” about the Streltsy riot, about fires, etc. These data from foreign newspapers indicate that already At that time, Moscow was not indifferent to how we were treated in the West.

In addition to political news, Kuranty contained information of a trade and economic nature.

“From the Galan land from the city of Gaga on November 17th (1643). From Amsterdam there is news that a coravan from the Moscow state from the city of Arkhangelsk and from the French lands from the city of Rochelle, God willing, came great to the land of Galana, their Dunkerian robber ships were waiting at sea and began to expect great booty, only God carried them well.”

From The Hague it is reported that “about those two trading people who traded in deceptive thin money and about those velmi they are looking for one who sold the money, and about the other one who bought it; and the one who bought the seller does not want to declare, and for that how many thousand were taken from him.”

Next to the trade news in the Chimes there is a description of court celebrations:

“From Kolna city, August on the 7th day (1682). The Sovereign's princess, the Dauphin, gave birth to a son, and they write about this from Amsterdam on August 15th that in all the places where French ambassadors, envoys and envoys are found, great banquets are sent with comforting fires from ranets for the birth of that Dauphin's son."

Along with official information, one could find information of an educational, entertaining nature, as well as reports of emergency incidents in the Chimes:

“In the Galan land, in Pomerania, under the island of Teselon, fishermen were catching fish and saw a miracle in the sea,” he has a human head, but a long mustache, and a wide beard, and the fishermen were afraid of this, and one fisherman ran from the ship into the nose and wanted to look at the miracle, and the miracle dived under the ship, and it surfaced again, and the fishermen ran to the stern and wanted to grab it, but it capsized, and they saw its body like a crayfish, and its tail was wide and and his legs were also wide, and he swam like a dog” (1621).

When compiling the Chimes, in addition to foreign newspapers, other sources were used, in particular, those brought by permanent informant agents. It is known, for example, that in 1635 the government sent its agent Dmitry Franzbekov to Stockholm, but a year later recalled him to Moscow as having failed in his mission (“he often did not write news”). One of the notable figures who supplied information from abroad in the 1640s was Justus Philimonatus, who sent fresh news to Russia “from German soil and from other countries.” He performed this duty very conscientiously, living mainly in Riga and sending from there copious correspondence for Moscow. His work was directly supervised by Prince L.A. Shlyakovskoy, who, being in border Pskov, supplied him with instructions and in fact acted as an intermediary between the foreign agent and the Ambassadorial Prikaz. In order for the news he sent to reach Moscow in a timely manner, Justus proposed to have two reliable messengers, so that “one would go from Riga to Pskov, and the other would go from Pskov to Riga, and in those days I could send all sorts of letters to the Tsar’s Majesty every week. But it won’t be so, and they will become stale and old.”

The Moscow agent, in addition to simply delivering foreign newspapers, was involved in collecting, processing and compiling information about events of interest to Russia, and took care of their efficiency. It would not be an exaggeration to say that Justus Philimonatus can be called the chronicler of the Russian Kurangs. Her German and Latin “letters” were distinguished by a very diverse character. Sometimes they contained an addition to printed or other “message sheets.” Some were independent reports on the latest political events. These messages, as well as news that served as a supplement to newspapers or messenger letters, mainly concerned countries that interested Moscow in military-political terms.

We see, therefore, that when compiling the Chimes, not only foreign newspapers served as sources of information. News directly addressed to the Tsar was received by the Ambassadorial Prikaz as data informing Moscow about the West, and was then placed in the Chimes. These intelligence reports represent, in literary terms, a completely original and, moreover, actually Russian source for the Chimes. Its composition is quite complex. The material for such reports also included written messages from foreign agents who were under the jurisdiction of the Ambassadorial Prikaz. Another source is information obtained by Russian government agents themselves. “To get news” they were sent to the cities of the western outskirts of the Moscow state, from where they sent reports to the capital. “For news,” in addition, they used the services of residents of border towns, and the information received from them also ended up in Russian intelligence reports. Thus, the “ho-lopi” Glebka Morozov (Novgorod governor) and clerk Filippka Artsybashev report to Tsar Mikhail that “the Posatsian man Kirilko Belyaev went to the Svei border, where the German asked Gantz about various news, and about yours, sir, the German said , that the people of Svei have no idea, that they, sir, are fighters from your state themselves.” There are also cases of borrowing information from the private correspondence of foreign citizens.

An analysis of the sources shows that Chimes was not a simple copy of European newspapers. Our handwritten newspaper was not devoid of literary independence; in it one can find original features introduced by the authors of the messages. The authors influenced not only the selection of information, but also the nature of its presentation, and sometimes interpretation. Thus, the journalistic element is noticeable in many of the messages of Justus Philimonatus. However, the main material for the newspaper was still translations from European newspapers about events mainly in foreign life. Moreover, it is preferable

attention was paid to those countries that at one time or another represented the greatest military-diplomatic interest for Russia. Created at first with a service role as an addition to the ambassadors’ report, “Chimes” went through a certain evolution as Russia’s relations with the West became more complex and developed. For the Kremlin, it became an urgent need to quickly get acquainted with the affairs of Europe, and this need was caused by the need not only to fight with its neighbors, but also to learn from them. And “Chimes” helped the Moscow rulers in this

“The Chimes” were written in one, and later in several copies, had the character of a diplomatic secret, were read to the Tsar and a limited circle of boyars, as evidenced by the marks on many copies: “read to the Emperor”, “read to the Emperor and the boyars”. Sometimes the time and place of reading are indicated. “September 185 (1677) was read to the great sovereign in the room, and the boyars listened in the hallway.” After reading, the Chimes were returned for storage to the Ambassadorial Prikaz or the Prikaz of Secret Affairs.

In appearance, they were folded narrow sheets of paper, written in a “column”, that is, from top to bottom without interruptions. This is where another name for “Chimes” comes from - “Columns”. Sometimes in the Ambassadorial Prikaz they were called “Vesti”.

The "chimes" did not have a specific frequency. After the establishment of regular mail in 1668, they began to be composed much more often - from two to four times a month. The experience of the existence of a handwritten newspaper, brought to life by the development of commodity-money relations in Russia and the strengthening of ties with European countries, was used in the creation of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti.

Official "Vedomosti"

The appearance in Russia of the first printed newspaper “Vedomosti” (1702-1727) was caused by the reforms of Peter T. by the need to promote the reforms he was carrying out. Peter T’s desire to establish Russia as equal among European states in the shortest possible time predetermined the scale and nature of the reforms that affected all spheres of life.

Even before Peter came to power, Russia was faced with the task of strengthening its internal and external1 situation, to overcome economic backwardness, to gain access to the Black and Baltic Seas, and to open the way to Europe. The wars undertaken by Peter (1696 - the conquest of Azov, 1704 - the capture of Narva. 1709 - the victorious Battle of Poltava) ensured the independent existence of Russian statehood. As a result of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, Russia regained access to the Baltic and strengthened itself in the west, north and south of its territory. Simultaneously with military campaigns, reforming the army and navy, Negro carried out economic reforms, was engaged in the creation of domestic industry, and the construction of factories, shipyards, and new cities.

The people paid a heavy price for the transformations at the beginning of the century, which promoted Russia to the ranks of world powers. The introduction of conscription and the poll tax, an increase in taxes and increased persecution of schismatics, the construction of St. Petersburg and the protracted Northern War resulted in great losses. From 1672 to 1710, the country's population not only did not increase, but even decreased by 6.6%. Dissatisfaction with the policies being pursued caused unrest among landowners and assigned peasants, factory workers and dissenters. But the process of reconstruction was becoming irreversible. Russia was rapidly becoming a powerful European power. The opinion of Peter’s assistant and like-minded person T. P. Shafirov, expressed in 1717, is interesting. Speaking about the growth of the country’s authority, he wrote that “nowadays no matter is being carried out in the remote regions of Europe, for which or about her royal majesty’s friendship and alliance they didn’t try, or they didn’t have the caution and danger to do the opposite.”

To develop science and education, at the direction of Peter, extensive publishing activities were launched. Since 1708, books of non-ecclesiastical content began to be printed in a new civil font. In the first quarter of the 19th century. More books were published in Russia than in the previous two centuries (600 books and brochures). Particular attention is paid to the dissemination of natural science publications. Textbooks on geometry, physics, and architecture are published. Books appeared for the education of the nobility, which reflected changes in the way of life. Domostroevsky traditions collapsed, masquerades and balls contributed to new forms of communication. What was needed was guidance on how to behave in society. The collection “Examples of how different compliments are written” (1708) offered examples of letters, gallant and businesslike, since private correspondence became a sign of good form (for example, “A student’s petitionary message to his father at the beginning of the new year”). The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” (1719) contained advice for young nobles on how to behave in society, how to behave at the table (don’t lean your hands on the table, don’t brush your teeth with a knife, don’t grab the first dish), how to bow when meeting (taking off your hat in three steps), etc. The book was compiled at the direction of the Tsar and was subsequently republished more than once by the Academy of Sciences.

The culture of Peter the Great's time was secular in nature and developed in the confrontation between the old and the new. The rise of the authority of the state over the authority of the church accelerated the “secularization” of all aspects of Russian life. Peter 1 changed the attitude towards man, the individual, thus realizing one of the postulates of the Enlightenment - the extra-class value of man. In 1722, he enshrined this provision legislatively, in the “Table of Ranks of all ranks of military, civil and courtiers,” opening the opportunity for representatives of different classes to receive the title of nobility for services to the state. And there were many such examples when it was not the wealth and nobility of the family, but devotion and conscientious service to the Fatherland that elevated people to the highest rung of the social ladder. The ideal of the Petrine era was a human citizen, a patriot, who must be imbued with understanding and awareness of the need for the government reforms being carried out.

For Peter 1, in the face of resistance from internal opposition, it was important to find support in society and expand the circle of supporters of the reforms. Being familiar with the role of journalism in European countries and understanding the importance of information, he decides to create a Russian printed newspaper

The first newspaper in Russia, which went down in the history of domestic journalism as Peter’s Vedomosti, was created in December 1702 on the basis of Peter’s decrees of December 15 and 16, 1702. The decree of December 15 (26) read: “Chimes, according to - to our statements, which are sent from different states and cities to the State Embassy and other orders, from those orders to send those statements and to the order of the printing books, and when those statements are sent, they will also be printed at the printing yard, and those printed statements “What remains behind the tray (i.e., after free distribution to the king and courtiers. -Author) should be sold to the world at the appropriate price.”

The second royal decree on December 16 (27) announced: “According to the statements about military and all sorts of affairs that need to be announced to the people of Moscow and surrounding states, to print chimes, and for the printing of those chimes, statements in which there are orders, about what now what there are and will continue to be, send from those orders to the Monastic Prikaz, without delay (delay - Author), and send those statements from the Monastic Prikaz to the Printing Yard. And about this in all orders from the Monastic Order to send memories (reminders - Author).” These two decrees determined the mechanism for organizing the newspaper, its content, and the order of distribution.

Simultaneously with the decree of December 16, 1702, the first issue of the printed newspaper “Vedomosti from the Tsar's Letters” was published, which to a large extent was still an echo of the handwritten “Courants”. It contained only foreign news (quite in the spirit of its predecessor), received by mail on December 5th. This was news from Frankfurt and Berlin. The Hague, Amsterdam, Augsburg. The next day, December 17, the second issue was published - entitled “Vedomosti of the Moscow State”, this time with exclusively Russian news. It reported on Peter’s triumphal entry into Moscow on December 4 after victories over the Swedes and the capture of the “fortresses of Marienburg and Slusenburg”, the promise of the “Kalmyk great owner Ayuki-Taisha” to send His Majesty his troops, the deposit of saltpeter, sulfur, iron ore and etc. The first two issues of the newspaper (dated December 16 and 17) have not reached our time in printed form, apparently due to the small number of printed copies, and are known from originals and handwritten copies. The third issue of the newspaper, which appeared on December 27, was dedicated to only one news - the capture of the Noteburg fortress and was called “Journal or daily list, which was carried out during the recent siege near the Noteburg fortress on September 26, 1702.” Unlike the first two issues, which contained different news, this was an extensive, detailed story about one event, four times larger in volume than the two previous issues combined. It was printed on one large sheet in the amount of 1000 copies and has come to us in printed and handwritten versions. its proof sheet contains the editorial edits of Peter T. Messages of this kind in the form of reports “first appeared in the handwritten Chimes.”

Thus, the first three issues of the newspaper, published in December 1702, differed from each other in name, but in the structure of the numbers and in content (No. 1 - foreign news, No. 2 - Russian news, No. 3 - a message about a military victory), which was evidence of an attempt to find ways to initially design the newspaper, a search for one’s own identity. The first issues, on the one hand, reflected the influence of handwritten “Chimes”, which consisted mainly of foreign news, and on the other hand, the desire to become a national newspaper was outlined. The process of formation of the newspaper is evidenced by the inconstancy of headlines in subsequent issues. The first issue for 1703 (dated January 2) was called “Vedomosti”, the following were published under different titles and titles: “Moskovskie Vedomosti”, “Genuine Report”, “Gazette of the Migavi Siege”, “Relation”, “Russian Gazette”, others have no title at all. Following the example of the handwritten “Chimes”, “Vedomosti” was compiled from laconic messages from different fools, following each other without any internal connection. With the exception of a small number of reports, letters and reports, when reading “Slave Gay” the reader is presented with a series of incidents that happened in Warsaw, Amsterdam, Paris, Vienna, Copenhagen, London, Berlin and other main cities of Europe. News from Pskov, Kazan, Azov, Siberia and other places in Russia is much less common. The predominance of information from abroad, gleaned mainly from foreign newspapers, makes Vedomosti in many ways similar to the handwritten Chimes. Vedomosti takes material from the same foreign publications, only gradually supplementing and updating the range of sources. Moreover, mainly reports about military events. The continuity of the printed newspaper with the handwritten one can also be traced in the attention to foreign news concerning Russia. Here is one typical example: “From Vienna on January 25th. The Belograd letters confirm that the Ottaman port is afraid of a warrior conceiving with the Tsar’s Majesty, because the Moscow strong and kindly learned army is scary for him” (Vedomosti, 1710).

In contrast to 01 foreign (mostly private commercial publications). “Vedomosti”, like the handwritten “Chimes”, were of an official state character. In their structure, content and presentation, they were in many ways a continuation of pre-printed Russian newspapers, but their publication represented a significant step forward in comparison with the handwritten “Courants”, which had a departmental and diplomatic purpose and were aimed at a select circle of readers. With the help of the newspaper, the government for the first time publicly addressed Russian society, seeking its support.

The appearance of the newspaper in 1702 was not accidental. After the unsuccessful start of the Northern War, Peter needed to convince society of the possibility of victory, explain some of his actions, in particular, the confiscation of bells from churches and monasteries, their melting down into cannons and howitzers, report on the preparedness of the Russian troops and their support from other peoples of Russia. I wrote about this on 1st December 17, 1702 and in subsequent issues.

The first issue for 1703, published on the second of January1, reported: “In Moscow again now there are 400 copper cannons, howitzers and martyrs. Those cannons weighed 24, 18 and 12 pounds each. Howitzers with bombs are worth a pound and half a pound. Martyrs with a bomb of nine, sin, two pounds and less And I also have molds of great and medium cannons, howitzers and martyrs ready for casting. And now there is more than 40,000 poods of copper in the cannon yard, which is prepared for new casting.” If we recall historical events, this dry list takes on a special meaning. We are talking about the time after the Roma battle near Narva, when the Russian army lost almost all of its artillery. To create a new one, Peter had to overflow! bells were placed on the cannons, which naturally caused indignation among the believers. Therefore, Peter, reporting in the newspaper how many cannons were poured out, seeks to calm down, win over public opinion in his favor, and explain the necessity and justification of the sacrifices made. Further it was written about the opening of general schools (“Moscow schools are multiplying, and 45 people listen to philosophy and have already graduated from dialectics”) and special ones (“more than 300 study at the mathematical navigation school and accept good science”), about births in Moscow from November 24 to 24 December 386 people “male and female”, about the discovery of minerals (“On the Soku River I found oil and copper ore, a fair amount of copper was smelted from that ore, from which they expect considerable profit for the Moscow state”).

News about internal life, which was clearly of a propaganda nature, was supplemented by foreign news, the selection of which was also determined by the interests of the state: information was selected, as a rule, about those countries that were of greatest interest to Russia (Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Turkey). Moreover, reports from foreign newspapers of a negative nature, which cast a shadow on Russia, its army, its allies, etc., were not included in the newspaper. In the surviving originals of Vedomosti there are often notes “this article should not be allowed between brackets among the people.” When preparing manuscripts for publication, news of Peter's military failures was crossed out. At the same time, information about the victories won by Russian troops was given fully and often.

For a long time it was believed that this was the first printed issue of Vedomosti, so the origin of Russian journalism dates back to January 2 (13), 1703. Only in 1903, in preparation for the republication of Vedomosti in connection with its 200th anniversary, were manuscripts discovered earlier issues, and subsequently It has been reliably established that the first issues of the newspaper were published back in December 1702.

A special place was occupied by coverage of the Northern War, information about which was reflected in almost every issue of Vedomosti: in reports on military operations, in letters from Peter and reports from his comrades, in numerous reports from foreign newspapers. Thus, in the issues of Vedomosti dated July 2 and 15, 1709, a letter from Peter to the Tsarevich was published, reporting the victory over the Swedes near Poltava. For the first time, due to the importance of the event, the first paragraphs in both issues were highlighted in red. Peter wrote “about a very great and unforeseen victory”, which was won thanks to the bravery of the soldiers “with the little blood of our troops”, about the strength of spirit and about the art of war, which helped the Russians win a chest victory over the Swedes and capture several thousand officers and privates, among them - “General Felt Marshal Mr. Reinshilt, together with four generals,” as well as “Minister Count Peper with secretaries Emerlin and Zidergerm.” The first message, written hastily in the wake of the event, contained initial information, as the author himself pointed out: “We will write in detail soon, but now it’s impossible because of the speed.” The issue dated July 15 gives a description of the Russian pursuit of the Swedish army and its capture at Perevolochna.

An absolute monarchy is characterized by the maximum concentration of power (both secular and spiritual) in the hands of one person. However, this is not the only sign. The concentration of power was carried out by Egyptian pharaohs, Roman emperors and dictators of the 20th century. It was not an absolute monarchy. For the latter to emerge, a transition period from the feudal system to the capitalist system is necessary. This transition in different countries occurred in different historical periods, while maintaining common features.

An absolute monarchy is characterized by the presence of a strong, extensive professional bureaucratic apparatus, a strong standing army, and the elimination of all class-representative bodies and institutions. These signs are also inherent in Russian absolutism. However, it had its own significant features: absolute monarchy in Europe developed in the context of the development of capitalist relations and the abolition of old feudal institutions (especially serfdom), and absolutism in Russia coincided with the development of serfdom; the social basis of Western European absolutism was the union of the nobility with the cities (free, imperial), and Russian absolutism relied mainly on the serf-dominated nobility, the service class.

The establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia was accompanied by widespread expansion of the state, its invasion into all spheres of public, corporate and private life. Expansionist aspirations were expressed primarily in the desire to expand their territory and access to the seas. Another direction of expansion was the policy of further enslavement, which took its most brutal forms in the 18th century. The strengthening of the role of the state was also manifested in the detailed, thorough regulation of the rights and responsibilities of individual classes and social groups. Along with this, the legal consolidation of the ruling class took place, and the nobility class was formed from different feudal strata.

The elements of the mechanism of absolute monarchy were the highest bodies of state power, which were radically reformed. The title of the king has changed. On October 22, 1721 (on the anniversary of the glorious liberation of Moscow in 1612), and also in connection with the victorious outcome of the Northern War, Peter I accepted the title of All-Russian Emperor and turned the former “great states of the Russian kingdom” into the “All-Russian Empire”. Regardless of the imperial title, the Senate also called Peter “great” and “father of the fatherland.”

For financial control, Peter I created the Near Chancellery, which became the meeting place for members of the Boyar Duma, heads of orders (1704). Such meetings were called the Council of Ministers. The latter ceased to exist with the creation of the Senate (1711).

The strengthening of Peter's power was expressed in the creation of a Cabinet with a personal office (1704-1727). The office was a military campaign office, through which Peter I maintained contact with the Senate, Synod, collegiums and governors, and corresponded on mining, manufacturing matters, and with foreign countries. Petitions, complaints, and denunciations were also received here.

In 1711, a permanently functioning highest government institution was created - the Governing Senate. To deepen our understanding of public administration of that era, we present several decrees emanating directly from Peter I. Thus, in the Decree of February 22, 1711 “On the establishment of the Governing Senate” it is noted: “The Governing Senate has been determined to be for our absences to govern: Mr. Count Musin-Pushkin, Mr. Streshnev, Mr. Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, Mr. Prince Mikhail Dolgoruky, Mr. Plemyannikov , Mr. Prince Grigory Volkonsky, Mr. Samarin, Mr. Vasily Opukhtin, Mr. Melnitsky, Chief Secretary of this Senate Anisim Shchukin.”

The Senate consisted of 9 people and was a collegial body. The three princes mentioned above come from the ancient titled nobility. The rest are from low-ranking families. Three senators were former members of the Boyar Duma (Musin-Pushkin, Streshnev, Plemyannikov).

The competence of the Senate can be judged by two Decrees of Peter, adopted on March 2, 1711: “On the powers of the Governing Senate,” where the Tsar threatened disobedient people with the death penalty, calling on them to obey the decrees of the Senate “as we ourselves, under cruel punishment or death, depending on the fault of ", as well as the Decree "On the functions of the Governing Senate".

It is clear from the document that the Senate was endowed with broad powers: to take care of the observance of justice, government revenues and expenses, reporting for service, developing trade, etc. However, the king did not share his supreme power with him. The Senate remained a legislative body and performed the functions of an abolished discharge order. And communication with the provinces was carried out through special provincial commissars (two from the province). The Senate was the supervisory body over the government apparatus and officials (i.e., the highest supervisory body over government administration). Supervision was carried out through fiscal officials. This can be judged by the Tsar’s Decree of March 5, 1711 “On the procedure for meetings of the Governing Senate.”

The fiscal was awarded half the court fine from the convicted official. The fiscals were led by the chief fiscal, who maintained contact with them through the Fiscal Desk of the Senate Chancellery. The Senate considered denunciations monthly based on the report of the Execution Chamber, which consisted of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1729).

Having become emperor, Peter I forbade the Senate to issue “general definitions” (similar to laws). He placed Prosecutor General P.I. at the head of the Senate. Yaguzhinsky, giving him very broad powers. Thus, in the absence of the king, he was supposed to be the “king’s eye.” The Prosecutor General supervised the work of the Senate, presided over its meetings and even had the right to initiate legislation. The fiscal general and the office of the Senate were subordinate to him.

In 1722, a decree on succession to the throne was issued, according to which the monarch, at his own discretion, appointed a successor for himself. Thus, the election of kings at meetings of councils, carried out in the 17th century, did not become a tradition. Now the will of the emperor determined the fate of the throne, and his subjects had to agree with his decision. Peter I, for various reasons, lost his sons from both wives. The coronation of Peter's wife Martha-Catherine, not supported by a mandatory will and proclamation of an official heir in accordance with the law, aggravated the dynastic crisis and made it possible to overcome it with the help of military force after the death of the emperor. Thus, the decisions and actions of Peter I had far-reaching political consequences and created the threat of the Romanov dynasty losing the throne.